Glossary of Terms for Applied Failure Analysis

A
Abnormal stress raiser - stress raisers that arise from material problems, processing
problems such as shrink in a casting, heat treat quench cracks, improperly machined
features and abuse like scratches or gouges

Abrasion - The process of grinding or wearing away through the use of abrasives; a
roughening or scratching of a surface due to abrasive wear.

Abrasive wear - The removal of material from a surface when hard particles slide or roll
across the surface under pressure. The particles may be loose or may be part of
another surface in contact with the surface being abraded.

Acid - any of various typically water-soluble and sour compounds that in solution are
capable of reacting with a base to form a salt, redden litmus, and have a pH less than 7

Acid etching - the process of applying an acid to the surface of a metal to reveal some
characteristic of the metal such as its microstructure, grain flow, hardened depth, etc.

Addendum - That portion of a gear tooth between the pitch line and the tip of the tooth.

Adhesive wear - The removal or displacement of material from a surface by the

welding together and subsequent shearing of minute areas of two surfaces that slide
across each other under pressure.

Aeration - to supply or mix a liquid with air

Alloy - a substance having metallic properties and composed of two or more chemical
elements of which at least one is a metal.

Alloying elements - chemical elements constituting an alloy; usually limited to

elements added to modify the properties of the base metal.

Alloy steel - An iron-based mixture is considered to be an alloy steel when manganese

is greater than 1.65%, silicon over 0.5%, copper above 0.6%, or other minimum quantity
of alloying elements such as chromium, nickel, molybdenum, or tungsten.

1
Angled lighting - highlighting peaks and valleys on a surface by lighting the surface
with the light at an angle other than perpendicular to the surface, or tilting the surface
under a fixed light source

Annealing - heat treatment process that is used to soften a metal and consists of
heating a component to a suitable temperature, holding at temperature, and cooling at a
suitable rate.

Anode - The electrode of an electrolytic cell at which oxidation occurs.

Applied Failure Analysis - the thoughtful review of product and environmental facts
which leads to identification of the root cause of a product problem

Asperity - a tiny projection from a surface

Atmosphere - the gaseous envelope surrounding a part

Atom - smallest building block of matter that can exist alone or in combination and
cannot be divided without changing its basic character

Austenite - An elevated-temperature parent phase in ferrous metals from which all

other low-temperature structures are derived.

Austenitic stainless steel - steel which, because of the presence of alloying elements,
such as manganese, nickel, chromium, etc., shows stability of Austenite at normal tem-
peratures.

Austenitizing - process of heating a steel to a temperature above the upper critical

temperature to produce a microstructure of austenite

Axial - Longitudinal, or parallel to the axis or centerline of a part. Usually refers to axial
tension or compression.

Axial fatigue fracture - a type of fatigue fracture where a load that is applied axially,
that is in line with one of the primary axes of a part, results in failure of a part by fatigue;
for example, a shaft that fails due to a tensile load.

Axial load - a load on a part in the direction of its major axis

B
Background facts - facts gathered during a failure analysis other than those obtained
directly from the failed parts

2
Bar - Long steel products that are rolled from billets. Merchant bar and reinforcing bar
(rebar) are two common categories of bars, where merchants include rounds, flats,
angles, squares, and channels that are used by fabricators to manufacture a wide
variety of products such as furniture, stair railings and farm equipment. Rebar is used to
strengthen concrete in highways, bridges and buildings

Base metal - region of metal that is joined by the welding process and is not metallurgi-
cally altered by the heat of welding.

BCC - see Body Centered Cubic

Beach marks - marks that develop on the fracture face of a fatigue fracture as a result
of significant changes in the applied load. Beach marks show the location of the crack
tip at some time during the failure.

Bending - to turn or force from straight into a curved shape

Bending fatigue fracture - fatigue fracture of a part resulting from the application of a
bending load

Bending load - a load that results in the flexure of a body creating tensile stress on the
side being stretched apart and compressive stress on the side being squeezed together

Bimetallic - composed of two different metals -- often used of devices having a part in
which two metals that expand differently are bonded together

Binder - something that produces or promotes cohesion in loosely assembled

substances such as sand used to make molds for castings

Black acid etching - a type of corrosion resulting from the prolonged presence of an
electrolyte in a bearing lubricant characterized by black stains and pitting on the affected
surface.

Black oxide scale - oxidation product that can form on the outside of a ferrous part
when it is exposed to oxygen at high temperatures

Blast furnace - in ferrous metallurgy, a shaft furnace supplied with a hot air blast and
used for producing pig iron by smelting iron ore in a continuous operation.

Blow by - leakage of combustion gases between a piston and the cylinder wall into the
crankcase of an engine

Body centered cubic - one of 14 types of unit cells that are possible in crystalline
materials. Some metals with a BCC structure are chromium, tungsten and molybdenum

3
Body centered tetragonal - one of 14 types of unit cells that are possible in crystalline
materials; in steel, martensite has this structure

Bond layer - a layer of metal that facilitates bonding between two otherwise incompati-
ble metal layers such as a copper layer between the LTO and aluminum in an engine
bearing.

Bond separation - separation between two metal layers, such as the aluminum and
steel layers in an engine bearing, due to a manufacturing process error.

Brass - an alloy consisting essentially of copper and zinc in variable proportions

Brinelling - Brinelling is a wear term used to describe surface damage of solids by

repeated local impact or by static overload. The term probably comes from a hardness
testing procedure such as the Brinell hardness test which indents the surface being
checked.

Brinell hardness number - a number related to the applied load and to the surface
area of the permanent impression made by a ball indenter of a specified diameter.

Brittle - permitting little or no plastic (permanent) deformation prior to fracture

Brittle fracture -separation of a solid accompanied by little or no macroscopic plastic

deformation. Typically, brittle fracture occurs by rapid crack propagation with less
expenditure of energy than for ductile fracture.

Brittle material - a metal or material that fractures without undergoing appreciable

plastic deformation.

Bronze - an alloy of copper and tin and sometimes other elements, or any of various
copper-base alloys with little or no tin

Buckle - to cause to bend, give way, or crumple

Bull’s eye -

Burned forging - a steel forging that has been heated to above its correct forging tem-
perature range and, as a result, has internal damage that makes it unfit for use.

Burned valve - an engine valve that has been exposed to excessively high temperature
that has damaged its sealing surface.

C
4
Cam ring ripple - a type of wear on the inner surface of a vane pump cam ring that
results in alternating high and low areas. Also called a “chopped” surface.

