LESSON

3.2 THREE-DIMENSIONAL ARTS

A. SCULPTURE
Sculpture comes from the Latin word “Sculpere” – meaning to carve. It is the art of carving,
casting, modelling or assembling materials into three-dimensional figure or forms.
…“after painting comes sculpture, a very noble art, but one that does not in the execution
require the supreme ingenuity as the art of painting, since in two most important and difficult particulars,
in foreshortening and in light and shade…the painter has to invent a process, (whereas) sculpture is
helped by nature.” – Leonardo da Vinci

MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES

Sculpture can be made from almost any organic or inorganic substance.

Two Major Sculptural Processes

1. Subtractive – it is a process in which the unwanted material is cut away
e.g., carving of stone and wood.
2. Additive – the sculptor’s idea is expressed by joining or combining together small pieces
of materials.
e.g. construction of a figure by putting together bits of clay or by welding

 Carving
⬧ Carving is a technique that is used primarily for working with marble and wood. It is a process
that involves removing material by wearing it away and smoothing it, working from the outside
in.
⬧ When carving with wood, the artist will need to consider the type of wood they are using, as
this is very important. Cedar or pine wood are softer and easier to carve than oak or walnut,
for example. However, these harder woods are more durable and allow the artist to create
more intricate detail. Precisely for this reason, in-depth knowledge regarding materials and
techniques is always highly important for a sculptor.
⬧ As for carving in ivory, it is important to bear in mind that it is a highly expensive material
and difficult to get hold of, as it is obtained from the tusks of an elephant or the horns of a
rhinoceros, for example. It is for this reason that it has been traditionally used for carving
religious objects.

 Modelling
⬧ Modelling, as the name suggests, is a technique that involves giving shape to a soft and
pliable material, using a mould. One of the materials that is most commonly used for this kind
of technique is clay, although there are others. Clay is a very cheap material, easy to get hold
of and is also very easy to mould. One of the benefits of this technique is that you can make
several copies of a sculpture.
⬧ Surely most of you, if not all of you, will be familiar with the famous waxwork museums. Well,
the celebrities portrayed in these museums are produced with this same technique, using
wax. If they are done well, they can even look real from a certain distance. Incredible, right?
 Casting
⬧ Similar to modelling, this technique also requires the use of a mould. The main difference with
casting is that the resulting sculptures are generally made from combinations of metals.
Bronze, for example, is an alloy of tin and copper, and is commonly used in sculptures as it is
strong and durable. In fact, in the Middle Ages it was commonly used for producing weapons,
tools and other sculptures.

 Polishing
⬧ Polishing is a technique used by artists who want to improve the final finish of a sculpture that
they've created, by improving its visual appearance and texture. It involves performing a
mechanical operation on the surface of the material. The polishing technique for wood is also
known as sanding and may be done using a sander, or by hand. For other materials, such as
copper, silver or gold, polishing is usually done purely for decorative reasons, in order to make
them more shiny or clean, or to improve their texture as previously mentioned.

 Other Sculpture Techniques

Of course, there are other sculpture techniques in use, such as chiseling, embossing,
engraving, stamping and die-casting

Different Types of Sculptures based on techniques

Based on their sculpture forms and Techniques,
1. Sculptures on Relief
- High Relief
- Low Relief
- Bas Relief
- Sunken Relief
2. Carved Sculptures
3. Full Round Sculpting
4. Cast Sculptures
5. Modeling Sculptures
6. Assembled Sculptures
7. Installation Sculptures
8. Kinetic Sculptures
9. Earthwork Sculptures

1. Relief Sculptures
The relief sculpture technique is also known as relievo. In this technique the sculptures
remain attached to the surface in which they are sculpted. It is a unique method which combines
both two-dimensional pictures and three-dimensional sculptures. The relief sculptures are usually
classified into three different types namely, high relief, low relief and sunken relief.

a. High relief sculptures

The high relief sculptures are also known as alto-relievo or alto-relief sculptures. In this
technique the sculpted images projects outside the background surface. Some parts of the
sculptures are fully disengaged from the ground. The high relief sculptures create similar effect
as that of a free-standing or round sculptures.
 High relief sculpture stone Palmyra Baalshamin god Paris by Cmdixon

b. Low relief sculptures

They are also known as basso-relievo or bas-relief sculptures. In this technique, the
sculpture projects very slightly from the background surface. The perspective of the sculptor can
be easily understood from the front view of the sculpture.

