INTRODUCTION TO TEXTILES LECTURE NOTES

1. HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILES

The development of textiles in the world has been of great use to mankind. The term textiles is a Latin word originated
from the word “Texere” meaning to “weave”. Textiles refers to a flexible material made by interlacing or interloping
bundle of yarns, which are produce by spinning raw fibres either natural or artificial into a long and twisted length of
fabric. Some examples of textiles fibres are wool, cotton, nylon, polyester, jute, acetate, silk, etc… Textiles can be felt
or spun fibres made into yarns and subsequently netted, looped, knit, or woven to make fabrics, which appeared in the
Middle East during the Stone Age.

During the old age, the ideology behind the inventory of textiles was mainly to cover up but it goes beyond that currently.
People don’t just use textiles to cover up but to show their cultural heritage, sophisticated fashion sense, and also for
interior and exterior decoration through fabric construction and decorative techniques used in our recent textiles products.
Textiles is also advanced to a level that it is been used in our engineering and road construction field. Example; under
the interior and exterior decoration, furnitures in our houses are been dressed by designed fabrics and these makes our
rooms look beautiful. Tablecloths, napkins, bed sheets, pillow cases, woolen carpet and others. From ancient days,
methods of textile production have continually evolved, and the choice of textiles available have influenced how people
carried their possessions, cloth themselves and decorate their surroundings.
This shows the advancement of textiles in 21st century.

1
History informs us that man used broad leaves to cover himself as he realizes his nakedness. These leaves were used to
cover only the private part. As time went on man considered hides (animal skin) and bark of trees which will protect Him
against climatic conditions like cold and heat instead of broad leaves because they do not durable and easily got torn
especially when dry.
With the process of development, man did only think of covering himself nor his body. This gave man the idea to use
animals fleeces (fur or hair) and vegetable fibres making the bringing of textiles (weaving and spinning) man had the
idea of weaving after his experience of weaving grasses into mats, baskets, traps and head pads. This simple means man
had skills and knowledge about weaving because used to weave with grass. This gave man the idea to do same with
fleeces of animals such as wool and vegetable fibres like cotton or flax through the fabric construction, decoration and
finishing process. Fabric construction techniques are the weaving, knitting, crotcheting and etc… Fabric decoration
techniques are appliqué, tapestry, embroidery and etc.. Finishing process are calendaring, mercerization and etc..

In prehistoric time, textiles use was creating nets and baskets from threads and flexible reeds or other similar materials.
The production of net also called limited thread work has been particularly in Africa and Peru.
By the early Middle Ages certain Turkish tribes were skilled in the manufacture of carpets, towels, felted clothes and
rugs. In Mughal India (16th-18th century), and perhaps earlier, the fine mud lines produced at at Dhaka in Bengal were
sometimes printed or painted. Despite the Muslim prohibition against representation of the living things, richly patterned
fabrics were made in islamic lands. There are various opinions to the origin of weaving, sole believe that is started form

2
the valleys of China, mesopotamia, India and Egypt and later spreed to other part of Europe and Asia. Early history about
textiles fibres and fabrics should that bit of flax and flax yarns, spinning whorl, dye staff, loom weight and fabrics where
found in place such as Swiss lake region Egyptian tombs as early as 500BC. The earliest examples of actual textiles
where the line of fabrics found in ancient Egyptians were highly skilled weavers possible as long as 400BC. A linen
fabric for Egyptian mummies were found measuring 5 feet wide 60 feet long and also other unique fabric was discovered
in 2500BC with 540 warp yarn per inch. All the early fibres were made of natural fibres (plant and animals) with the
important ones as cotton, flax and wool.

Industry revolutionist inspired the whole world, the transformation and modifications continue to take place. Sewing
machines came later into existence in the 19th century reforming clothing manufacturing process. During this phase most
of the textile industries were established near rivers, since the water was the main driving force. After the invention of
steam engine, the overall scenario changed completely. Shuttles that were used in the textile industry were highly
developed and efficient in the later phases of the 20th century. Today we have water jet and shuttle less looms which has
speeded up the mass production capacities to a much efficient level. In today's world we have complete automated
systems and fully independent large established factories which are capable of handling the textile products from raw
material stage to finished products; these are called integrated manufacturing units. These modern techniques, electronics
and innovation in the textile industry drives itself towards a competitive, low-priced industry offering all types of cloth
and designs possible beyond imagination.