Carbon - a nonmetallic element found native (as in the diamond and graphite) or as a
constituent of coal, petroleum, and asphalt, of limestone and other carbonates , and of
organic compounds or obtained artificially in varying degrees of purity especially as
carbon black, lampblack, activated carbon, charcoal, and coke

Carbon cutting - damage to the crown of some pistons from carbon deposits on the
cylinder liner surface above the top piston ring

Carbonitriding - case-hardening process for carbon steels and alloy steels that
consists of holding them above the upper critical temperature to simultaneously absorb
carbon and nitrogen

Carbon steel - alloy of iron with carbon, manganese, and silicon, specifically containing
up to 1.6% manganese and 0.6% silicon, plus smaller amounts of sulfur and phospho-
rus.

Carburizing - Case hardening process for low carbon steels that uses an environment
with sufficient carbon potential and a temperature above the upper critical temperature.

Carburizing temperature - the temperature at which carburizing heat treatment is

carried out.

Case - hardened surface layer on a part that results from a surface hardening heat
treatment. The case is usually formed by diffusion of other atoms - such as carbon or
nitrogen - into the metal, but may also be formed by localized heat treating of the
surface, as by flame or induction hardening.

Case crushing - A type of fatigue cracking that originates below a hardened case, in
the core region. Large pieces of metal may be removed from the surface because of
very high compressive stresses, usually found on gear teeth. Sometimes called spalling
fatigue.

Case depth - generally, the depth to a particular hardness value on a part that has been
heat treated by case hardening.

Case hardening -a group of heat treatment processes that develop a thin, hard surface
layer on a component and leave the core relatively soft, strong and tough.

Cast, casting - process of pouring molten metal into a prepared mold cavity of a
desired shape and allowing the metal to solidify

5
Cast iron - a generic term for a family of high carbon-silicon-iron casting alloys

Cast iron ring band - a cast iron ring that is cast into one piece aluminum pistons to
provide sufficient strength and wear resistance to support the piston rings.

Cast metal - metal that has been formed into a desired shape by a casting process.

Cathode - the electrode of an electrochemical cell at which reduction occurs

Cavitation - The formation and rapid collapse within a liquid of cavities or bubbles that
contain vapor or gas or both.

Cavitation erosion - The degradation of a solid body resulting from its exposure to cav-
itation. This may include loss of material, surface deformation, or changes in properties
or appearance.

Centerline cracking - cracks that occur in weld metal during solidification specifically in
the mushy zone, where both solid and liquid trail the weld pool. They normally are found
at the grain boundaries, and they start and grow along the weld centerline. Centerline
cracking is sensitive to alloy composition and the weld thermal cycle.

Centrifugal force - the force that tends to impel a thing or parts of a thing outward from
a center of rotation

Channeling - grooves cut into the sealing area of an engine valve due to the leakage or
passage of hot gasses

Chaplet - metal supports or spacers used in molds to maintain cores, or parts of the
mold which are not self-supporting in their proper position during the casting process.
Chaplets become a permanent part of the casting.

Chemical properties - characteristic response of a metal in a chemical environment.

Chevrons - ridges or steps on a brittle fracture surface that converge on the fracture
initiation site

“Chomp marks” - expression used to describe marks made by a connecting rod cap
on the back of an engine bearing as it escapes from the bore during a failure.

Chopped cam ring - see Rippled Cam Ring

Chordal fracture - Fracture of an engine valve head between any two points on the
circumference except the diameter.

6
Clamping force - compressive force generated on parts held together by a bolt or
threaded fastener as the fastener is tightened.

Cleavage - 1. fracture of a crystal by crack propagation across a crystallographic plane

of low index. 2. the tendency to cleave or split along definite crystallographic planes.

Cleavage fracture - a fracture, usually of a polycrystalline metal, in which most of the

grains have failed by cleavage, resulting in bright reflecting facets. It is one type of
crystalline fracture and is associated with low energy brittle fracture. Contrast with
shear fracture. Also called transgranular fracture.

Cleavage plane - A characteristic crystallographic plane or set of planes in a crystal on

which cleavage fracture can occur easily.

Cleaved - crystal which has fractured by crack propagation along definite

crystallographic planes.

Coarse fatigue - see low cycle fatigue

Coefficient of friction - A dimensionless number representing the ratio of the friction

force to normal force that can vary significantly depending upon the materials tested
and whether a lubricant has been used.

Coefficient of thermal expansion - The increase in a dimension of a metal per unit

dimension per unit degree rise in temperature

Coke - coal from which the volatiles have been driven off by heating in the absence of
air.

Cold forming - any of a number of processes in which a metal is shaped with out prior
heating

Cold heading - Axial compression of the end of a metal cylinder to enlarge the cross
section. Used to form the head on nails and bolts.

Cold working - plastic deformation process performed below the recrystallization

temperature, which leads to work hardening

Cold shut - discontinuity caused when two streams of liquid metal in a solidifying
casting meet but fail to unite.

Columnar strength - resistance to failure by buckling.

Complaint - part of the Problem Statement; that which is not right

7
Compatibility - the ability of two materials to slide against one another under pressure
without exhibiting a tendency to weld together. Non-compatible materials tend to exhibit
galling type wear.

Composite structure - a solid material which is composed of two or more substances

having different physical characteristics and in which each substance retains its identity
while contributing desirable properties to the whole

Compression - pertaining to forces on a body or part of a body that tend to crush, or

compress, the body

Compression load - a force on a body or part of a body that tends to crush, or

compress, the body

Compressive stress - A stress that causes an elastic body to deform (shorten) in the
direction of the applied load.

Compressive surface stress - a compressive stress induced in the surface of a part by

mechanical or thermal processing. Compressive surface stresses are beneficial for
resisting cyclic loading and fatigue fracture.

Concave - hollowed or rounded inward like the inside of a bowl

Contact stress fatigue - Cracking and subsequent break up of a surface subjected to

alternating stresses such as those produced under rolling or sliding contact between
two surfaces. Contact stress fatigue is most often encountered in rolling element
bearings or gears where surface stresses are high due to the concentrated load and
repeated many times during normal operation.

Continuous casting - casting process that consists of pouring molten metal into a bot-
tomless, water-cooled mold of simple cross section and continuously withdrawing
solidified metal from the bottom of the mold.

Convex - curved or rounded like the exterior of a sphere or circle

Core (1) - a preformed sand aggregate inserted into a mold to shape the interior of the
casting or that part of a casting which cannot be shaped by the pattern.

Core (2) - In a case hardened part, the inner portion that is softer than the external
case.

Core molds - See Core.

Core sand - Sand for making cores to which a binding material has been added to
obtain good cohesion and permeability after drying.

8
Corrosion - the chemical or electrochemical reaction between a material, usually a
metal, and its environment that produces a deterioration of the material and its
properties.

