What is a bacteria?

A bacteria is…

• Bacteria are small living organisms found almost everywhere on the earth.

• Bacteria are prokaryotes which are typically unicellular.

• Average bacteria 0.5 - 2.0 um in diameter.

• Branch of biology that deals with the study of bacteria is bacteriology.

PROPERTIES OF BACTERIA

• prokaryotic (no membrane-enclosed nucleus)

• no mitochondria or chloroplasts

• a single chromosome

• ribosomes differ in their structure from those of eukaryotes

• have a rigid cell wall made of peptidoglycan.

Bacteria are classified into two kingdoms and these are;

• ARCHAEBACTERIA

• EUBACTERIA

ARCHAEBACTERIA

• These are prokaryotic cells that live in hazardous environment.

• Archaebacteria can live without oxygen, and obtain their energy from inorganic compounds (chemoautotroph).

• Archaebacteria differ from Eubacteria in the absence of peptidoglycan in their cell wall, these bacteria have been said to be more
similar to the eukaryotes in some aspects.

• Archaebacteria can survive and thrive in “harsh” environments.

• Examples of archaebacteria include : methane-producting bacteria in cows stomachs (methanogens), salt-loving bacteria
(halophiles), live in very cold environment (cryophiles) and heat and acid loving bacteria which thrive in hot springs
(thermoacidophiles).

EUBACTERIA

• These are true bacteria.

• These are prokaryotes that can be found everywhere; in air, land, water, even in the body of living organisms.

• These are prokaryotes that posses peptidoglycan in their cell wall.

BACTERIA STRUCTURE

• Bacterial structure can be divided into three major component and these are;

 CELL ENVELOPE

 CYTOPLASM

 APPENDAGES

CELL ENVELOPE

• It is the part of the bacterium that covers the entire body of the organism.

• It include parts such as;

 GLYCOCALYX

 CELL WALL

 PLASMA MEMBRANE

GLYCOCALYX

• It is the gel coating found outside the cell wall of a bacterium.

• It can either be diffuse (slime mold) or compact (capsule)

• Adhere bacteria to surface, example S. mutans and enamel of teeth.

• Also prevents phagocytosis.

CELL WALL

• Bacteria under the kingdom eubacteria posses a cell that contain a sugar polymer called peptidoglycan.

• The cell wall also provide shape and support for the bacterium.

• Prevents osmotic rupture.

 • 20-40% composition of a bacterium.

• Part of the bacterium that is directly affected by antibiotics.

PLASMA MEMBRANE

• A lipid bilayer that controls the movement of substances that may enter the cell both internally and externally.

• Made of phospholipids.

CYTOPLASM

• The clear portion of the cell that contains certain component needed by the cell for its reproduction, metabolism and many more.

• It includes structures such as;

 THYLAKOIDS (cyanobacteria)

 NUCLEIOD

 PLASMID

 RIBOSOMES

THYLAKOID

• It is a structure used for photosynthesis.

• Usually it is only found in one group of bacteria that undergo photosynthesis (cyanobacteria).

NUCLEIOD

• It is a circular bacterial chromosome.

• Contains the DNA of the bacterium.

PLASMID

• It is a small DNA molecule that is physically separate from, and can replicate independently of, chromosomal DNA within a cell.

• Plasmids carry genes that may benefit survival of the organism (e.g. antibiotic resistance).

• Used by bacteria in gene transferring (conjugation) that enables the bacteria to become resistant to certain drugs like antibiotics.

RIBOSOMES

• Used for the production of bacterial proteins.

APPENDAGES

• These are cellular extensions found in bacteria.

• Some of these structures are present in some bacteria while it is not found in some bacterium.

• It include structures such as;

 FLAGELLA

 SEX PILI

 FIMBRAE

FLAGELLA

• Whip like structure used by bacteria for their movement.

• Arrangement of flagella can be a basis for bacterial classification;

• Monotrichous; 1 flagella

• Lophotrichous; tuft at one end

• Amphitrichous; both ends

• Peritrichous; all around bacteria

SEX PILI

• This is a bacterial appendage that is used for bacterial DNA transfer or conjugation.

• Also used in buoyancy (flotation) of the bacterium.

FIMBRAE

• Hair like projection of the bacterial cell allowing the adherence of the bacterium in surfaces.

SHAPE OF BACTERIA

• COCCUS

• BACILLI

• VIBRIO

• SPIRILLA
COCCUS – Streptococcus pyogenes

BACILLI – EX. Lacto bacilli

VIBRIO – EX. Vibrio cholerae

SPIRILLA – EX. Treponema pallidum

SPORE FORMATION

• Endospore formation is usually triggered by a lack of nutrients. 