3
In the new world before the arrival of the Europeans, weaving and dyeing were established. Weaving was in an advanced
state during prehistoric times; both the Peruvians and the Mexicans had fine woven fabrics. The Peruvians fabrics were
much as those of Egypt, although contact between the two civilizations is generally considered unlikely. Inca cotton and
wool fabrics were brilliantly colored, with patterns based on geometric and conventionalized human forms. English
settlers established a cloth mill in Massachusetts in 1638. There Yorkshire weavers produce heavy cotton fistians, cotton
twill, jeans and Lindsey Woolsey, a coarse loosely woven fabric of linen and wool. The industry developed steadily and
received a major impetus from Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton gin in 1793. In the modern textile industry both
industrialized and developing countries now have modern installations capable of highly efficient fabrics production.

In addition to mechanical improvements in yarn and fabrics manufacture, there have been rapid advances in the
development of new fibers, processes to improve textile characteristics, and testing methods allowing greater quality
control. Technology has brought textiles a long way through inventories of looms and processing fibers. Textiles function
in everything we do in our recents times and has created job opportunities for unemployment. It has also increased in the
countries revenue. Textiles now is very broad and inventing of machines is still ongoing.

4
2. CLASSIFICATIONS OF TEXTILE FIBRES
Textiles fibre is the primary raw material of textiles. Fibres are twisted into yarns, yarns into fabrics and then the fabrics
are then used to make clothing items. Fibres can then be described as the fundamental raw materials used in the production
of yarns and fabrics.

The fibres used in textiles production can be classified into two main sources:
Ø Natural source and
Ø Man-made source

Plate 1.

5
NATURAL FIBRE
Natural fibres are those which are provided by nature in ready-made fibrous forms (eg. Cotton, wool, jute, silk, and flax).
Natural fibres are usually long in nature.
They can again be sub-divided into three different classes according to their source:
1. Vegetable
2. Animal and
3. Mineral

Vegetable Fibres
These are based on cellulose, a material used by nature as a structural material in the plant world. It is considered the
most important of all textile fibres. Typical examples are cotton, flax, hemp and jute.

Fig 2.

6
Animal Fibres
These type of natural fibres are based on protein which is the complex substance from which much of the animal body is
made of. These include wool and other hair-like fibres such as silk produced as filaments by cocoon-spinning creatures.

Fig 3.

Mineral Fibres
These are considered the limited important fibres in the textiles trade. Asbestos is the most useful of this class.
It is made into special fire-proof and industrial fabrics.

MAN-MADE FIBRES
Man-made fibres are fibres that humans have made for themselves by altering materials that are not ready-made fibrous
by nature or in some cases not from nature at all.

7
They can be sub-divided into two distinct classes according to the source of fibre-forming substance from which they are
made:
Ø Natural Polymer and
Ø Synthetic Fibres

Natural Polymer
Polymer is a material constructed of smaller molecules of the same substance that form a larger molecule. The word
polymer was derived from the Greek words “polus” meaning many and “meros” meaning parts. In this form of man-
made fibre, the fibre-forming substance has been made by nature but not into fibres. For example, in the plant world,
only a small fraction of the cellulose is used by the plant to make fine structures such as cotton. Most of it is used as
structural material in the trunk of trees and the skeleton framework of the stem and leaves. Even though it is still in
fibrous forms, it has been contaminated with other substances. In the last half-century, humans learned hoe to manipulate
this natural cellulose into a form suitable for use as textile fibres. It was this that became known as artificial silk.
In this natural polymer fibres, nature has done the work of creating a substance (cellulose) capable of taking on a fibrous
form. Man has merely taken a further step by using this cellulose as raw material for fibre

Synthetic Fibres
These are the form of man-made fibres which involve 100 percent (%) man activities in the fibre production process
without using nature manufactured fibre-forming substances.

8
For example, Nylon, Terylene and Orlon are fibres made by man from simple chemicals such as coal and oil. These
chemicals have been made into materials capable of forming fibres and these materials are then manipulated into fibres.
Man has carried out the entire operation. Nature has had no hand in the fibre production process which makes it truly
synthetic fibres.

Fig. 4

9
3. TEXTILE MANUFACTURING PROCESSES (FIBRE-YARN-FABRIC)
Textile manufacturing processes are the various steps completed by textile manufacturers for the production of cloth or
fabrics. It is the beginning towards the production of any garments or textile products. The aspirations for quality garment
or fabrics and apparel gave rise to the manufacturing and development of textile fibres and textile production units.
Currently, textile production units include significant quality of textile products for manufacturing that adds value in
fibre. So therefore, the processes describing the stages of textile manufacturing processes are described below;

SPINNING
The first step is spinning. This is the procedure that entails the production or conversion of fibre materials into yarns. In
the beginning it goes through the blow room where the size of cotton becomes smaller by the help of machinery which
is later followed by Carding. Carding is a mechanical process that disentangles, cleans and mixes fibres to produce a
suitable fibre for subsequent or further processing. After carding, the process is continued by Drawing which involves
the passing of fibres through spinning mills. After this process the yarns gained are known as Sliver. Sliver is the long
bundle of fibre created after carding which is used to spin yarns. The yarns produced are then combed where consistent
size of cloth is attained.