Corrosion fatigue - Cracking produced by the combined action of repeated or fluctuat-

ing stress and a corrosive environment at lower stress levels of fewer cycles than would
normally be required in the absence of a corrosive environment.

Crack - a narrow break in the surface or under the surface of a part

Crack arrest lines - see Beach Marks

Crack propagation - movement of a crack through a part due to an applied or residual

stress

Creep (1) - Time dependent strain occurring under stress.

Creep (2) - Gradual change in the shape of a part under constant load.

Critical temperature - temperature in any specific steel composition at which the

austenitic phase change begins or is completed (for a specific rate of heating or cooling)

Crystal - a physically homogeneous solid in which the atoms, ions, or molecules are
arranged in a tridimensional, repetitive pattern

Crystal planes - planes along which atoms are arranged in crystals of metal

Crystalline - having the appearance of grains on a surface

CSF - See Contact Stress Fatigue

Cyclic - something repeated on a regular or irregular basis

Cyclic loading - repeated loading of various magnitudes that parts typically see in
service

Cyclic overload - Repetitive loading at a magnitude greater than the design stress for a
part

D
Damping capacity - rate at which a material dissipates energy of vibration.

Debris - the remains of something broken down or destroyed; often used as a synonym
for particle

9
Deburr - a manufacturing process to remove sharp metal slivers from the edges of a
part

Dedendum - That portion of a gear tooth between the pitch line and the root of the
tooth.

Defect - discontinuity in a part that exhibits a size, shape, orientation, or location that
makes it detrimental to the useful service life of the part.

Deflection - deformation within the elastic ranged caused by a load or force that does
not exceed the elastic limit of the material. Also, temporary deformation as in a spring.

Delayed cracking - see Hydrogen embrittlement

Dendrite - a crystal with a treelike branching pattern. Dendrites are most evident in
cast metals slowly cooled through the solidification range.

Density - mass per unit volume of a material

Depth of field - total depth that an image can be maintained in focus in a microscope

Detonation - rapid combustion in an internal combustion engine that results in knocking

sound

Diamond indenter - a diamond finished to a specific shape that is used in hardness

testing. Typically, a diamond indenter of a specific shape, with a specific force is applied
for a specific time to the test material and them the hardness value is determined by
measuring the depth or area of an indentation left by the indenter.

Direct hardening - see quenching and tempering

Discoloration - an area where the hue or color of a part has changed due to heat or
environmental effects

Dishing - in engine valves, to make the head of the valve concave like a dish

Distortion - change in the shape of a part due to the action of mechanical forces.

Double check question - a question designed to prompt a review of the facts found in
a failure analysis to determine whether there are any other events or root causes that
may have been overlooked

Drawing - (1) shaping steel by pulling it through a die; (2) see also Tempering

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Ductile - permanent plastic deformation prior to eventual fracture.

Ductility - the ability of a material to deform plastically without fracturing

Ductile cast iron - cast iron containing graphite in a spheroidal form and also called
nodular iron, spherulitic iron or S.G. iron

Ductile fracture - fracture characterized by tearing of metal accompanied by

appreciable gross plastic deformation and expenditure of considerable energy.

Ductile material - a material possessing the characteristic of ductility

E
Eddy current testing - electromagnetic nondestructive testing technique for measuring
physical and mechanical parameters of metals.

Eight steps of Applied Failure Analysis - a failure analysis methodology based on

finding facts, determining events and constructing a time line for a failure.

Elastic - able to return immediately to the original size and shape after being stretched
squeezed; having a springy nature.

Elastic deformation - deformation of a part below its elastic limit so that no permanent
strain remains after the load is removed

Elastic limit - The maximum stress a material is capable of sustaining without any
permanent strain (deformation) remaining upon complete release of the stress.

Electric arc furnace - a type of furnace used to melt metal where scrap (or other
ferrous material) is heated by passing an electric current through electrodes that form
an arc with each other or with the metal in the furnace.

Electrical pitting - pits formed on the surface of a part as a result of an electric arc
between two components.

Electrochemical - pertaining to combined electrical and chemical action. Deterioration

(corrosion) of a metal occurs when an electrical current flows between cathodic and
anodic areas on a metal surface.

Electrode - An electrical conductor, usually of metal, that leads current into or out of a
solution (electrolyte).

Electrolyte - liquid, most often a solution, that will conduct an electrical current.

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Electron beam welding - a welding process that uses an electron beam for the heat
source. The electron beam is created when a filament of tungsten or tantalum is heated
to a high temperature. The kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into heat as they
strike the workpiece.

Electroplating - process for depositing a thin layer of metal onto a metallic component
that is made the cathode in an electrical circuit and immersed in a solution containing
ions of the metal to be plated.

EMA - abbreviation for Engine Manufacturer’s Association which represents the engine
manufacturing industry on domestic and international public policy, regulatory, and
technical issues that impact manufacturers of engines used in a broad array of mobile
and stationary applications. EMA sponsors scientific and technical research to improve
engine performance and testing, and works with government regulators and other inter-
ested parties on the development and implementation of regulations, procedures and
programs designed to cost-effectively reduce emissions from internal combustion
engines and to improve the quality of the fuels and lubricants on which they operate.

Embed - to enclose closely in or as if in a matrix such as particles embedded in an

engine bearing surface

Embrittlement - loss of ductility in a metal caused by corrosion or processing.

Endurance limit - a limiting stress below which the metal will withstand, without rupture,
an indefinitely large number of cycles of stress

Erosion - Destruction of materials by the abrasive action of moving fluids, usually accel-
erated by the presence of solid particles carried with the fluid.

Event - something that has happened during a failure as determined from facts found in
a failure analysis

Extrude - To shape (as metal or plastic) by forcing through a die

Extrusion - shaping steel by pushing it through a die

F
45° tensile fracture - a fracture on a 45° plane in a part due to torsional loading

Face centered cubic - one of 14 possible unit cell types, face centered cubic unit cells
contain an atom at each corner and one in the center of each cube face. Examples of

12
FCC metals include: aluminum, nickel, copper, gold and lead.

Fact - something that actually exists and can be agreed upon by all observers

Failure - A general term used to imply that a part or system in service (1) has become
completely inoperable; (2) is still operable but is incapable of satisfactorily performing its
intended function’ or (3) has deteriorated seriously, to the point that it has become unre-
liable or unsafe for continued use.

Failure analysis - thoughtful review of product and environmental facts which leads to
identification of the root cause of a product problem

False Brinelling - Damage to a solid bearing surface characterized by indentations not

caused by plastic deformation, resulting from overload but thought to be due to other
causes such as fretting corrosion.

