IV.

ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

A. ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER

 The theory that atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter reemerged in the early nineteenth
century, championed by John Dalton.

B. DALTON’S POSTULATE
1) Each element is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
2) All atoms of a given element are identical to one another in mass and other properties, but the atoms of
one element are different from the atoms of all other elements.
3) Atoms of an element are not changed into atoms of a different element by chemical reactions; atoms are
neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.
4) Atoms of more than one element combine to form compounds; a given compound always has the same
relative number and kind of atoms.

C. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

 The total mass of substances present at the end of a chemical process is the same as the mass of
substances present before the process took place.
 This law was one of the laws on which Dalton’s atomic theory was based.
 Lavoisier
 Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier, a meticulous experimenter, revolutionized chemistry. He
established the law of conservation of mass, determined that combustion and respiration are
caused by chemical reactions with what he named “oxygen,” and helped systematize
chemical nomenclature, among many other accomplishments.

D. JOHN DALTON (Billiard Ball Model)

 My fourt posulate is an extension of a law formulated by the French chemist, Joseph Proust (1754-1826),
in 1799. Proust’s Law of Definite Proportions states:
1) Different samples of the same compound always contain its constituent elements in the same
proportion by mass.
2) If we analyzed any number of samples of sodium chloride, NaCl, collected from different sources, we
would find in each and every sample the same ratio BY MASS of sodium (Na) to chlorine (Cl).
 3) Thus, if the ratio of the MASSES of different elements in a compound is fixed, the ratio of the ATOMS
of these elements in the compound must also be constant.

E. LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS

 If two elements, A and B, form more than one compound, the masses of B that combine with a given
mass of A are in the ratio of small whole numbers.
 Dalton predicted this law and observed it while developing his atomic theory.
 When two or more compounds exist from the same elements, they can not have the same relative
number of atoms.

F. DISCOVERY OF SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

 In Dalton’s view, the atom was the smallest particle possible. Many discoveries led to the fact that the
atom itself was made up of smaller particles.
 Electrons and cathode rays
 Radioactivity
 Nucleus, protons, and neutrons

G. ATOMIC STRUCTURE
 Dalton thought of atoms as being indivisible and, thus, extremely small.
 A series of investigations that began in the 1850s and extended into the 20th century demonstrated
clearly that atoms themselves had internal structure; i.e., atoms are made up of even smaller particles.

H. THE ELECTRON (CATHODE RAYS)

 Streams of negatively charged particles were found to emanate from cathode tubes, causing
fluorescence.
 J. J. Thomson is credited with their discovery (1897).

 How do we deduce from the figure that cathode rays travel from cathode to anode?
a) The cathode and anode are labeled in figure (a).
b) A green gas exists in the vacuum tube.
c) Cathode rays consist of charge particles.
d) the manner in which the magnet diverts the path in figure (b)
 Thomson measured the charge/mass ratio of the electron to be 1.76  108 coulombs/gram (C/g).
 If no magnetic field were applied, would you expect the electron beam to be deflected upward or
downward by the electric field?
a) Downward because a negative particle is repelled by a negative plate and attracted to a
positive plate.
b) Upward because a negative particle is attracted to a negative plate and repelled by a positive plate.
c) Downward because a negative particle is attracted to a negative plate and repelled by a positive
plate.
d) Upward because a negative particle is repelled by a negative plate and attracted to a positive plate.

 Using a cathode ray tube and his extensive knowledge of electromagnetic theory, Thomson determined
the ratio of electric charge to mass for an electron.
 -1.76 x 108 coulombs/gram – The coulomb (C) is a unit of electric charge.
 R. A. Millikan successfully measured the charge on, and mass of, an individual electron by studying the
motion of single tiny oil drops that acquired charge from ions in the air.
 9.10 x 10-28 g – mass of an individual electron)
 -1.6022 x 10-19 C – charge on an individual electron
I. MILIKAN OIL-DROP EXPERIMENT (ELECTRONS)
 Once the charge/mass ratio of the electron was known, determination of either the charge or the mass of
an electron would yield the other.
 Robert Millikan determined the charge on the electron in 1909.
  Would the masses of the oil drops be changed significantly by any electrons that accumulate
on them?
a) Yes, the electrons add significant mass to the oil drop.
b) No, the electrons add only a small mass to the oil drop.
c) Yes, the electrons cause the oil drops to stick together.