Low relief bas sculpture Banteaysrei Cambodia Ravana

c. Bas relief sculptures

A French term from the Italian basso-relievo (Low Relief), bas (pronounced bah) is a
sculpture technique in which figures the elements are more prominent than the background.

Bas relief sculpture woman dance Angkor Combodia

 d. Sunken relief sculptures
The sunken reliefs are also known as intaglio or incised relief sculptures. In this technique
the sculpted image never rises above the background surface. The sculpting takes place below
the background surface.

Sunken relief sculpture Egypt Nefertiti Amarna

2. Carved Sculptures
Carving is a subtractive process of shaping a material by chipping and scraping away the
surface of the material. Initially, in this process the outer forms of the sculpture are created and then
the inner details of the sculpture are done. Carving is usually done on hard materials like wood and
stone using sharp tools such as chisels.

Wood carving sculpture Buddha

3. Full Round Sculpting

They are popularly known as free standing sculptures. These sculptures are completely
three dimensional and can be viewed from different angles. The sculptor must consider the centre
of gravity of the pieces to make sure the sculpture will not fall over. These sculptures are generally
not heavy on top and ensure the mass is uniformly distributed throughout the sculpture.
 Full round sculpture depicting justice

4. Cast Sculptures
In this sculpture technique we use a mould to create the sculpture. The artist pours a pliable or
liquid material such as molten metal, wax, rubber, clay or plaster into the mould and allows it to
harden into the desired shape. The same mould can be re-used several times thereby allowing the
sculptor to create similar sculptures.

Cast sculpture in glass in Murano Venice

5. Modeling Sculptures
Sculptors work on soft materials such as wax or plaster to build sculptures of their desired
design. Modeling is an additive process where we create sculptures by adding the sculpting media
to attain the desired shape. Unlike carving, we can change the shape of modeled sculptures while
working on them.

Modeled sculpture in wax Donald Trump by Saint Chaffray

6. Assembled Sculptures
Similar to modelling, assembling is an additive process. The sculptor uses any different material,
puts them together to attain the desired sculpture. The artists are free to use any type of materials
such as discarded materials, scrap and everyday objects to create the sculpture. The sculptors can
use techniques such as welding and gluing to put the three-dimensional artwork together.

Assembled sculpture compass points by George Hart

7. Installation Sculptures
Installation sculptures are also known as site- specific sculptures. Installation sculptures are
conceptual artworks of the contemporary world. The sculptors use various objects from different
media and give the desired form to the sculpture on a large area. These sculptures have the potential
to transform large spaces or the complete room into an artwork.

Installation sculpture diversity wild by Okuda San Miguel

8. Kinetic sculptures
Kinetic sculptures are modern concepts
which use movement of the sculpture is an
integral part of the sculpture design. The most
commonly used techniques to construct
kinetic sculptures are diffusion of colored
water, smoke, mercury, bubbles and oil. Some
artists also rely on water; wind and electricity
to propel movement in their sculptures. These
sculptures constantly challenge the viewer’s
perception of the artwork.

Kinetic sculpture by Anthony Howe

9. Earthwork Sculptures
Earthwork sculptures, commonly known as land art are created by interacting with nature. This
sculpting technique is highly conceptual. The artist sculpts the land itself or makes structures in the
landscape using natural materials like rocks or twigs.

Earthwork sculpture by Patrick Dougherty

MATERIALS USED IN SCULPTURE

1. Stone
Is the hard and brittle substance formed from mineral and earth material. The finished product is
granular and dull in appearance. These are normally used for gravestones in cemeteries. Stones
include sandstone, granite, basalt, marble and limestone.

Granite – is a granular igneous rock composed of feldopars and quartz, usually combined with other
minerals and is quite difficult to chisel. This is good for large work with only few designs. Marble – is
limestone in a more or less crystalline state sufficiently close in texture and capable of taking a high
polish, occurring in many varieties. Brecciated marble is composed of angular fragments while
serpentine marble is prized for its variegated patterns and is often used in larged flat planes.

Sandstone – is a soft stone

Basalt – hard and black.
Limestone – has a fine and even texture. Its color range from light cream to buff, and from light gray to
a darker, bluish gray.