False ratchet marks - features on a fracture face that have the appearance of ratchet
marks but that actually result from something other than multiple crack initiation in a
fatigue fracture

Fastener - a threaded device to to fix one or more pieces securely together

Fast crack - a fracture that travels rapidly through a part, usually due to a shock load or
an overload

Fatigue - a fracture process wherein a part fails under repeated loading, often a load
levels that are significantly below the load required to fail the part in a single load cycle.

Fatigue crack - a crack in a part that has resulted from a fatigue process

Fatigue fracture - 1. the gradual propagation of a crack across a section due to cyclic
stresses within the elastic limit. 2. any fracture that has any amount of fatigue on it

Fatigue limit - maximum stress that a metal will withstand without failure for a specified
large number of cycles of stress. Usually synonymous with endurance limit.

Fatigue strength - the maximum stress which a material can sustain, for a given
number of stress cycles, without fracture

Fatigue striations - tiny ripples between the beach marks on a fatigue fracture surface
which are the distance the crack grew under each loading cycle

FCC - See Face centered cubic

Fibrous - a term used to describe the appearance of fracture surfaces resembling fibers

13
Fibrous tearing - a type of ductile fracture that can occur when a metal is sufficiently
ductile for the crystals to elongate before fracture occurs

File hardness test - a method for testing the hardness of metals that uses a file to rub
against the surface of the metal and results in degree of bite, which indicates hardness.

Fillet - a concave junction formed where two surfaces meet (as at an angle)

Final fracture - the ending location of a crack, the last of the material to fail

Final fracture area - irregular surface produced when a part undergoing fatigue fracture
is finally broken - it may be a small or large fraction of the overall fracture

Final machining - The last machining processes applied to a part to bring it into confor-
mance with print requirements

Fingernail test - one method for determining whether a fatigue fracture is low cycle or
high cycle which involves dragging a fingernail over a fracture surface to determine
whether it is possible to feel the beach marks on the fracture surface. High cycle fatigue
fractures are much smoother than low cycle fatigue fractures.

Flakes - Short discontinuous internal fissures in ferrous metals attributed to stresses

produced by localized transformation and decreased solubility of hydrogen during
cooling after hot working. On a fracture surface, flakes appear as bright silvery areas.

Flaking - generation of small metal particles from the surface of a part; may be due to
applied loads or interaction with the environment. See also: Spalling

Flame hardening - process of hardening the surface of a part by heating it above the
transformation range with a high-temperature flame followed by rapid cooling.

Flaw - a discontinuity or irregularity in a part which does not necessarily render the part
unsuitable for service, e.g. small centerline shrinkage in a casting

Flowability - the ability of a liquid to flow at reduced temperature

Flow lines - texture in a metal part showing the direction of metal flow during hot or cold
working. Flow lines often can be revealed by etching the surface or a section of a metal
part. Flow lines are sometimes visible on fracture surfaces.

Fluting - A type of pitting in which cavities occur in a regular pattern, forming grooves or
flutes. Fluting is caused by fretting or electric arcing between parts.

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Flux (1) - In metallurgy, a flux is any substance introduced in the smelting of ores to
promote fluidity and to remove objectionable impurities in the form of slag. Examples
are limestone (used in smelting iron ores); silica, dolomite, lime, borax, and fluorite.

Flux (2) - In soldering, a flux is used to remove oxide films, promote wetting, and
prevent reoxidation of the surfaces during heating. Examples are rosin, or an aqueous
solution of zinc chloride and ammonium chloride.

Fold - see Forging lap

Footprint - an analogy for clues or facts discovered during failure analysis - see Fact.

Forged part - a part produced by a forging process

Forging - to form metal by heating and hammering; to form metal by a mechanical or

hydraulic press with or without heat.

Forging burn - an internal flaw that results from overheating steel during the forging
process; parts with forging burns usually cannot be salvaged

Forging hammer - Forging hammers apply force by the impact of a large ram which
may be a drop hammer, or weight falling under the force of gravity, or it may be a power
hammer, driven by steam or compressed air. The hammer produces an instantaneous
application of pressure to a relatively small area delivering intermittent blows to the
section to be forged. Hammer forging can produce a wide variety of shapes and sizes
and, if sufficiently reduced, can create a high degree of grain refinement at the same
time. The disadvantage to this process is that finish machining is often required, as
close dimensional tolerances cannot be obtained.

Forging hot spot - see forging burn

Forging lap - surface irregularity caused by hot metal folding over and being pressed
into the surface

Forming - Forming processes include forging, pressing, piercing, drawing, extruding,

and most importantly, rolling. Forming processes convert solidified steel into products
useful for the fabricating and construction industries. They produce a desired shape,
improve cast steel's physical properties, and produce a surface suitable for a specific
use. Most forming takes place at about 1,200º C (2200º F).

Forming defects - irregularities in parts that result from the forming processes used to
manufacture them and that make them unfit for their intended application.

Fracture - A break or separation of a part into two or more pieces; the irregular surface

15
produced wen a piece of metal is broken.

Fracture face - the irregular surface produced when a part is broken

Fracture mechanics -

Fracture surface morphology - texture, or topography, of a fracture surface.

Free carbon - carbon which is not combined with another element in a cast iron
structure. see also graphite particles

Free graphite - in cast irons, carbon that is present in the form of particles distributed
through the metal. Free graphite shape may range from flakes to spheres.

Fretting - Wear that occurs between tight-fitting surfaces subjected to oscillation at very
small amplitude.

Fretting corrosion - The deterioration at the interface between contacting surface as

the result of corrosion and slight oscillatory slip between the two surfaces

Fretting corrosion deposit - material deposited on the surface of a part as near an

area of fretting wear damage. The color of the deposit varies depending on the material
undergoing fretting wear. Iron base metals produce red to brown colored deposits while
tin based alloys produce black colored deposits.

Friction - the force that resists relative motion between two bodies in contact when one
body is rubbed against another

Friction weld - A welding process in which a rapidly rotating piece of metal is forced
onto another so that friction causes sufficient heat to melt the metals at the point of
meeting. Rotation stops, and continued force consolidates the joint.

Frosted - Large area on a gear tooth where surface metal has pulled away leaving a
matte gray appearance. Frosted areas are usually not harmful and wear away under
normal operation.

Frosting - See Frosted.

Fully killed steel - steel that is completely deoxidized by a deoxidizing agent such
as aluminum

Furnace heat - In metal casting, the batch or cast produced from a single melting
operation.

16
G
Gall, Galling - A condition whereby excessive friction between high spots results in
localized welding with subsequent spalling and a further roughening of the rubbing
surfaces of one or both of two mating parts.