J. RADIOACTIVITY
 Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of high-energy radiation by an atom.
 It was first observed by Henri Becquerel.
 Marie and Pierre Curie also studied it.
 Its discovery showed that the atom had more subatomic particles and energy associated with it.
 Three types of radiation were discovered by Ernest Rutherford:
  particles (positively charged)
  particles (negatively charged, like electrons)
  rays (uncharged)

 Which of the three kinds of radiation shown consists of electrons?

a) β
b) γ
c) α
d) (A) and (C)

 Why are these rays deflected to a greater extent than the others?
a) Beta particles are negatively charged.
b) Alpha particles are positively charged.
c) Alpha particles are less massive than beta particles.
d) Beta particles are less massive than alpha particles.

K. THE ATOM, CIRCA 1900

 The prevailing theory was that of the “plum pudding” model, put forward by Thomson.
 It featured a positive sphere of matter with negative electrons embedded in it.
 L. DISCOVERY OF THE NUCLEUS
 Ernest Rutherford shot  particles at a thin sheet of gold foil and observed the pattern of scatter of the
particles.

M. STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM: THE PROTON AND NUCLEUS (Rutherford 1871-1937)

 Rutherford’s experiment for measuring scattering of a particles by a thin metal foil:
 Rutherford used a particles to probe atomic structure.
 Thin gold and other metal foils served as targets for a particle. See the illustration below (from S.
Zumdahl slides).
 Most of the particles penetrated the metal foils with little or no deflection. However, a particle would
be deflected at a large angle or back toward the source

(1908 Nobel Prize in

Chemistry)

7
 particle velocity ~ 1.4 x 10 m/s
(~5% speed of light)

1) atoms positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus

2) proton (p) has opposite (+) charge of electron
3) mass of p is 1840 x mass of e- (1.67 x 10-24 g)
 Rutherford formulated his model of the atom, based on the results of his a-scattering experiments:
 Mostly empty space, which would explain why most a particles passed through the foil
undetected.
  Atom’s positive charges concentrated in the nucleus, a dense central core within the atom. This
would explain why those a particles that came near or directly at the nucleus experienced large
deflections or reversed directions (repulsion of positive charge by positive charge).
 We now know these positively charged particles in the nucleus as protons:
 Mass of proton = 1.67262 x 10-24 g -- about 1840x the mass of an electron.
 Typical atomic radius is about 100 pm (pm = picomeers).
 Radius of atomic nucleus ONLY about 5 x 10-3 pm. IT’S LIKE PLACING A MARBLE IN THE MIDDLE
OF THE HOUSTON ASTRODOME

 What is the charge on the particles that form the beam?

a) –1, because the beam consists of beta particles.
b) +2, because the beam consists of alpha particles.
c) +1, because the beam consists of beta particles.
d) –2, because the beam consists of alpha particles.

N. THE NUCLEAR ATOM

 Since some particles were deflected at large angles, Thomson’s model could not be correct.

 Rutherford postulated a very small, dense nucleus with the electrons around the outside of the atom.
 Most of the volume is empty space.
 Atoms are very small; 1 – 5 Å or 100 – 500 pm.
 Other subatomic particles (protons and neutrons) were discovered.

 What is the approximate diameter of the nucleus in units of pm?

a) 100 pm
b) 1 pm
c) 10–2 pm
d) 10–4 pm

O. STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM: THE NEUTRON

 Rutherford’s model of the atom left one question unanswered :
 Why is the ratio of the mass of the He atom to that of the H atom actually 4:1 instead of the 2:1 ratio
predicted by Rutherford’s model?
 We electrons have very little mass compared to protons! Thus, our contribution to atomic mass is
negligible!
 Lord Earnest Rutherford
 A number of my colleagues and I postulated that another type of subatomic particle exists in the
atomic nucleus.
  Sir James Chadwick (1891-1974)
 My coworkers and I carried out the bombardment of Be (beryllium) metal with a particles. We
observed that the Be gave off high-energy radiation that we found was unaffected by electric fields or
magnets.
 I gave the name neutrons to the subatomic particles that comprised the high-energy radiation given
off by the Be metal.
 A neutron is an electrically neutral particle with a mass of 1.67493 x 10-24 g -- just slightly larger than
the mass of the positive proton (1.67262 x 10-24 g).

P. SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
 Protons (+1) and electrons (–1) have a charge; neutrons are neutral.
 Protons and neutrons have essentially the same mass (relative mass 1). The mass of an electron is so
small we ignore it (relative mass 0).
 Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus; electrons travel around the nucleus.

Q. ATOMIC MASS
 Atoms have extremely small masses.
 The heaviest known atoms have a mass of approximately 4 × 10 –22 g.
 A mass scale on the atomic level is used, where an atomic mass unit (amu) is the base unit.
 1 amu = 1.66054 × 10–24 g

R. ATOMIC WEIGHT MEASUREMENT

 Atomic and molecular weight can be measured with great accuracy using a mass spectrometer.
 Masses of atoms are compared to the carbon atom with 6 protons and 6 neutrons (C-12).

S. SYMBOLS OF ELEMENTS

 Elements are represented by a one or two letter symbol. This is the symbol for carbon.
 All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, which is called the atomic number, Z.
It is written as a subscript BEFORE the symbol.
 The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. It is written as a
superscript BEFORE the symbol.
 T. ISOTOPES
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different masses.
 Atoms that have the same atomic number but different mass number.
 Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons, but the same number of protons.

 Atomic number (Z)

 The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of each element
 In a neutral atom: number of protons = # of electrons
 Atomic Mass (A)
 The total number of protons + neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of each element
 In a neutral atom: mass number = # of protons + # of neutrons
 A=Z + # of neutrons
 Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
 Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus

WEEK 7: ATOMS, MOLECULES, IONS (PART 2)

A. ATOMIC WEIGHT
 Because in the real world we use large amounts of atoms and molecules, we use average masses in
calculations.
 An average mass is found using all isotopes of an element weighted by their relative abundances. This is the
element’s atomic weight.
 That is, Atomic Weight = Ʃ [(isotope mass) × (fractional natural abundance)]. Note: the sum is for ALL
isotopes of an element.

B. PERIODIC TABLE
 The periodic table is a systematic organization of the elements.
 Elements are arranged in order of atomic number.
 Unlike the way we write isotopes, the atomic number is at the TOP of a box in the periodic table.
 The atomic weight of an element appears at the BOTTOM of the box. (They are not shown on this version of
the Periodic Table.)
 The rows on the periodic table are called periods.
 Columns are called groups.
 Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.

C. PERIODICITY
 When one looks at the chemical properties of elements, one notices a repeating pattern of reactivities.
 If F is a reactive nonmetal, which other element or elements shown here do you expect to also be a reactive
nonmetal?
a) He and Ar
b) Be and Ca
c) H and Cl
d) Ne and Ar
D. PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
 Developed in 1869 by Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist.
 Based on repeating trends in chemical & physical properties of elements.
 Elements 104 through 109 have been named (Rf, Db, Sg, Bh, Hs, Mt).
 Elements 104 through 109 now have names…
 Rutherfordium (Rf) named for Lord Rutherford
 Dubnium (Db) named for the Dubna nuclear research facility in Russia
 Seaborgium (Sg) named for Glenn T. Seaborg
 Bohrium (Bh) named for Niels Bohr
 Hassium (Hs) named for Hassen state in Germany
 Meitnerium (Mt) named for Lise Meitner
 Groups aka FAMILIES of elements:
1) Vertical arrangement of elements
2) Possess similar chemical & physical properties

 Main group elements (Representative elements)

 groups 1, 2, 13  18
 Transition elements
 Groups 3  12
 The Lanthanide and Actinide series are also known as the Rare Earth Elements or Inner transition Elements