• Endospores enable bacteria to lay dormant for extended periods, even centuries, when the environment becomes more favorable,
the endospore can reactivate itself to the vegetative state. 

• Endospores can survive without nutrients.

• Endospores are resistant to ultraviolet radiation, desiccation, high temperature, extreme freezing and chemical disinfectants.

• Common anti-bacterial agents that work by destroying vegetative cell walls do not affect endospores.

• Endospores are commonly found in soil and water, where they may survive for long periods of time.

BACTERIAL REPRODUCTION

• Bacteria reproduce via asexual reproduction in which they do not require gametes to reproduce.

• There are so many ways on how a bacteria reproduce and these are:

• BINARY FISSION

 CONJUGATION

BINARY FISSION

• The most common type of reproduction a bacterium take place is binary fission.

• Binary fission is a process in which a parent bacterium splits into two, reproducing two genetically identical daughter cell the same
as its parent cell.

CONJUGATION

• It is process by which a bacterium transfer a piece of its DNA (usually plasmid DNA) to another bacterium.

• In this process a sex pili is used for transferring its DNA to another bacterium.

• By passing certain DNA to another bacterium it ensures the survival of that bacteria making them resistant to certain antibiotics.

BACTERIAL POPULATION GROWTH CURVE

• LAG PHASE

• EXPONENTIAL PHASE

• STATIONARY PHASE

• DEATH PHASE

LAG PHASE

• There is no increase in cell numbers, although the bacteria are synthesizing enzymes present in their environment in preparation
for the exponential phase.

EXPONENTIAL PHASE

• Also known as logarithmic phase.

• The bacterial population grows at a rate that doubles the population during the generation time.

STATIONARY PHASE

• There is no increase nor a decrease in the cell population.

• The population growth cannot continue at the exponential rate since the nutrient supplies have been depleted and waste products
have accumulated.

DEATH PHASE

• Stage where more cells die than are replaced by new cells.

ECOLOGY OF BACTERIA

CONTROLLING BACTERIAL GROWTH

PHYSICAL METHOD

• HEAT

• COLD

• DESSICATION
 • RADIATION

• FILTRATION

HEAT

• Process of introducing high temperature, resulting to the denaturation of proteins and leading to the destruction of the bacterium.

DRY HEAT

DIRECT FLAME – process of sterilization that involves placing the tip of the instrument to a flame for several seconds.

OVEN – often used as sterilization of metals, glassware's, and some substances (oil or powder), achieve for several hours.

INCINERATION – involve subjecting materials to very high temperature that destroys contaminants (decontamination), used in hospitals to
destroy disposable materials that have been used.

MOIST HEAT

BOILING – common method of sterilization practiced at home, most vegetative forms of pathogens are destroyed by boiling.

AUTOCLAVE – equipment that combines heat with pressure, used to kill endospores that may survive in boiling process.

COLD

• Also known as freezing method.

• This method does not kill microorganism.

• It slows down bacterial growth

DESSICATION

• A method where moisture is taken away so that microorganisms will dry up and stop growing.

• Useful in preserving food and in storing items.

• Endospores may survive using this process.

RADIATION

• Process of killing microorganism by exposing it to UV light and other ionizing radiation.

• Used in hospitals and laboratories in sterilizing the laboratory or room.

FILTRATION

• A process of separating microorganisms in liquid or gasses.

• It depends on the size of the pores of the filter.

• Used in filtering commercially available drinking water.

CHEMICAL METHOD

• DISINFECTANTS

• ANTISEPTICS

• BACTERICIDES

DISINFECTANTS

• Substances that kill growing forms of microorganism but not the resistant spore form.

• Ex. HCl and Lysol.

ANTISEPTICS

• Substances that prevent the growth or action of microorganisms.

• Usually applied in the body.

• Ex. Isopropyl alcohol solution and iodine solution.

BACTERICIDES

• Agents that kill bacteria.

• Bacteriostatic agents inhibits bacterial growth.