Galvanic corrosion - Accelerated corrosion of a metal because of an electrical contact

with a more noble metal or nonmetallic conductor in a corrosive electrolyte.

Galvanic series - a series of metals and alloys arranged according to their relative
corrosive tendency in a given environment. The most common environment is seawater
or other concentrations of salt in water.

Gas pockets, gas holes - rounded cavities, either of spherical or elongated round
shape, caused by the generation and/or accumulation of gas or entrapped air during
solidification of metal

General corrosion - A form of deterioration that is distributed more or less uniformly

over a surface.

Glass bead cleaning - a surface cleaning operation where small glass beads are
propelled at high velocity against a surface to remove foreign material

Glass beading - see Glass bead cleaning

Glazed - surface having a smooth. glossy appearance

Gouging - a severe form of abrasive wear in which the force between an abrasive body
and wearing surface is enough to macroscopically gouge, groove, or deeply scratch the
surface.

Grain - an individual crystal in a polycrystalline metal or alloy

Grain boundary - interface between two grains; can affects the behavior of a metal

Grain flow - distortion and/or movement of the metal grains in a part due to mechanical
working

Grain flow lines - fiber-like lines on ground or polished and etched sections of wrought
metals caused by orientation of constituents in the metal in the direction working.
Proper grain flow during working can improve the mechanical properties of a part

Grain structure - the overall appearance of a section of metal that has been polished
and etched to show its crystalline structure under magnification

17
Grainy - see crystalline

Graphite flakes - in gray cast irons, a crystalline form carbon that is present in the form
of flakes distributed through the metal.

Graphite particles - a crystalline form of carbon that is present in cast irons

Gray cast iron - cast iron which has a relatively large percentage of the carbon present
in the form of flake graphite. These castings produce a gray fracture when broken.

Grinder burn - surface damage to a hardened and tempered steel part resulting from
temperature increase during grinding. The damage can include relaxation of residual
compressive stresses, development of residual tensile stress, a decrease in the surface
hardness or the development of an unacceptably hard and brittle layer of untempered
martensite.

Grinder crack - a shallow, elongated surface crack resulting from an uncontrolled,

abrupt heating and cooling during a grinding operation.

Grit blasting - a cleaning technique that uses a chilled iron grit or non-metallic grit
medium to removing scales and oxides from the surface of parts.

Guttering - erosion of the engine valve face that results when the valve is not in full
contact with the seat due to deposits, seat distortion, insufficient use, or some other
cause. If the valve does not seal locally, leakage will occur that can result in guttering or
burning of the valve.

H
Handling cracks - cracks in parts arising from impact loads during manufacturing or
subsequent handling

Handling damage - scratches, chips, cracks, etc., due to the handling of the part

Hard line contact -

Hardenability - measure of the depth of hardening that can be obtained when a parti-
cluar metal is quenched

Hardening furnace - furnace designed to subject metal parts to a sequence of temper-

ature changes, time of retention at specific temperature and rate of cooling to alter
strength, hardness, ductility, malleability, and similar properties of both metals and their
alloys.

18
Hard facing - deposition of a hard surface filler metal to increase resistance to wear.

Hardness - Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic defor-
mation, usually by penetration. However, the term hardness may also refer to resistance
to bending, scratching, abrasion or cutting. Hardness is not an intrinsic material
property dictated by precise definitions in terms of fundamental units of mass, length
and time. A hardness property value is the result of a defined measurement procedure.

HAZ - Abbreviation for Heat Affected Zone.

Head burst - a surface cavity in the head of a bolt that results from the action of the
forming operation on a seam in the bolt material.

Heat - an individual batch of material in a casting process, generally identified by its

composition

Heat affected zone - That portion of the base metal that was not melted during brazing,
cutting or welding , but whose microstructure and mechanical properties were altered by
the heat.

Heat checking - Metal cracking due to alternating heating and cooling of the extreme
surface of a metal.

Heat treat crack - a crack in a metal part resulting from heating and/or cooling during a
heat treatment process.

Heat treatment - a combination of heating holding, and cooling operations applied to a

metal or alloy in the solid state in a manner which will produce the desired properties.

High carbon steel - steel that contains more than 0.8% carbon. The more carbon that
is dissolved in the iron, the less formable and the tougher the steel becomes.

High cycle fatigue - fatigue that occurs at relatively large numbers of cycles. The
arbitrary, but commonly accepted, dividing line between high cycle and low cycle fatigue
is considered to be about 10,000 to 100,000 cycles. In practice, this distinction is made
by determining whether the dominant component of the strain imposed during cyclic
loading is elastic (high cycle) or plastic (low cycle), which in turn depends on the
properties of the metal and on the magnitude of the nominal stress.

High temperature corrosion - a form of corrosion that does not require the presence
of a liquid electrolyte, sometimes called "dry corrosion" or "scaling". High temperature
oxidation is the most important high temperature corrosion reaction.

Hinge - to rotate around a fixed point

19
Hinge effect - in connecting rods, the group of road signs that develop when one side
of a connecting rod cap becomes unattached during engine operation.

Hoop stress - stress around the circumference of a circle, cylinder or sphere.

Hot crack - a crack that forms, usually at elevated temperature, because of the internal
(shrinkage) stresses that develop during solidification of a metal casting or a weld.

Hot damp look - the appearance of a gear or anti-friction bearing that has failed by
adhesive wear with lubrication present including discoloration and burned on oil
deposits.

Hot dry look - the appearance of a gear or anti-friction bearing that has failed by
adhesive wear without lubrication present including discoloration but without burned on
oil deposits.

Hot rolled steel - steel slabs that have been rolled into flat-rolled steel products after
having been reheated

Hot rolling - reduction of steel ingot size by rollers rotating in opposite directions and
spaced at a distance less than the steel entering them

Hot tears - fracture formed during solidification due to hindered contraction. Hot tears
are frequently open to the surface of the casting and thus exposed to the atmosphere.
This may result in oxidation, decarburization or other metal-atmosphere reactions at the
hot tear surface.

Hot working - controlled mechanical operations performed above the recrystallization

temrperature for the purpose of shaping a product

Hydrogen embrittlement - Steel that is exposed to hydrogen can fail prematurely at a

stress level well below the materials yield strength. Hydrogen embrittlement usually
occurs as a result of the part being exposed to hydrogen at some time during its manu-
facturing process but it can also occur through in-service corrosion. Electroplating is
generally considered to be a major cause of hydrogen absorption in steel due to the
release of hydrogen during this process. Higher strength steels are more susceptible to
hydrogen embrittlement than lower strength steels. However, as a rule of thumb, steels
below Rockwell C 35 are considered to be far less susceptible.