10
WEAVING PROCESS
Weaving is the next level after spinning. In this process the yarns from the spinning section is sent further for doubling
and twisting. It is the process of combining warp and weft yarns to make a woven structure. It is a method where two
distinct of yarns or threads are interlaced at right angles to form a fabric or cloth. Other methods include knitting,
crocheting, felting and braiding. The longitudinal are called warps and the lateral threads are the weft, woof, or filling.
The method in which these threads are inter-woven affects the characteristics of the cloth. Cloth is usually woven on
a loom, a device that holds the warp threads in place while filling threads are woven through them. A fabric band that
meets this definition of cloth (warp threads with a weft thread winding between) can also be made using other methods,
including tablet weaving, black strap look or other techniques that can be done without looms. The woven fabric or yarn
is then provided a protective coating to prevent or lessen the breakage of yarn. This process is known as sizing. This
process is very important since it prevents the warped yarns or fabric from damages. This process is very important since
it prevents the warped yarns or fabric from damage. Through weaving, fibre yarns are converted into fabrics.

DYEING/PRINTING
Dyeing as well as printing of fabrics are usually carried before the application of other finishes to the textile fabric. It
provides colour to the fabric and also improves the appearance of it. Dyeing is therefore the process of interaction between
a dye and fabric as well as the movement of dye into the internal part of the fabric. It is the application of dyes or pigments
on the fabric with the goal of achieving colour with desired colour fastness. The dyeing is normally done in a special
solution containing dyes and particular chemical material. Dye molecules are fixed to the fabric by absorption, diffusion
or bonding with temperature and time being key controlling factors. The bond between dye molecule and fabric may be

11
strong or weak depending on the dyes used. Thus helps in the acquisition of the desired dye applied. Printing in textiles
can also be used in the application of colour to fabric. Printing in order words is related to dyeing but in printing one or
more colours are applied to the fabric in certain parts only and in definite patterns or designs. Therefore, after all these
processes listed and explained, the manufacturing processes of textile fabrics or products are then brought to an end.
Finishes are then specifically carried after dyeing or printing to give a specific look.

4. CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBRES, YARNS AND FABRICS

Fibres
A fibre is a thin thread of a natural or artificial substance, especially one that is used to make cloth or rope. It also forms
the fundamental unit in the formation of yarns and fabrics.
Characteristics of fibres
Ø Tensile strength
The ability to withstand tension or pulling
Ø Resilient
It being able to spring back to shape after crushing or wrinkling.
Ø Abrasion Resistance
Abrasion: A worn spot that can develop when fibres rub against each other.
Pill: it forms tiny balls of fibres on a fabric.
Ø Lustre
It use the shine or sheen of a fibre.

12
 Ø Wicking
It use the ability to pull moisture through spaces between the yarns and away from the body .(Dry fit)

Yarns
It can be made from either short staple length genres or filament fibres. A fibre is a spun thread used for knitting, weaving
or sewing.
Characteristics of Yarns
Ø Softness
It is often dominated by the thickness of the individual fibres.
Ø Elasticity /Loft
This is often dominated by the crimp of the individual fibres.
Ø Staple Length
This refers to the length of the individual fibres.
Ø Lustre
It is how “shiny the fibres are.
Ø Felting Properties
It is how eager the fibres are to felt with each other.

13
Fabrics
It is a cloth made/ produced by knitting, weaving or felting fibres such as cotton, wool, silk or other threads.
Characteristics of fabrics
Ø Breathability

It is the ability of the fabric to permit water vapour to pass through and to prevent the entry of water, for examples Nylon,
Rayon, Linen, Silk, Merino wool, Micro modal.
Ø Weight

It refers to the thickness or lightness of the yarns that make up the material and how tightly the fabric is woven or
knitted. Examples: Wool, Silk, Nylon etc.
Ø Drape

It is the ability of the fabric to assume a graceful fold or pleats in appearance. For example a fabric posses a good drape
ability when it's configuration is pleasant to the eye.
Ø Durability

It is the ability of the fabric to endure expected conditions over time, it is the type of quality a and reliability that is
associated with long lasting items that don’t break with stress. For example, a spacecraft that can endure the stresses of
multiple launches and re- enters to be us used over the course of several decades.

14
 Ø Softness

A simple method of evaluating fabric softness is based on the ‘ring method ‘where the force required to pull fabric
through a circular hole continuously is measured. For example, measurement of fabric -to-fabric friction.