FUNGI

The Characteristics of Fungi

 Fungi are NOT plants

 Nonphotosynthetic

 Eukaryotes

 Nonmotile

 Most are saprobes (live on dead organisms)

 The Characteristics of Fungi

 Absorptive heterotrophs (digest food first & then absorb it into their bodies

 Release digestive enzymes to break down organic material or their host

 Store food energy as glycogen

The Characteristics of Fungi

 Important decomposers & recyclers of nutrients in the environment

 Most are multicellular, except unicellular yeast

 Lack true roots, stems or leaves

 fungi as decomposers

 Cell walls are made of chitin (complex polysaccharide)

 Body is called the Thallus

 Grow as microscopic tubes or filaments called hyphae

 The Characteristics of Fungi

 Some are edible, while others are poisonous

 Produce both sexual and asexual spores

 Classified by their sexual reproductive structures

 Grow best in warm, moist environments

 Mycology is the study of fungi

 Mycologists study fungi

 A fungicide is a chemical used to kill fungi

 Fungi include puffballs, yeasts, mushrooms, toadstools, rusts, smuts, ringworm, and molds

 The antibiotic penicillin is made by the Penicillium mold

 FUNGI SIZE

 Vegetative Structures

Hyphae

 Tubular shape

 ONE continuous cell

 Filled with cytoplasm & nuclei

 Multinucleate

 Hard cell wall of chitin also in insect exoskeletons

 Stolons – horizontal hyphae that connect groups of hyphae to each other

 Rhizoids – rootlike parts of hyphae that anchor the fungus

 ASEXUAL & SEXUAL SPORES

 REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES

 Most fungi reproduce Asexually and Sexually by spores

 ASEXUAL reproduction is most common method & produces genetically identical organisms

 Fungi reproduce SEXUALLY when conditions are poor & nutrients scarce

 Spores

 Spores are an adaptation to life on land

 Ensure that the species will disperse to new locations

 Each spore contains a reproductive cell that forms a new organism

 Nonmotile

 Dispersed by wind

 Hyphal growth from spore

 Mycelia have a huge surface area

 More surface area aids digestion & absorption of food

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
  Used when environmental conditions are poor (lack of nutrients, space, moisture…)

 No male or female fungi

 Some fungi show dimorphism

 Haploid 1n hyphae from 2 mating types (+ and -) FUSE (Fertilization)

 Forms a hyphae with 2 nuclei that becomes a ZYGOTE

 The zygote divides to make a SPORE

 Three types of Asexual Reproduction

 Fragmentation – part of the mycelium becomes separated & begins a life of its own

 Budding – a small cell forms & gets pinched off as it grows to full size

 Asexual spores – production of spores by a single mycelium

 Fruiting Bodies are modified hyphae that make asexual spores

 An upright stalk called the Sporangiosphore supports the spore case or Sporangium

 Classification by Nutrition

 Saprobes

o Decomposers

o Molds, mushrooms, etc.

 Parasites

o Harm host

o Rusts and smuts (attack plants)

 Mutualists

o Both benefit

o Lichens

o Mycorrhizas

PROTOZOA

WHAT IS A PROTOZOA?

Protozoa are…

Diverse group of single-cell eukaryotic organisms,

Many are motile.

Kingdom Protista.

They are so called animal like protist, because of their capability to move using various motile cellular extensions such as flagella, cilia, and
pseudopods.

It was first discovered by Anton van Leeuwenhoek using his primitive microscope.

Majority of protozoan are free-living and are found in almost every habitat on land and in water.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A PROTOZOA

SIZE AND SHAPE

Protozoans range usually from 10 to 52 micrometers, but can grow as large as 1 mm, and are seen easily by microscope

Smaller species may be the size of fungal cells; larger species may be visible to the unaided eye.

Protozoa cells have no cell walls and therefore can assume an infinite variety of shapes, some genera have cells surrounded by hard shells,
while the cells of other genera are enclosed only in a cell membrane.

Most protozoa have a single nucleus, but some have both a macronucleus and one or more micronuclei.

Contractile vacuoles may be present in protozoa to remove excess water, and food vacuoles are often observed.

MOTILITY AND DIGESTION

They move around with whip-like tails called flagella, hair-like structures called cilia, or foot-like structures called pseudopodia, while others do
not move at all.

Protozoa may absorb food via their cell membranes, some like the  amoebas, surround food and engulf it, and yet others have openings or
"mouth pores" into which they sweep food. 

All protozoa digest their food in stomach-like compartments called vacuoles.

STRUCTURE OF A PROTOZOA
PELLICLE

Flexible cell covering found on some protozoa.

The pellicle serves as an osmotic shield.

SHELLS

Some protozoa have shells.

Shells can consist of calcium carbonate as well as silicon.

ECTOPLASM

Clear outer layer of the protozoan.

The ectoplasm contains the organelles associated with feeding, locomotion, and protection.

ENDOPLASM

Found within the protozoan cell.

It has a granular appearance and houses the nucleus, mitochondria, and various food and contractile vacuoles.

NUCLEUS

Usually one nucleus is present, but some possess more than one nucleus in different stages of development of a protozoa.