 In chemistry, all elements, natural & man-made, are grouped into one of three broad classifications:
 Metals: Good conductors of heat and electricity; malleable; ductile; lustrous
 Nonmetals: Poor conductors of heat and electricity; hard
 Metalloids or Semi-Metals: Properties intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals
 Metals are on the left side of the periodic table.
 Some properties of metals include
 shiny luster.
 conducting heat and electricity.
 solidity (except mercury).
 Nonmetals are on the right side of the periodic table (with the exception of H).
 They can be solid (like carbon), liquid (like bromine), or gas (like neon) at room temperature.
 Elements on the steplike line are metalloids (except Al, Po, and At).
 Their properties are sometimes like metals and sometimes like nonmetals.
E. CHEMICAL FORMULAS
 The subscript to the right of the symbol of an element tells the number of atoms of that element in one
molecule of the compound.
 Molecular compounds are composed of molecules and almost always contain only nonmetals.

F. DIATOMIC MOLECULES
 These seven elements occur naturally as molecules containing two atoms:
 Hydrogen
 Nitrogen
 Oxygen
 Fluorine
 Chlorine
 Bromine
 Iodine

G. TYPES OF FORMULAS
 Empirical formulas give the lowest whole-number ratio of atoms of each element in a compound.
 An empirical formula shows the simplest whole-number ratio of the atoms in a substance
 The simplest chemical formulas
 Tell us which elements are present and simplest whole-number ratio of their atoms
 NOT NECESSARILY the actual number of atoms in a given molecule

 Molecular formulas give the exact number of atoms of each element in a compound.
 A molecular formula shows the exact number of atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a
substance
 Exact number of atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a substance
 If we know the molecular formula of a compound, we can determine its empirical formula. The converse is not
true!
 Structural formulas show the order in which atoms are attached. They do NOT depict the three-dimensional
shape of molecules.
 Perspective drawings also show the three-dimensional order of the atoms in a compound. These are also
demonstrated using models.
 Which model, the ball-and-stick or the space-filling, more effectively shows the angles between bonds around
a central atom?
a) Ball-and-stick
b) Space-filling

H. IONS
 When an atom of a group of atoms loses or gains electrons, it becomes an ion.
 Cations are formed when at least one electron is lost. Monatomic cations are formed by metals.
 Anions are formed when at least one electron is gained. Monatomic anions are formed by nonmetals.
 An atom or group of atoms having a net positive or negative charge.
 Types of ions:
 CATIONS
 Ions with a net positive charge. Formed by LOSS of one or more electrons from a neutral atom.
 ANIONS
 Ions with a net negative charge. Formed by GAIN of one or more electrons by a neutral atom.
 Monatomic ions: have only 1 atom
 Polyatomic ions: more than 1 atom
 Which of these ions have the same number of electrons as a noble gas element?
 a) Ag+
b) Zn2+
c) Sc3+
d) (B) and (C)

I. IONIC COMPOUNDS
 Ionic compounds (such as NaCl) are generally formed between metals and nonmetals.
 Electrons are transferred from the metal to the nonmetal. The oppositely charged ions attract each other. Only
empirical formulas are written.

J. WRITING FORMULAS
 Because compounds are electrically neutral, one can determine the formula of a compound this way:
 The charge on the cation becomes the subscript on the anion.
 The charge on the anion becomes the subscript on the cation.
 If these subscripts are not in the lowest whole-number ratio, divide them by the greatest common factor.

K. FORMULAS OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

 Usually the same as their empirical formulas
 Made up of ions -- actually, a 1:1 ratio of cations to anions
 Ionic compound itself is electrically neutral -- SUM OF POSITIVE and NEGATIVE CHARGES MUST EQUAL
ZERO
 PRINCIPLE OF CHARGE BALANCE applied to formulas of ionic compounds:
 The subscript of the cation is numerically equal to the charge on the anion, AND the subscript of the
anion is numerically equal to the charge on the cation.