5. TERMS AND DEFINTION IN WEAVING

Weaving is a method of textile manufacturing in which two separate sets of yarns or threads are interlaced at right angles
to form a cloth or fabric. These sets of yarns or threads interlacing at right angles are warp and weft. Other methods are
knitting, crocheting, felting and braiding. The longitudinal threads are called the warp and the lateral threads are weft or
filling.

Ø Yarn - Strands of fabrics placed in parallel order and twisted together to form a single. Continues thread of one given
thickness or diameter used to knitting, weaving or sewing.
Ø Warp - The yarns that run lengthways in a woven fabric.
Ø Weft - The yarns that run breadth-wise in a woven fabric.
Ø Weaving - It is the interlacing of warp and weft yarns to form a fabric.
Ø Milling - This is the process of preparing warp yarns by unwinding them cones, hanks or cheeses unto a warper or
warp mill. In other words, milling is the process whereby yarns are unwound from hanks and wind unto a warper.
This is the initial stage in preparing the warp and where different colored yarns can be combined.

15
Ø Draft - In weaving, draft shows the diagrammatic representation on point paper of the order of threading the warp
yarns.
Ø Raddling - The process of spreading the warp yarns across a broad wooden or metal comb-like structure called raddle
to check the breadth or width of the cloth to be woven.
Ø Beaming - The process stretching the long warp taut and rolling or winding it unto the warp roller.
Ø Count Of A Yarn - Is the fines or coarseness of a yarn. It is determined by the relation between the length and weight
of a yarn. For instance, if 40 yards of a yarn weighs 1 pound then the count of the yarn is said to be 40s. And if 60
yards of another yarn also weighs 1 pound, the count of that yarn is said to be 60s.
Ø Peg Plan - It is an information or instruction which shows the order to which the various treadles are tied or connected
to the shafts. In other words, on every loom, the treadles are connected to the shaft using cords and this is done in a
particular order. Peg Plan or Tie Up therefore refers to the order in which the tying of the treadles to the shaft is done.
Ø Heddling - The process of passing the warp yarns through the eyes of the heads.
Ø Healds - These are tiny strings with small holes in the middle called eyes suspended on wooden bars called shafts on
the loom.
Ø Reeding - The process of passing the warp yarns through the dents of the reed.
Ø Reed - A reed is a metallic or wooden frame with tiny spaces between the vertical bars called dents through which
the warp made to pass. This is what is used to effect beat-up during weaving.
Ø Structure - The order of interlacing weft yarns with warp yarns to produce a weave.
Ø Hem Sticthing - A technique for securing the beginning and end of a piece by wrapping a long weft tail around
bundles of warp ends.

16
Ø Jack Loom - A loom where a shed is created by lifting shaft above the resting line of the warp.
Ø Open Shed - When some warp ends are lifted or lowered to create an opening, the shed is open. Many sources will
tell you to beat on an open shed, meaning to hold your treadle down so that the warp thread remain pattered while
you beat.
Ø Pick - One part of weft thread through a shed is called a pick.
Ø Plain Weave - The simplest weave structure, where each pick of weft goes over one warp thread then under the next.

BASIC WEAVING TECHNIQUES

Fig. 5. Plain Weave Fig. 6. Reeding Fig. 7. Hem Stitching

17
6. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS IN DYEING (AWAITING CONTENT)

7. HAND SILK SCREEN DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES

What is silk screen and what is it used for? Silk screen is a screen of fine mesh used in screen printing. Screen printing
is a method of printing whereby a design is transferred onto a plain piece of silk with the use of manmade screens and
ink. This method of printing renders the print sharp and neat. It also helps the artist to print many copies of the same
design. The screen goes through a development process which makes it ready for printing. Staplers, light boxes, mesh,
potassium dichromate and photo emulsion are some tools and materials used in the process. Silkscreen can be developed
manually through, lacquer screen coating method, solar energy method and photo-chemical method or sensitizing coating
method. In screen printing, all the areas of the screen which are not expected to be printed are blocked to prevent the
penetration of the printing ink. The area which has the ink is however left open for ink to pass through to make a print.
Before we move on to the methods of developing the silk screen, we will talk about the brief history of the silk screen
and screen printing as a whole.
Silk screening is believed to have started in Japan in the 14th century. Egyptians and Chinese are also said to have used
screen printing for decorating their ceramic wares, fabrics and walls of their buildings. The American industrial revolution
mechanized it in the 1939.

18
How to mount the mesh on the frame
i. cut and join the pieces of wood to form a frame.
ii. cover the frame with the silk mesh using the stapler to staple it. This mesh mount should be drum tight 'taut’.
iii. wash the screen very well dry before transferring the design on to it.