2. Jade, is a fine, colourful stone, usually green, and used widely in Ancient China. It is highly esteemed
as an ornamental stone for carving and fashion jewelry. Today, it is one of women’s fashion accessories
because it carries certain social significance. It is believed to symbolize certain virtues such as
faithfulness, wisdom and charity.

3. Ivory, which comes from the main parts of tusks of elephants, is the hard white substance used to
make carvings and billiard balls. In the home of some well-to-do families in the Philippines, faces and
hands of images of saints are made of ivory. The bodies are made of wood, carved and painted.
4. Metals, include any of a class of elementary substances such as gold, silver, or copper all of which
are crystalline when solid and many of which are characterized by capacity, ductility, conductivity and
peculiar luster when freshly fractured. Being ductile, it can be transformed into fine wires or threads.
Its main quality is that it can be shaped into any direction or formed under great pressure without
breaking. Traditionally, the metals that have been the medium for sculpture are copper, brass, bronze,
gold, silver, and lead. Aluminium is a recent addition to the list.

5. Bronze, is one of the oldest alloys of

metal composing chiefly of cooper and tin
with color and is one of the most
universally popular metals for sculpture. It
is cast into shape. Bronze as a material is
strong, durable and resistant to any
atmosphere corrosion. It is best suited for
large-scale modelling. The sculpture may
be polished to give it excellent brilliance
and splendour.
6. Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, is not popularly
used by artists because of its limitations as a medium.
Although it has many practical uses, brass does not rust
and it takes a brilliant polish.

7. Copper, which has a peculiar brilliance, is used as a

costing medium. Basically shaped by hammering. It can
be fashioned into relief forms. The rich reddish color and
strength offer many possibilities to the sculptor and the
craftsman one characteristic of this medium is its
resistance to atmospheric corrosion.

8. Gold and Silver, are used as casting materials for

small objects like medals, coins and pieces of jewelry.
Because they are quite expensive, they ar used for
either personal accessories or religious adornments.
9. Lead, a bluish-gray metal, flexible and permanent material, is used for casting and forging. With the
help of a welding torch iron, it can be worked into a variety of unique and exciting forms.

10. Plaster, is a composition of lime, sand, and water. Plaster

is worked on an armature of metal wires and rods in addition
to various materials and fibers. This is applied on walls and
ceilings and allowed to harden and dry. The medium is used
extensively for making manikins, models, molds,
architectural decorations, and other indoor sculpture.

11. Clay, is a natural earthly material that has the

nature of plasticity when wet, consisting
essentially hydrated silicates of aluminium used
for making bricks and ceramics. Clay is generally
fragile so it becomes necessary to cast it in
another durable material. The surface of the
finished product made of clay may be painted or
glazed. Earthware which “baked earth’ is
commonly referred to as terra cotta, which is
cheap compared with stone or bronze. Brilliant
cloves are made possible by glazing. Like all
pottery, terra cotta is easily broken. As a medium
for sculptor, it has been used during the early
times.
12. Glass, is a medium that is, hard, brittle, non-crystalline,
more or less transparent substances produced by fusion,
usually consisting of mutually dissolved silica and silicates
and contains soda and lime. This is used to make beautiful
but fragile figurines. It can be molded in various colors and
shapes.

13. Wood, as a medium is perhaps easier to

carve than any other mediums available because
it can be intricately carved and subjected into a
variety of treatment not possible with stone. It is
lighter and softer to carve despite having greater
tensile strength than stone; hence, it can be used
in long pieces without breaking. The character of
the grain and the color of the wood are the most
important qualities that the sculptor considers.
Wood should be treated to preserve its quality.
Common wood used for sculpture are dapdap,
white lauan, oak, walnut, mahogany, narra and
dao. They are selected for beauty and
permanence.

14. Terra Cotta, is the tenderest of

sculptural materials. Most oriental sculpture
deals in this medium. This is used in vases,
figurines, and in small thins.
Other mediums:
B. ARCHITECTURE

Architecture is an art. In its strictest meaning, it is the art of designing a building and
supervising its construction. It may also be regarded as the procedure assisted with the conception of
an idea and its realization in terms of building materials. In its broader meaning, architecture is shelter
to serve as protection of all activities of men – work, recreation, and sleep.