L. CHARGE BALANCE
1) Ionic compounds are electrically NEUTRAL; that is, their overall charge equals ZERO.
 Examples: CrO3 and CrCl3
 Both CrO3 and CrCl3 have an overall charge of zero.
2) Simple anions have known negative charges.
 The oxide anion, O2-, in CrO3 has a -2 charge. The chloride anion, Cl-, in CrCl3 has a -1 charge.
 3) The SUM of the positive charge from the cation and the negative charge of the anion must equal ZERO. This
is the principle of charge balance.
 (no. of metal cations)(charge on cation) + (no. of nonmetal anions)(charge on anion) = 0
 Use algebra to set up an expression to solve for the charge on Cr for each compound:
 Let x = charge on Cr in CrCl3.
 (1)x + (3)(-1) = 0 OR x + (3)(-1) = 0
4) Determine the change of the metal cation
 x + (3)(-1) = 0
 x - 3 = 0 ; x = 3  This is the charge on Cr in CrCl3.

M. FORMULAS OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

 OK, so we know the charges on the cation and anion, respectively… So, how do we write formulas of ionic
compounds in this case?

CHEM: Week 8

I. CHEMICAL FORMULAS
 The subscript to the right of the symbol of an element tells the number of atoms of that element in one molecule of
the compound.
 Molecular compounds are composed of molecules and almost always contain only nonmetals.

II. DIATOMIC MOLECULES

 These seven elements occur naturally as molecules containing two atoms:
 Hydrogen
 Nitrogen
 Oxygen
 Fluorine
 Chlorine
 Bromine
 Iodine

III. IONS
 When an atom of a group of atoms loses or gains electrons, it becomes an ion.
 Cations
 are formed when at least one electron is lost. Monatomic cations are formed by metals.
 Ions with a net positive charge.
 Formed by LOSS of one or more electrons from a neutral atom.
 Anions
 are formed when at least one electron is gained. Monatomic anions are formed by nonmetals.
 Monatomic ions: have only 1 atom
 Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-
 Polyatomic ions: more than 1 atom
 OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-
 The most common ions for silver, zinc, and scandium are Ag+, Zn2+, and Sc3+. Locate the boxes in which you
would place these ions in this table.
Ag+ Zn2+ Sc3+
a. 2B 3B 4B
b. 1B 2B 3B
c. 1B 3B 2B
d. 4B 3B 2B
LESSON 4
 I. INORGANIC NOMENCLATURE
 Write the name of the cation. If the cation can have more than one possible charge, write the charge as a Roman
numeral in parentheses.
 If the anion is an element, change its ending to -ide; if the anion is a polyatomic ion, simply write the name of the
polyatomic ion.

II. PATTERNS IN OXYANION NOMENCLATURE

 When there are two oxyanions involving the same element
 the one with fewer oxygens ends in -ite.
 the one with more oxygens ends in -ate.
 NO2− : nitrite; NO3− : nitrate
 SO32− : sulfite; SO42− : sulfate
 Central atoms on the second row have a bond to, at most, three oxygens; those on the third row take up to four.
 Charges increase as you go from right to left.

 The one with the second fewest oxygens ends in -ite: ClO2− is chlorite.
 The one with the second most oxygens ends in -ate: ClO3− is chlorate.
 The one with the fewest oxygens has the prefix hypo- and ends in -ite: ClO− is hypochlorite.
 The one with the most oxygens has the prefix per- and ends in -ate: ClO4− is perchlorate.

 Name the anion obtained by removing one oxygen atom from the perbromate ion, BrO 4–.

a. Hypobromite ion

b. Bromite ion

c. Bromate ion

d. Bromine ion

III. ACID NOMENCLATURE

 If the anion in the acid ends in -ide, change the ending to -ic acid and add the prefix hydro-.
 HCl: hydrochloric acid
 HBr: hydrobromic acid
 HI: hydroiodic acid
 If the anion ends in -ite, change the ending to -ous acid.
 HClO: hypochlorous acid
  HClO2: chlorous acid
 If the anion ends in -ate, change the ending to -ic acid.
 HClO3: chloric acid
 HClO4: perchloric acid

IV. NOMENCLATURE OF BINARY MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

 The name of the element farther to the left in the periodic table (closer to the metals) or lower in the same group is
usually written first.
 A prefix is used to denote the number of atoms of each element in the compound (mono- is not used on the first
element listed, however).