For Lacquer Method

Tools and materials - Soft pencil, Lacquer mix, Thinner, Brush.
Process
i. Make a stencil of your design.
ii. Transfer your design by tracing it with soft pencil onto the silk screen. Hold it firm and prevent from shaking while
using the pencils.
iii. Use the lacquer mix with thinner to block the negative spaces in the design. And this would be done by using a brush.
iv. Dry the screen very well and inspect if any pinholes before making a final print from the screen develop.

For Photo-Chemical Method

Tools and materials - Dense ink, Photo emulsion, Potassium dichromate, water, light box, Fluorescent bulbs, Lacquer.
Process
i. Transfer your design onto a tracing paper with a denser ink like India ink, make sure it opaque and not transparent on
the tracing paper.

19
ii. Mix the photo emulsion and potassium dichromate and a little water and stir until homogeneous solution is obtained.
iii. Hold the screen upright and pour the solution into the coating trough. Apply the solution on the two sides of the screen
and allow it to dry very well. And this must be done in the dark room to prevent the interference of light.
iv. Transfer the design onto the sensitized screen. On the light box, place the tracing paper with the design on the light
box and put the screen on it with a heavy bag of pebbles, this will help present the silk mesh against the design, on the
safe light to whether is position well, if it is well position then on the fluorescent bulbs in the exposure box are then
switched for a specified period to copy the design onto the screen.
v. After the time allotted the screen is remove and wash under running tap to open the mesh for ink penetration.
vi. Allow the screen to dry and block all pin holes with lacquer. The screen is ready for use.

For Solar Energy Method

Tools and materials - Blanket, Coated screen, padded block of wood or stone, Transparent glass plane, Image or design
a tracing paper, Marking tape or any gum paper.
Process
i. The coated screen should be turned inside down and place the tracing paper with the designs on it. Place the glass on
the tracing paper. Turn the screen inside down the padded block
ii. Cover the screen with a dark piece of cloth to prevent premature exposure. Hold the two ends of the glass mount
exerting pressure on the screen. All these operations are carried out in a darkroom.
iii. The entire arrangement is brought outside the darkroom. Remove the dark cloth to expose the screen to sunlight (solar
energy).

20
iv. At the end of the exposure period, quickly remove the screen and wash it immediately under running water. Allow
the screen to dry and block all pinholes if any, with lacquer.
v. Mask all edges of the screen (both inside and outside) to prevent leakage during printing.
In conclusion, the silk screen is used to print designs onto materials and must be developed before its ready to be used
for the printing. There are three different processes we can use to develop the screen, namely; the lacquer method, the
photo-chemical method and the solar energy method.

8. WEAVING PROCESS

Weaving is the act of using a loom to interlace two set of threads to form a fabric or cloth. Other methods are knitting,
crocheting, felting and braiding. The longitudinal threads are called the warp and the lateral threads are called the weft
or woof or filling. The method in which these threads are Inter woven affects the characteristics of the cloth. The majority
of woven products are created with one of the three basic weaves;
Ø Plain weave - also known as the linen weave is the most basic of the three fundamental types of weave. It is strong
and hard wearing, and is used for fashion and furnishing fabrics.
The warp and weft threads cross at right angles, aligned so that they form a simple cross- cross pattern. Each weft thread
crosses the warp thread by going over over one, then under the next and so on.

21
Ø Satin weave - It is a type of fabric weave that produces a glossy or smooth material. The satin weave is characterized
by four or more weft yarns floating over a warp yarn, and four warp yarns floating over a single weft yarn.

Fig. 8. Fig. 9
Ø Twill weave - is a type of textile weave with a pattern of diagonal parallel ribs. It is made by passing the weft thread
over one or more warp threads then under two or more warp threads and so on.

22
 A Loom is a device used for weaving yarn or thread into a fabric.

Fig. 10.
There are two types of loom;
Ø Manual looms
Ø Automated or power looms

Loom Accessories
Ø Loom
Ø Thread (warp and weft)
Ø Shuttle
Ø A comb

23
Ø Tapestry needle
Ø Pair of scissors
Ø Shed stick
Ø Reed hook
Ø Bobbin winder

Fig. 11. Fig.12. Fig. 13.

24
Process
Weaving can be summarized as a repetition of these three actions, also called the primary motion of the loom.

Ø Shedding - where the warp threads(ends) are separated by raising or lowering heald frames (heddles) to form a clear
space where the pick can pass.

Fig 14.

25
Ø Picking - where the weft or pick is propelled across the loom by hand, a rapier or a shuttle.

Fig. 15.

Ø Beat-up or battening - where the weft is pushed up against the fell of the cloth by the reel.

Fig. 16.

26
9. KNITTING

Fig. 17.