Hydrogen flake - a short, discontinuous internal crack in ferrous metals attributed to

stresses produced by localized transformation and hydrogen solubility effects during
cooling after hot working. On fracture surfaces, flakes appear as bright, silvery areas
with coarse texture.

20
I
Impact damage - damage to a part or surface that results from being struck by another
part or surface.

Impact load - an especially severe shock load such as that caused by instantaneous
arrest of a falling mass, by shock meeting of two parts, or by explosive impact, in which
there can be an exceptionally rapid buildup of stress

Impact shearing - a type of fracture that results when a part is caught between two
other parts, one or both of which are moving, and scissored into pieces.

Impact shear fracture - a ductile fracture in which a crystal (or polycrystalline mass)
has separated by sliding or tearing under the action of shear stresses generated by
impact with another part

Implode - Burst inward, such as in a collapsing cavity, or negative-pressure region

during cavitation erosion.

Inclusion - a particle of foreign material in a metal matrix. The particle is usually a

compound (such as an oxide, sulfide or silicate), but may be of any substance that is
foreign to (and essentially insoluble in) the metal matrix. Inclusions are usually
considered undesirable although in some cases - such as free machining metals - they
may be added intentionally to improve machinability.

Indentation - a recess in a surface; often used in connection with hardness testing

Induction hardening - A heat treatment process for hardening the surface of a part by
heating it above the transformation range by electrical induction, followed by rapid
cooling

Induction heating - a process of heating metal through the use of alternating electric
current.

Inertia force - a force exerted on or by a body as a result of its inertia. (Inertia is a

property of matter by which it remains at rest or in uniform motion in the same straight
line unless acted upon by some external force.)

Inertia weld - inertia welding is a welding process in which the energy required to make
the weld is supplied primarily by stored rotational kinetic energy of the welding machine.
When the rotating work piece is forced against the stationary work piece, the kinetic
energy stored in the rotating flywheel is dissipated as heat through friction at the weld
interface thus welding the two surfaces together as the flywheel speed decreases
ending with the weld stopping the flywheel.

21
Ingot - a casting of simple shape, suitable for working or remelting

Initial pitting - Initial pitting, or corrective pitting, is caused by local areas of high stress
due to uneven surfaces on the gear tooth. Initial pitting usually develops within a rela-
tively short time, reach a maximum, and, with continued service, polishes to a lesser
severity.

Initiate - to begin as in the failure initiated at the undersized fillet.

Initiation site - the starting location of a crack

Intergranular - pertaining to the region between metal grains

Intergranular fracture - fracture that propagates along the grain boundaries of a metal

Intermittent weld - a weld applied in a discontinuous manner on a part

Internal burst - internal tear in a shaped part resulting from the action of internal forces
on developed during the shaping process on inclusions in the metal

Internal stress - stress inside the body of a part

Iron ore - mineral containing enough iron to be a commercially viable source of the
element for use in steelmaking. Except for fragments of meteorites found on Earth, iron
is not a free element; instead, it is trapped in the earth's crust in its oxidized form.

Iron oxide - A group of minerals and inorganic compounds made up of iron and oxygen
such as FeO (Wuestite), Fe2O3 (Hematite) and Fe3O4 (Magnetite).

J
Journal - the part of a rotating shaft, axle, roll, or spindle that turns in a bearing

K
Killed steel - steel that is completely deoxidized by a deoxidizing agent.

Keyway - A longitudinal groove, slot, or other cavity, usually in a shaft, into which is
placed a key to help hold a hub on the shaft. The key and keyway are used for
alignment or mechanical locking.

22
L
Lacquer - a clear or colored coating that forms as a result of the evaporation of a
solvent

Ladle - refractory lined receptacle that is used for transferring and pouring molten metal.

Lamellar tearing - Lamellar tears are cracks which form in the Heat Affected Zone
(HAZ) of a weld when the strain imposed by the shrinkage of the weld exceeds the
through thickness ductility of the parent material. Lamellar tearing only occurs in rolled
materials, principally structural and pressure vessel steels.

Lap - surface irregularity caused by hot metal folding over itself and being pressed into
the surface

Lead tin overlay - a thin layer of lead-tin alloy applied over the aluminum layer in a
steel backed aluminum bearing to improve the lubricity, embedability and conformability
of the bearing surface.

Lead tin overlay flaking - a condition where small bits of the lead tin overlay on a steel
backed aluminum bearing flake off.

Lead tin overlay sheeting - a condition where large areas of the lead tin overlay on a
steel backed aluminum bearing come off, frequently due to poor adhesion between the
lead tin overlay layer and the aluminum layer beneath it.

Ledging - permanent plastic deformation of the surface of a gear tooth that is not strong
enough to carry the applied loads.

Limestone - a rock that is formed chiefly by accumulation of organic remains (as shells
or coral) and consists mainly of calcium carbonate - used in steelmaking

Lines of stress - imaginary lines within a part under load that designate the intensity of
stress in any section of the part

Lipping - permanent plastic deformation of the surface of a gear tooth that is not strong
enough to carry the applied loads; less drastic than ledging.

Load - external forces applied to an object

Load cycle - the application and removal of a a load from a part usually described by
the magnitude, direction and time of application.

23
Longitudinal - of or relating to length or the lengthwise dimension

Longitudinal axis - lengthwise direction in a part

Longitudinal crack - crack running in a lengthwise direction in a part

Longitudinal shear fracture - a fracture due to shear loading in a lengthwise direction

in a part

Longitudinal shear plane - a shear plane running in the lengthwise direction in a part

Low carbon steel - steel that contain from 0.10 to 0.30% carbon and less than 0.60%
manganese.

Low cycle fatigue - fatigue that occurs at a relatively small number of cycles
(perhaps less than 10,000). Low cycle fatigue may be accompanied by some plastic,
or permanent, deformation.

Low hydrogen electrode - A coated arc-welding electrode designed to provide a low

hydrogen atmosphere around the arc and molten weld weld pool.

Lubricant - a substance [(gas, liquid (oil) or solid (grease)] capable of reducing friction,
heat, and wear when introduced as a film between solid surfaces

M
Machinability -the relative ease of machining a metal.

Machining burrs - a ragged, protruding portions of work material on the edges of

machined parts.

Macroscopic examination - Examination of a fracture surface performed with the

naked eye, magnifying glass, or light microscope.

Magnaflux - Trade name for a nondestructive test method that uses dry non-fluorescent
magnetic particles to detect surface and subsurface flaws in ferrous parts.

Magnaglo - Trade name for a nondestructive test method that uses wet fluorescent
(requires a black light) magnetic particles to detect surface and subsurface flaws in
ferrous parts.