One of the primary purposes of architecture is to fufill man’s need that led to its creation. These
man’s needs include:

1. Physical Needs – shelter (for self-preservation and reproduction). These shelters must the
necessities (kitchen, bedroom, bathroom) and comfort (heat, ventilation, furnishing).
2. Emotional Needs – endowed with rich beauty and interest.
3. Intellectual Needs – a building for science, education, government, etc.
4. Psychosocial Needs
a. for recognition, prestige, civic and personal – man builds palaces, cathedrals, etc.
b. for response – due to love, friendship, and sociability – fraternal buildings, city
clubs, ballrooms, etc.)
c. for self-expression – theaters, museums, cultural centers, gymnations, etc.

To identify the style in architecture is a complex undertaking. The style must accommodate and
express the function of the structure. It must also address the future, providing for adaptability and
capacity to survive the loss of its original function. It must also provide for functions which are unknown
at the moment of construction.

FACTORS IN THE CHOICE AND USE OF ARCHITECTURAL MATERIALS

1. Structural Property – workability with tools when used as construction materials.

a. Compressive strength
b. Tensile
c. Porosity
d. Lightness
e. Durability
f. Rigidity
g. Gracefulness
h. Flexibility of Use

2. Physical Property – aesthetic use of the material for beauty

 a. Texture
b. Tonal quality
c. Color

3. Weakness of the material

a. Rotting
b. Corrosion due to moisture
c. Susceptibility to infection by “bukbok”, termites and other pests
d. Discolorization
e. Solar radiation
f. Fungus growth

4. Longevity of the material – lifespan of the material

a. 10 years
b. 20 years
c. Half a century
d. More than a century

5. Other inherent properties

a. Weight
b. Water resistance
c. Heat resistance
d. Acoustic values

6. others (non-inherent properties)

a. Availability
b. Economy

CLASSIFICATION OF ARCHITECTURAL MATERIALS (Salvan, 1999)

Materials of Nature

These are direct product of nature, as a gift to man from the forests and quarries and require
only shaping and minor conditioning for the place they are to occupy in the building. Often, these
materials may be used directly without preliminary work of any kind.

1. Stone – one of the oldest and perhaps the most permanent material. It is the material used in most
of the great architecture of the world. Concrete is a building material made of sand and gravel mixed
with cement. Like stone, it has high compressive strength. It doesn’t easily crumble or break down when
subjected to heavy weight. It does not rot or corrode and it is fire-resistant.

a. Limestone – type of stone with a fine texture and its colors range from a light cream to a buff
form a light gray to a darker, bluish gray. It is most useful in walls, exterior parts of the buildings
and lends itself very well to carving.
b. Granite – coarse-grained stone and useful for large, bold forms with little carvings. It is the
hardest and the most durable of the types of stones. It is often applied to base courses where
protection is desired. When polished, it is frequently used as shafts of columns with limestone
or terra cotta capitals and bases. The nature of the materials makes it very adaptable to
monumental work.
c. Marble – it is a type of limestone sufficiently close in texture to admit of being polished.
Brecciated marble which consist of angular fragments
Serpentine marble which are useful for variegated patterns and often used in larger flat planes
 d. Sandstone – it is consists of various colors from white to different tints of red, brown, blue or
gray. It is widely used in buildings which have informal character than formal ones.

2. Wood – is not a permanent material but with proper care, it will last for century. It is the common
building material before the 90s. Its advantages are its abundance, relative durability, and high tensile
and compression strength. However, it is easily destroyed by moisture, insects, and fire. A new material,
plywood, has greatly improved the structural possibilities of wood. In relation to its weight, plywood,
which comes in thin sheets, is probably stronger than any known material.

Materials Manufactured by Man

These classification of materials constitute the majority of building materials and requires manipulation
of man before they acquire their finished form.

1. Ceramic – these materials can be manufactured in different ways.

Clay can be used to make bricks, roofing tiles, toilet tiles, and clay pot.
Glass, it is hard and brittle, smooth, and usually transparent ceramic substance
manufactured by fusing together some form of silica and a base of lime or lead oxide
though the powerful element of fire.
 Glass combined with metal, is made into furniture and equipment. It is used for covering
and panelling. For exterior purposes, it can be used for enclosing medium, glass blocks which
admit light but retain privacy and safety.