History Of Knitting
The word is derived from knot and ultimately from the old English Cynttan which means To Knot.
The exact origins of knitting are unknown. The earliest looped fabrics may have been produced in The
Middle East. The earliest known examples being cotton socks found in the tombs of Egypt in the fourth
century.

27
 Nale binding (Danish; literally ‘binding with a needle’ or ‘needle binding’) is a
fabric creation technique predating both knitting and crochet.
The first commercial knitting organization appear in Western Europe in the
early fifteenth century in Tournai in 1429 and Barcelona in 1496.

Fig. 18. Flat knitting machine

Fig. 19. Cotton socks in the Egyptian tomb

Knitting is a technique of producing fabric from a strand of yarn or wool.

Unlike weaving, knitting does not require a loom or other large equipment. Knitting is the
second most frequently used method of fabric construction. The term ‘knitting’ describes the
technique of constructing textiles structures by forming a continuous length of yarn into
columns of vertically intermeshed loops.

28
 Fabrics can be knitted by hand using various size of needles, in the knitting
industry, knitting machines can duplicate any hand knitting stitches or patterns.
Some knitting machines produce knitted fabric either flat or round(tubular).
Knitted fabrics are very versatile and can be stretched to a very greater degree
than the woven fabrics.

Fig. 20. Flat knitting machine

Fig. 21. Round (tubular) knitting machine

Definition
Knitting is a technique of producing fabric from a strand of yarn or wool. Knitting can also be
defined as the art of constructing fabrics with a single yarn that is formed into interlocking
loops by the use of hooked needles. The loops may be either loosely or closely constructed.

29
Knitting Wool Yarn

Fig. 22. Fig. 23.

Fig. 24.

Types Of Knitting
Knitted fabrics can be classified into two general types, they are;

Ø Weft knit - this type of knit is made with only one yarn. When you hand knit you are making
a Weft knit. Weft knit can be made on either a flat knitting machine or a circular machine,
which produces tubular fabric. Kinds of weft knit are;

Ø Plain knit
Ø Purl knit
Ø Rib knit
Ø Double knit

30
Ø Warp knits - warp knits are made with several yarns. The flat fabric is constructed by
looping the multiple warp yarns so that they interlock. Thus each loop is made of two yarns.
The two kinds of warp knit fabric are tricot and raschel.

Fig. 25. Weft knitting Fig. 26. Warp knitting

These Are Some Examples Of Knitted Items

Ø T-Shirts
Ø Sports Shirts
Ø Sweaters
Ø Jackets
Ø Hosiery
Ø Lingerie
Ø Underwear
Ø Shirts
Ø Dresses

31
 Some Knitted Items

Fig. 27.

10. BRAIDING (AWAITING CONTENT)

11. FELTING
It is the process of combining and compressing loose fibers by the application of
heat, moisture and pressure causing the interlocking or matting of fibres.

Felt

Is a non - woven fabric made of fibers matted together using moisture, heat and pressure.
Examples Of Felting

Fig. 28. Rugs Fig. 29. Shoes

32
 Fig. 30. Clothing Fig. 31. Tent

History
Felt from wool is one of the oldest known textiles. Wool made from the hair of an animal. The
beginning of felt history dates back to the 5-6 millennium BC. Felt production of non-woven
fabric made wool sheep, camels and goats the amount of wool which can be obtained from one
sheep is relatively small. Sumerian legend claims that the secret of felt making was discovered
by Uraman of Legash. The story states that the men picked their sandals with wool to prevent
blisters. The maximum temperature that technical felt can withstand is about 200 degrees
celsius. It is only used to manufacture clothes. It is used for industrial construction thermal and
sound proofing.
Felt origin can be traced to Central Asia where there is evidence of felt making in Serbia and
Northern Mongolia and more recently evidence dating back to the first century AD. Felt
making is still practiced by the nomadic people such as Mongolis and Turkish people in central
Asia where rugs, tents, and clothing where regularly made.

Types Of Felting

Ø Wet felting - It is a type of felting in which warm soapy water is applied to layers of
animals’ hairs. This repetition of the agitation and compression of the fibres causes them
to hook together into a single piece of fabric, hence causing felt.

33
Ø Needle felting - It is popular fiber-art craft that creates felt without the use of water.
Special needles that are used in industrial felting machines are used by artist as a
sculpting tool are referred to as barded needles.

The needles have notches along the shaft of the needle that grab the top layer of the fibres
and tangle them with the inner layers of fibers as it enters the wool. The notches do not
pull the fibers out as the needle exist the wool, since they face down toward the tip of the
needle. Once tangled and compressed using the needle, the felt can be strong and used for
creating sculptures and jewelries.