CYTOPLASM

Just like other eukaryotes it posses cytoplasmic components such us cytoskeleton, food vacuoles and many more.

CELLULAR EXTENSION

It enable the protozoan to move, it include structures such as cilia, flagella, and pseudopods.

REPRODUCTION OF PROTOZOA

Reproduction of protozoan may be either asexual or sexual.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION OF PROTOZOA

BINARY FISSION

The process in which a parent cell split into two genetically identical daughter cell.

BUDDING

It is a form of an asexual reproduction that forms new individuals by forming buds in the parent cell.

The buds will be a new individual.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PROTOZOA

CONJUGATION

A form of sexual reproduction that occur in ciliates.

Two organisms pair and exchange genetic material, this process promote nuclear organization.

CLASSIFICATION OF PROTOZOA

Protozoa have been divided traditionally on the basis of their means of locomotion:

Phylum Zoomastigophora: Flagellates (e.g., Giardia lamblia)

Phylum Rhizopoda: Amoeboids (e.g., Entamoeba histolytica)

Phylum Sporozoa: Sporozoans (e.g., Plasmodium knowlesi)

Phylum Ciliophora: Ciliates (e.g., Balantidium coli)

Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction

Sexual Reproduction

1. 2 parents

2. Sex cells: sperm and egg

3. Sperm and egg join= fertilization

4. Offspring look different from parent (mixed DNA)

Sexual Reproduction

Sexual Reproduction

5. Examples

Humans, some plants, mammals, fish, reptiles, etc.

Asexual Reproduction
1. One parent

2. No sex cells

3. Offspring produced by cell division

4. Offspring identical to parent (same DNA)

5. Several types in plants and animals

Types of Asexual Reproduction

Binary Fission

1. Organism divides in half

2. 2 identical daughter cells produced

3. Daughter cells are half the parent’s size

4. Daughter cells grow, then divide too

5. In bacteria

Budding

1. Small bud grows out of parent cell

2. Two different sized cells made (with identical DNA)

3. Bud breaks off and grows

4. In yeast and hydra

Regeneration

1. Repair/ grow lost body parts

2. Left over cells divide to make more cells

3. Lobsters, starfish, lizards

Species Diversity

A. INTERACTIONS BETWEEN AND AMONG SPECIES.

Intraspecific competition is competition involving organisms of different species.

Examples of intraspecific competition are territorial competition, competition for food

1. TROPHIC LEVEL

The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain.

A food chain represents a succession of organisms that eat another organism and are, in turn, eaten themselves. The number of steps an
organism is from the start of the chain is a measure of its trophic level

Trophic levels can be represented by numbers, starting at level 1 with plants. Further trophic levels are numbered subsequently according to
how far the organism is along the food chain.

Level 1: primary producers.

Level 2: primary consumers.

Level 3: secondary consumers.

Level 4: tertiary consumers.

Level 5: Decomposers

2. OPTIMAL FORAGING
THEORY

 Is a theory that helps predict how an animal behaves when it's searching for food. Although obtaining food provides the animal with energy,
searching for and capturing the food require both energy and time.

3. TYPES OF HERBIVORES

 HERBIVORE is an animal that derives energy and nutrients by feeding on plants. Different types of herbivores eat different plant parts:

FOLIVORES

TERRESTRIAL HERBIVORE (Grazers)

Grazers are typically not too choosy and eat all parts of leaves. Many grazers have mutualistic relationship with microbes that help them digest
cellulose found in leaves.
FOLIVORES

B. MARINE HERBIVORES

Large animals such as manatees, dugongs, and green turtles feed on vascular "sea grasses" that grow in shallow waters near the coast.

GRANIVORES

Because eating a seed kills a potential plant, granivores are considered to be seed predators.

FRUGIVORES

Frugivores can either act as seed predators that digest seeds while eating the fruit or form mutualistic relationships with plants because they
disperse seeds while, or after, consuming the fruit.

NECTARIVORES

Many nectarivores form mutualistic relationships with plants because they carry pollen from flower to flower so that pollination can occur.
Other nectarivores only feed on nectar without transferring pollen and are therefore

known as nectar robbers.

Predation is a relationship where one organism captures and consumes another.

Predator – organism doing the capturing

Prey – organism being captured

A. STAYING OUT OF SIGHT

Animals may avoid becoming prey by living out of sight of predators, whether in caves, underground, or by being nocturnal.