2. Metals, at an early stage, objects of iron and other metals were cast in form. Today, rolling
and pressing are considered as the most important manufacturing methods.

a. Bronze – its permanency and beauty are very prominent in architectural features. This material
is popularly used for banking, screens, doors and grills, hardware and lighting features. It is
capable of receiving numerous textures and colors.
b. Wrought iron – it is elastic and fibrous cast iron is brittle. Wrought iron is worked upon the anvil
while it’s hot and cooling. Iron bars, rods, and plates are heated and then hammered and twisted
into the attenuated forms. Wrought iron is used for brackets, grills, hinges, locks, gates,
balconies. It can have a wood as a backdrop for its design.
c. Copper – this metal is ductile and is adaptable for cornices, spandrels, and roofing. It has a
protective green carbonated upon its surface which gives an interesting quality to the material.
d. Chrome-nickel steel – this is a hard, non-corrosive metal which can lend itself to welding,
stamping, and forging. It may be polished or left dull. It is used in interiors for doors, panels,
grills or railings.
e. Aluminium – this is a white metal and noted for its lightness. It is non-corrosive and non-staining.
It can be cast or forged into various shapes to produce a desired design. Aluminium is used in
sculpture and architecture. In architecture, it is used for shop fronts, doors, grills, hardware, and
exterior covering.
f. Monel metal – this metal is a mixture of nickel and copper with an addition of iron, silica, and
manganese, giving a surface resembling that of a nickel. It is non-corrosive metal. It is generally
used for doors and grills, balustrades, and screens.
g. Nickel Silvers – this metal is characterized as soft and has dull textures and combines well with
marble and wood for stylistic types of architecture. It is most ideal for interior work.
3. Concrete Materials. These materials are more and more dominant in architectural building materials
in design today because of their availability, durability, fluidity, and other physical properties. Concrete
has strength, and a surface and texture capable of contributing to the aesthetic quality of a building. It
is a very popular building material. Some masonry finishes which come from concrete are washout
finishes which utilize cement mortar mixed with pebble stones, broken glass, etc. and synthetic stones.
In synthetic stones, broken stones are hammered to pieces and mixed with plastic. After the plastered
finish is dry and hardened, it is chiselled or pounded with an axe to expose the stones and give it a
rough texture.

4. Plastic, open up new architectural form and designs in the field of architecture. Plastics may be
sowed, cut, bent, drilled, and treaded. These materials are smooth, hard, permanent, light, transparent
or opaque, and durable.

They can be molded, cast, extruded, and laminated depending upon their composition or use.
Cast plastics may come as sheets, rods, strips, cylinders and cones and can be used for walls, ceilings,
and doors. Strips of the materials can be bent into table legs, chair backs, or light reflectors. Laminated
plastics are thin sheets of synthetic materials veneered to a plywood or fibreboard vase – for decorative
or functional purposes. They are capable of resisting water, acid, fire, or wear. Resin-bonded plywoods
are strong, light, and durable plastic material.
5. Indigenous Materials – these materials are found in the locality and are widely used for sculpture
and architecture. Some of the indigenous materials are sawali, coco coir (trunks, leaves, husk),
bagasse, abaca, bamboo, palm frond stems, earth and mud bricks, cane wood (rattan), rice husk,
cogon, etc.
a. Sawali – these materials are the outer covering of bamboo poles as a woven material
for cement banking.
b. Coco coir – this is a by-product material of a coconut used as sandwich panels for
insulation and to minimize the use of cement.
c. Bagasse – this is a sugar can waste used for insulation or cement banking.
d. Abaca – this is a fiber material obtained from the leafstalk of a banana plant. Most of
these materials are found in the Bicol Region.
e. Bamboo – this indigenous material has low degree of elasticity, low concrete adhesion,
wide variable moisture, content and are very useful in sculptural and architectural forms
and designs. In architecture it is used mainly to reinforce concrete. The use of bamboo
materials can lead to substantial savings and increase employment in the locality.
Bamboo materials are mostly found in Nueva Viscaya and Isabela provinces.
f. Palm frond stems – these are often used for non-structural panels, certain walls, screen
and base of a house. This material is susceptible to termites and have to be replaced
every 4 to 5 years. To raise its lifespan to 15 years and above, the materials must be
shielded by anti-termite chemical like solignum or by raising the construction above the
ground
g. Mud bricks – these materials are brittle, has less strength, cannot stand up well to
tension, but they have a low thermal conductivity which have a beneficial effect in hot,
dry climates.