Magnetic particle inspection - a nondestructive inspection method used for detection

of surface and subsurface flaws in ferromagnetic materials such as iron and steel.

24
Martensite - Austenite transformation product that forms when austenite is cooled
rapidly, allowing no time for carbon to diffuse and form pearlitic products.

Material defect - an imperfection in a part that makes it unsuitable for its intended appli-
cation

Material flaw - an imperfection or weakness in a part that is not severe enough to make
it unsuitable for its intended application.

Material properties - qualities peculiar to an individual material including both mechani-

cal properties and physical properties.

Mating fracture - in a fractured part, the other fracture surface that mates up with the
one under consideration.

Mating fracture surface - one or the other of the two fracture surfaces created when a
part breaks

Matte appearance - See Matte finish

Matte finish - A surface lacking luster or gloss as having an usually smooth even
surface free from shine or highlights

Maximum design stress - The maximum stress that a part is expected to experience
under normal operating conditions

Mechanical bond -the adherence of one part to another through a pure physical attach-
ment such as "through" holes, interlocking fingers or roughened surfaces.

Mechanical properties - The properties of a material that reveal its elastic and plastic
behavior when force is applied, thereby indicating its suitability for mechanical applica-
tions. Some examples of mechanical properties are: tensile strength, yield strength,
hardness and modulus of elasticity.

Mechanical working -plastic deformation or other physical change to which metal is

subjected, by rolling, hammering, drawing., etc. to change its shape, properties or
structure.

Medium carbon steel - steel that contains from 0.30% to 0.60% carbon and less than
1.00% manganese. May be made by any of the standard processes.

Melting point -The temperature at which a pure metal, compound or eutectic changes
from solid to liquid; the temperature at which the liquid and the solid are in equilibrium.

25
Metal - any of various opaque, fusible, ductile, and typically lustrous substances that are
good conductors of electricity and heat especially one that is a chemical element as dis-
tinguished from an alloy

Metallurgy - science and art of extracting metals from their ores, refining them and
preparing them for final use

Metallurgical analysis - generally refers to analyzing the metal in a part to determine

its composition, microstructure and mechanical or physical properties. Also commonly
used as a synonym for failure analysis.

Metal grain - small crystals with crystallographic planes in various orientations that
comprise a metal part.

Metal refining - the removal of impurities and metallic oxides from the molten bath by
the reaction of the slag and other additions.

Metal structure - the configuration of atoms as they add to one another in an orderly
and repeating three-dimensional pattern (crystal structure); or, the structure that is
observed when a polished and etched specimen of metal is viewed in an optical micro-
scope at magnifications in range of approximately x25 to x1500 (microstructure).

Metallurgical stress raiser - irregularity or discontinuity in the material microstructure

of a part that acts the same as a physical stress raiser

Microinch - one millionth part of an inch

Micron - one millionth part of a meter

Microstructure - the structure of polished and etched metal and alloy specimens as
revealed by the microscope at a magnifications over ten diameters.

Microvoid - a microscopic cavity that forms during fracture of a ductile metal. A very
large number of microvoids form in the region with the highest stress; some of them join
together to form the actual fracture surface, each side of which contains cup-like half-
voids, usually called dimples.

Microvoid coalescence - mechanism of ductile fractures that permits the fracture to

zigzag across the metal surface

Microwelding - one metal part welding itself to another in very tiny areas, usually at the
high points on a surface (known as asperities) and often due to frictional heating.

26
MIG welding - Metal Inert Gas welding. An arc welding process which joins metals by
heating them with an arc between a continuously fed filler metal (consumable) electrode
and the workpiece. Externally supplied gas or gas mixtures provide shielding.

Modulus of elasticity - the measure of the rigidity of stiffness of a metal; the ratio of
stress (below the proportional limit) to the corresponding strain. On the stress-strain
diagram, the modulus of elasticity is the slope of the stress-strain curve in the range of
linear proportionality of stress to strain. Also known as Young’s Modulus.

Mold - the form, made of sand, metal or refractory material, which contains the cavity
into which molten metal is poured to produce a casting of desired shape.

Molten metal - metal that has been melted and is in a liquid state.

Most probable root cause (MPRC) - based on the result of careful failure analysis, the
MPRC is the most likely description of a failure including what happened (the timeline),
how it happened and who was responsible.

Motor - a rotating machine that transforms electrical, chemical or hydraulic energy into
mechanical energy

MPRC - see Most probable root cause

Multi-viscosity - an oil for which the viscosity/ temperature characteristics are such that
its low temperature and high temperature viscosity fall within the limits of two different
SAE numbers.

Multiple crack initiation - simultaneously initiating several cracks during fatigue failure
of a part

N
Necking - reduction of the cross-sectional area of a part under the action of a tensile
load.

Neutral axis - under a bending load, the boundary line between the tensile and com-
pressive stresses in a part.

NDT - abbreviation for (1) Non-Destructive Testing or (2) Nil Ductility Transition
Temperature.

27
Nil ductility transition temperature - Temperature at which the impact behavior of a
metal changes from ductile to brittle in the presence of a stress raiser.

Ni-resist - Trade name for a type of cast iron alloyed with high percentages of nickel
and chromium, basically the iron equivalents of stainless steel in their properties.
Available in either gray or ductile iron grades, Ni-resist irons have good heat resistance
and resistance to salt water and other corrosive materials. Main uses : sea water pump
and valve parts and high temperature ovens / furnaces.

Nitriding - subcritical temperature case hardening process that introduces nitrogen into
the surface of a part to strengthen it.

NLGI - Abbreviation for National Lubricating Grease Institute.

Nodular cast iron - see ductile cast iron

Nomenclature - a system or set of terms or symbols especially in a particular science

or discipline such as failure analysis.

Normal stress raiser - stress raisers that naturally arise from the design or manufac-
ture of a part such as fillets, holes, keyways, gear teeth, threads, section changes, etc.

Nondestructive testing - any type of testing performed on an object that leaves the
object unchanged after the testing is completed.

O
Oil quenching - rapid cooling of a heated metal part in an oil bath.

Ore - a mineral containing a valuable constituent (such as metal) for which it is mined
and worked

Origin - see initiation site

Overload - load that exceeds the maximum design stress for a part

Overpressure - Pressure that exceeds the recommended maximum pressure in a

hydraulic system.

28
Oxide, oxidized - the result of a corrosion reaction in which the corroded metal forms
an oxide (a compound of a substance and oxygen) usually applied to reaction with a
gas containing elemental oxygen, such as air.

Oxidation - a corrosion reaction in which the corroded metal forms an oxide; usually
applied to reaction with a gas containing elemental oxygen, such as air.