Ø Wool felt - It is made by layering combed and carded wool fabrics at 90 degrees. Soap and
friction are needed in order for the scales of fibres to interlock and be tangled. The result
after the process is a soft and permeable felt fabric. It can be shaped and thinker than many
felt types because of its layered fibres.

Ø Fur Felt - It involves the killing of fur bearing animals to gain this type of felt. It is
malleable and durable.

Ø Woven Felt - It is made of wool or a wool blend that is woven into cloth. The
weaving process usually makes the fibres naturally entangled. This type of felt is
able to produced in thinner sheets.

Ø Acrylic Felt - It is a type of felt that is made of plastics and it not environment
friendly. It does not shrink after washing. It is not durable and supple as as wool
felt.

34
Ø Pressed Felt - It is the most common type of
felt. This type is obtained by combining pure wool or a blend of synthetic and wool
fibres together.

Importance

Ø It helps in the protection of musical instruments. Examples; drums cymbals

and bass drums.
Ø It helps in the framing of painting to prevent damage from rubbing to the edge of the
painting.

Uses Of Felting

Felt fabric has a huge range of uses, depending on the types you’re using and the quality of
the wool. Wool has different textures ranging from silky to coarse, which ultimately effect
the felt you create with it. It has an incredibly unique texture and qualities. It is can be made
from a wide range of materials which is quite unusual in a fabric. It is widely used in the hat
industry. It is also used to make slippers and as a novelty fabric for garment and drapery.
Felt padding is employed in both apparel and furniture. Industrial application include
insulation, packaging and polishing materials. A special woven felt manufactured for the
use of the paper industry serves as a carrying belt for moist paper.

35
Needled felt is very soft making it perfect for crafts. Whereas wool blends are light and
breathable but still keep you toasty during the chilly season; making them perfect for knitwear.
Pure wool felt is a natural insulator and very resilient to wear and tear. It is strong and able to
absorb moisture. This means it can be used for home furnishing as well as decorative items.
Here are the things felt can be used for;
Toys for children

Felt can also be used for toys. Wool felt is especially desirable because it is soft and is safe
to use.

36
Accessories for women

Felt can be used to make various accessories including hair accessories, handbags and
purses, and even shoes. Wool felt is desirable for bags due to its water -resistant properties.

Wall Panel Felt

The purpose of wall panels made from felt is to create a soundproof room. Having wall
panels made of felt will not only make the room insulated from sound, but it can also
contribute to the decorative design of the room.

Decoration -
As earlier mentioned, felt is a good option for making decorations. It is soft
and available in infinite colors. This is perfect for holidays or special
occasions. For example, you can create ornament made of felt in the christmas
season, and you can create heart shape felt decoration on Valentine’s day.

37
 •

MOBILE PHONE COVERS;

Most mobile phones need covers to protect them from scratches or to prevent any
more damage when it falls accidentally. Using a mobile cover made of wool felt
can help protect your phone. It is also a good way of protecting the environment
because it is eco -friendly, rather than using mobile phone covers made of plastics
which has harmful effect on the environment.

ADVANTAGES OF FELTING

• FELT ARE WARMTH; The is because the fibres are meshed and not woven
together during the felting process, there are no small gaps between fibres, as
it is done in weaving. Clothing made out of dense felt is resistant to elements,
such as wind and cold. Felt is a great insulator and clothing tends to retain the
heat generated by the body.
• FELT IS RESILIENCE;

Felt clothing can last time with proper garment care and pest prevention. Felt
is wrinkle resistant, that is clothing can look crip even after frequently wear. Felt
is more resistant to abrasion than other woolen fabrics, tweeds and twills, because

38
 it doesn’t fray orravel. As a result, part of a garment that receive a lot of stress,
such as the elbow area, are less likely to erode with friction.
DISADVANTAGES OF FELT
• CARE DIFFICULTIES;

Cleaning felt is problematic. Felt clothing can’t be tossed into the washing machine,
as it’s prone to shrink in warm or hot water. Moreover, the wet wool can become
misshaped in the washing machine. As a result, most clothing manufacturers
recommed dry cleaning the felt clothing or washing it by hand. When choosing the
latter, use a detergent that’s formulated for fabrics and scrub stains gently with a soft
bristle brush.

• MOTHS

Like other woolen materials, clothing made from felt is susceptible to moth damage.
When felt is worn close to the body, the wool absorbs sweat and moistre, which are the
primary water sources for moths. As the pests feed on the clothing, they create holes in
the fabric, which can ruin the garment. Investing in pest prevention---moth balls,
insecticides---might be necessary to protect felt clothing.
MANUFACTURING METHOD

A web or batts of fibre are transported by a feeding device between upper and lower hole-
plates. The bearded needles periodically penetrate through the holes in the plates and
through the batts. In every stroke, the barbs of the needle seized fibres and pull the fibres
through the web creating fibre bundle. As the needle withdraws, the batt is released and
moves a small step towards take-off rolls.
The level of web densification is among others a function of the number of punches
per unit area of the web, the number of needles in the needle board. Attainable
frequency of the needle board determines the performance of the machine.
In conclusion, felting can said to be the process of combining loose fibres by the
application of heat, moisture and pressure.