B. CAMOUFLAGE

Camouflage uses any combination of materials, coloration, or illumination for concealment to make the organism hard to detect by sight.
C. STARTLING THE PREDATOR

Many animals, including moths, butterflies, and mantises make use of patterns of threatening or startling behaviour, such as suddenly
displaying conspicuous eyespots, so as to scare off or momentarily distract a predator, thus giving the prey animal an opportunity to escape.

D. PLAYING DEAD

Thanatosis or playing dead is a form of bluff in which an animal mimics its own dead body, feigning death to avoid being attacked by predators
seeking live prey.

E. DISTRACTION

Marine mollusks such as , cuttlefish, squid and octopuses give themselves a last chance to escape by distracting their attackers. To do this,
they eject a mixture of chemicals, which may mimic food or otherwise confuse predators

F. MIMICRY

Mimicry occurs when an organism (the mimic) simulates signal properties of another organism (the model) to confuse a third living organism.
This results in the mimic gaining protection, food, and mating advantages.

G. DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES

A spine is a sharp, needle-like structure used to inflict pain on predators.

H. GROUP LIVING

Individuals living in large groups may be safer from attack because the predator may be confused by the large group size. As the group moves,
the predator has greater difficulty targeting an individual prey animal.

1. PARASITISM

symbiotic relationship where one organism is harmed while the other one is benefited.

Parasite feeds on the host organism.

Unlike predation, it does not result in the immediate death of the host

2 TYPES OF PARASITES

ECTOPARASITES

External parasites – live on the outside of the host

Ex: ticks, fleas, mosquitoes

ENDOPARASITES

Internal parasites – live inside the host’s body

2. COMMENSALISM

Benefits one organism and the other organism is neither benefited nor harmed. It occurs when one organism takes benefits by interacting with
another organism by which the host organism is not affected.

EXAMPLE: WHALES AND BARNACLES

Barnacles have the benefit of moving through waters attached to the whale

The whale receives no benefit,but is not harmed either

EXAMPLE: REMORA AND SHARK

A good example is a remora living with a shark. Remoras eat leftover food from the shark. The shark is not affected in the process, as remoras
eat only leftover food of the shark, which does not deplete the shark's resources.

COMPETITION

the use of the same limited resource by two or more species in the same place at the same time

MUTUALISM

Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship where both organisms are benefited in some way.

Mutualism is also referred as ' symbiosis' (sym-together; bios-life) or 'symbiotic interaction' and the partners are referred as 'symbionts'.

Ex: *Plants and their pollinators

Pollinators feed on the plants and pollen gets stuck to them.

Pollen is deposited on the next plant, allowing the plants to reproduce sexually.

Pollination illustrates mutualism between flowering plants and their animal pollinators.

Mutualism between bacteria and plant species

Trophic Levels

Energy Transfer

Each time an organisms eats another organisms, energy transfer occurs.

Food chains, food webs, and trophic levels tell us how energy transfer occurs.

Each step in the chains or webs represent the transfer of energy.

Each time energy is transferred from one level to another, some energy is lost as heat and less energy is available for organisms at the next
level.

Producer

Makes it’s own food through photosynthesis.

Example: grasses, ferns, trees, algae

Herbivore

Energy comes from producers.

Example: cow, sheep, deer, grasshoppers

Carnivore

Get energy from other consumers.

Example: lions, hawks, spiders, sharks, whales

Omnivore

Get energy from both producers and consumers

Example: bears, pigs, gorillas, rats, cockroaches, humans

Decomposer

Breaks down dead organisms in an ecosystem and returns nutrients to soil, water, and air.

Examples: fungi and bacteria

Food Chains

Food chain: sequence in which energy is transferred from one organism to another.

Food Webs

Show many feeding relationships that are possible in an ecosystem.

An ecosystem is a very complex entity with many interactive components. It can be defined as "a system of complex interactions of
populations between themselves and with their environment"

Abiotic factor -The structural components of nonliving arena

Biotic Factor - the biotic/living components of the ecosystem can be classified as flora and fauna based on their structure and other features.

Primary consumers are herbivores, which feed on plant material.The amount they consumed are commonly referred to as the consumption
rate. Based on these the ecosystem can be grouped as high rated, low rated.Primary consumers can be grazers or browsers.

Secondary consumer -Heterotrophic animals which feed on herbivorous organisms or primary consumers are termed as the secondary
consumers.These animals therefore carnivrous.
Tertiary Consumer- These are carnivorous heterotrophs that feed on other carnivorous animals.Top carnivorous are few in number.Most birds
of pray and cats fit this category.

Decomposers feed on dead meterial,and that is first broken down before being absorbed.The detritivores ,plays the initial role of breaking up
large bodies in to small particles. Decomposers are mainly fungi and bacteria