 The ending on the second element is changed to -ide.

 If the prefix ends with a or o and the name of the element begins with a vowel, the two successive vowels are
often elided into one.
 Organic chemistry is the study of carbon.
 Organic chemistry has its own system of nomenclature.
 The simplest hydrocarbons (compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen) are alkanes.
 The first part of the names just listed correspond to the number of carbons (meth- = 1, eth- = 2, prop- = 3, etc.).
 When a hydrogen in an alkane is replaced with something else (a functional group, like -OH in the compounds
above), the name is derived from the name of the alkane.
 The ending denotes the type of compound.
 An alcohol ends in -ol.
REVIEW QUESTIONS

1) The nucleus of an atom contains

a) protons and neutrons.
b) protons and electrons.
c) electrons and neutrons.
d) protons, neutrons, and electrons
2) Two atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers are called
a) mutants.
b) isomers.
c) isotopes.
d) symbiots.
3) Select the incorrect statement about the mass and volume of an atom.
a) The mass is determined mostly by the protons and neutrons.
b) The volume is mostly empty space.
c) The mass is concentrated in the nucleus.
d) The volume is determined by the arrangement of the protons.
4) For an atom of fluorine, the atomic number is ___ and the average atomic mass is ___.
a) 9; 18.988 amu
b) 18.998; 9 amu
c) 10; 19 g
d) 9; 9 g
5) Atomic weights on the periodic table are decimal numbers instead of integers because
a) the number of protons + neutrons determines atomic weight.
b) of the existence of isotopes.
c) of the very small mass of electrons compared to protons and neutrons.
d) the number of protons + electrons determines atomic weight.
6) The elements found on the right side of the periodic table tend to ______ electrons.
a) gain
b) lose
c) keep
d) share
7) Metals and nonmetals react to form ________ compounds
a) molecular
b) mixed
c) empirical
d) ionic

8) Positive ions are called

a) positrons.
b) anions.
c) cations.
d) nucleons.
9) Compounds composed only of carbon and hydrogen are called
a) binary acids.
b) carbohydrates.
c) hydrocarbons.
d) alkanes.
10) The elements located in Group VIIA (Group 17) on the periodic table are called
a) alkali metals.
 b) noble gases.
c) chalcogens.
d) halogens.
11) Which of the formulas below does not represent a compound that actually exists?
a) CaCO3
b) H2O2
c) KMnO4
d) Na2PO3
12) Which name is incorrectly paired with the formula?
a) hydroxide ion; OH–
b) barium(II) chloride; BaCl2
c) ammonia; NH3
d) sulfur dioxide; SO2
13) Acids produce _____ ions.
a) OH–1
b) OH+1
c) H+1
d) H–1
14) NaOCl is named
a) sodium chlorate.
b) sodium chlorite.
c) sodium perchlorate.
d) sodium hypochlorite.
15) LiNO3 is named
a) lithium nitrate.
b) lanthanum nitrate.
c) lanthanum nitrite.
d) lithium nitrite.
16) The formula for aluminum carbonate is
a) Al2(CO3)3.
b) AlCO3.
c) Al2C3.
d) Al3(CO3)2.
17) Fe2O3 is named
a) diiron trioxide.
b) iron(III) oxide.
c) ferrous oxide.
d) ironic oxide.
18) Which acid is not an oxyacid?
a) hydrochloric acid
b) nitric acid
c) sulfurous acid
d) acetic acid

19) HIO4 is named

a) iodic acid.
b) iodous acid.
c) periodic acid.
d) hydrogen iodate.
20) Cl2O7 is named
a) chlorine(VII) oxide.
b) dichlorine hexaoxide.
c) dichlorine heptaoxide.
d) bichlorine heptaoxide.
21) C3H8 is named
a) ethane.
b) propane.
c) propanol.
d) pentane.