12. TIE- DYE TECHNIQUES

Tie-dye is a term use to describe a number of resist dyeing techniques.
It can be used to create a wide variety of design on fabric. Tie-dye is a process

39
Of folding and tying off a fabric or is the process of decorating and adding personality
to a cloth or fabric.
In this process, the tied prevents the cloth from dye, whiles the untied absorbs
the dye. The design can be complex, they can be a single color or multicolored
Tie-dye techniques are the method of making or creating a fabric (cloth)

• THE TECHNIQUES IN TIE- DYE

A technique is a particular method of doing an activity usually a method that
Involves practical skills
The techniques use in tie-dye process namely
1. Folding
2. Tying
3. Marbling
4. Pleating
5. Knotting
6. Stitching
7. Batik

FOLDING
Is a technique or method of making stripes patterns by folding,

TYING
Is a method of binding or tying the fabric to create a patterns or design

MARBLING
Is a method of loosening and pressing together without any definite patterns

PLEATING
Is a method of folding

KNOTTING
Is a method of using clamps and pegs to hold fabric together to create
a design or patterns

40
STITCHING
Is a method of using needle ( machine) and tread to join or pull together to
form or create a patterns or design

BATIK
Is a wax resist method of dyeing fabrics

• MATERIALS NEEDED IN TIE- DYEING

1. Fabric or cloth
2. Dye
3. Chemicals ( hydrogen sulphate and caustic soda
4. Scissors or knife
5. Rubber gloves
6. Plastic bowl

• PROCESS OF TIE-DYEING
1. Chemicals and dye must be measured into an empty and dry plastic bowl
2. Measure the chemical in the ratio of 2:1 depending on the color
3. Add hot water continuously into the chemical mix and stir properly for it to dissolve
4. Dip the fabric into the dye mixture solution and allow it absorb
the dye for about 20 minutes
5. Care must be taken to ensure every part of the fabric absorbs the dye
6. Remove the fabric and allow the excess dye to drip off
7. Rinse the dyed fabric in clean water and spread to dry under a shade

13. PRINTING METHODS IN TEXTILES (AWAITING CONTENT)

14. NON WOVEN FABRICS(FIBRE-FABRIC)

Non woven fabric is a fabric material made from short and long fibres also known as staple
fibres and continuous long fibres respectively. The fibres may be bonded by chemical,
mechanical, heat or solvent treatment. Some of these non woven fabrics are less strong,

41
therefore, reinforced by a backing. Web structures bonded together by entangling separate
fibres and sometimes plastic film. The process of making non woven fabrics does not require
converting fibres into yarn since it does not require weaving.
One advantage of the non woven fabric is that it can be recycled after use making it more
ecological compared to others.
They are mostly used in fields where single-use products are important such as hospitals and
schools. They are durable even tho they have a limited life.
Characteristics:
Nonwoven fabrics provide specific functions such as absorbency, liquid repellence, stretch,
softness, strength, flame retardancy,filtration, use as a bacterial barrier and sterility. They can
appear like woven fabrics
MANUFACTURING PROCESS:
Nonwovens are typically manufactured by putting small fibers together in the form of a sheet
or web (similar to paper on a paper machine), and then binding them either mechanically (as
in the case of felt, by interlocking them with serrated needles such that the inter-fiber friction
results in a stronger fabric), with an adhesive, or thermally (by applying binder (in the form of
powder, paste, or polymer melt) and melting the binder onto the web by increasing
temperature).
TYPES:
1.Staple Nonwoven fabrics made by spuning,blending,spreading and binding. An
example is fibreglass
2.Melt-blown Nonwoven fabrics made by extruding melted fibres through a spin net.
Examples are face masks and filters
3.Spun laid fabrics made by spuning and dispersing
4.Flash spun made by spraying a dissolved resin into a chamber and allowing the
solvent to evaporate.
5.Air-laid paper made from wood pulp.Unlike the normal papermaking process, air-
laid paper does not use water as the carrying medium for the fiber. Fibers are carried
and formed to the structure of paper by air.
USES OF NONWOVENFABRICS;
Surgical gowns,masks,gloves,bath wipes, plasters, vacuum bags and tea bags.

42
NONWOVEN FABRICS

RESIN

VACUUM BAGS

43
 44