Oxidized metal - metal that has undergone oxidation

P
Parent metal - see Base Metal

Particle - minute fragment of material

Pattern - in casting, a form of wood, metal or other materials, around which molding
material is placed to make a mold for casting metals.

Penetration - in welding, the distance from the original surface of the base metal to that
depth at which fusion stops.

Photomicrograph - Photograph of the microstructure of a metal.

Physical properties - The properties of a material that are relatively insensitive to

structure and can be measured without the application of force. Examples of physical
properties are density, thermal conductivity, melting temperature and magnetic and elec-
trical properties.

Physical structure - the way something is put together; for metals, see Crystal
structure

Pigs - small bars cast from iron from a blast furnace.

Pig iron - the crude product of the blast furnace where ore is reduced into iron and from
which it is cast into small bars (pigs).

Pipe - central shrinkage cavity located in the upper portion of an ingot that forms during
solidification of the ingot

Pipe defect - a flaw in wrought steel parts resulting from incomplete removal of the pipe
during processing of a steel ingot

Pit - a cavity created on the specimen/component surface during the reaction/interac-

tion between the material and the environment, e.g., corrosion, oxidation, wear.

29
Pitch line - The location on a gear tooth, approximately midway up the tooth, that
crosses the pitch circle, or the equivalent-size disk that could geometrically replace the
gear.

Pitting - corrosion of a meal surface, confined to a point of small area, that takes the
form of cavities. A type of wear characterized by the presence of surface cavities
formed by processes such as fatigue, local adhesion, or cavitation.

Plastic - in a condition capable of being deformed continuously and permanently

without rupture

Plastic deformation - alteration of shape that remains permanent after removal of the
load that caused the alteration

Plastic flow - a condition where a metal has been bent, folded, twisted, or manipulated
into a permanent new shape

Plastic yielding - a condition where a metal part has been loaded to the extent that it
has acquired a permanent new shape

Plate - Sheet steel with a width of more than 200 mm(8 in.), with a thickness ranging
from 6 mm (.25 in.) to more than 300 mm (12 in.).

Plating - Forming an adherent layer of metal or alloy on an object.

Polished - a surface that has been made smooth and glossy usually by friction

Polishing - the act of making a surface smooth and glossy usually by friction

Porosity - fine holes, or pores, within a metal

Powdered metal - Discrete particles of elemental metals or alloys normally within the
size range of 0.1 to 1000 microns (.04 - .000004 in.).

Preconceived idea - An opinion formed by the failure analyst prior to collecting actual
knowledge (facts) regarding a failure.

Precrack - crack or crack-like feature in a part that is present prior to the part going into
service; precracks often result from material or manufacturing problems

Precracked - a part that contains a precrack

Pre-existing crack - a crack existing in a part prior to putting the part in service; pre-
existing cracks may originate from manufacturing processes or rough handling.

30
Preheating - heating a part to a lower temperature prior to heating the part to the final
temperature to reduce distortion or prevent cracking.

Preload - the tension created in a fastener when first tightened. Preload can relax after
a period of time due to embedding and other factors.

Problem statement - in failure analysis, a statement listing the part or parts that are not
OK and a description of the unacceptable condition of the parts.

Processing - manufacturing steps used to produce a part.

Processing error - an error in one of the manufacturing steps used to produce a part.

Q
Qualitative fact - a fact that answers a “what” question; for instance, in a chemical
analysis qualitative facts are the identity of the components of a substance or mixture

Quantitative fact - a fact that answers a “how much” question; for instance, in a
chemical analysis quantitative facts are the amounts or proportions of the components
of a substance or mixture

Quenching - The heat treatment process of rapidly cooling of heated metal.

Quenching and tempering - The heat treatment process of hardening a ferrous alloy of
suitable composition by heating within or above the transformation range and cooling at
a rate sufficient to increase the hardness substantially. The process usually involves the
formation of martensite.

Quench crack - fracture that forms in a part during the quenching phase of a heat
treating process

R
Raceway - The tracks or channels on which roll the balls of rollers in an antifriction
rolling-element bearing. The inner race fist around a shaft, while the outer race fits
within a hole in a larger part.

Radial tearing - a type of ductile fracture sometimes observed in threaded fasteners

where the fracture face shows what look like internal shear lips between the center of
the cross section and the surface of the part

31
Ratchet marks - ridges on a fracture surface that indicate where two adjacent fatigue
cracks have grown together. Ratchet marks usually originate perpendicular to a surface
and may be straight or curved, depending on the combination of stresses that is
present.

Refining - a process applied to a material that will make it free from impurities or
unwanted material.

Refractory - A heat-resistant material, usually nonmetallic, which is used for furnace

lining and such.

Remanufacturing - the process of manufacturing a part or component into a new

product

Residual stress - Macroscopic stresses that are set up within a metal as the result of
non-uniform plastic deformation. This deformation may be caused by cold working or by
drastic gradients of temperature from quenching or welding.

Residual compressive stress - Residual stresses that are compressive in nature.

Residual tensile stress - Residual stresses that are tensile in nature.

Result, resultant damage - fracture or damage to a part that occurs as a result of an

earlier failure. It is important to distinguish between the first abnormal events in a failure
and damage that occurs as a result of the abnormal events.

Reverse bending fatigue - fatigue fracture of a part resulting from the application of a
reverse bending load

Reverse bending load - a load applied to a part that acts in one direction and then in
the opposite direction; reverse bending loads often produce two fatigue cracks that grow
toward each other until final fracture occurs.

Reverse torsional fatigue - a type of fatigue fracture where cyclic of twisting forces act
in opposite directions causing the fracture to propagate at a 45 angle

Reverse torsional loading - cyclic of twisting forces acting in opposite directions on a

part

Rim cracks - in DI pistons, thermal cracks that occur on the crater rim over the thrust
skirts.

Riser - A reservoir placed on a casting that fills with molten metal and provides a
localized head of molten metal.

32
Road sign - a feature on a fracture surface that provides some information about the
failure of the part; see also Fact

Rockwell hardness - a hardness number derived from the net increase in depth of an
impression as the load on an indenter is increased from a fixed minor load t a major
load and then returned to the minor load. Rockwell hardness numbers are always
quoted with a scale symbol representing the penetrator load and dial used.

Rockwell C, (Rc), (RKW C) hardness - see Rockwell hardness

Rolling - A term applied to the operation of shaping and reducing metal in thickness by
passing it between rolls which compress, shape and lengthen it following the roll
pattern. The metal is often heated before rolling.

Roll burnishing - roll burnishing is a cold working process which produces a fine
surface finish by the planetary rotation of hardened rolls over a bored or turned metal
surface. Roll Burnishing involves cold working the surface of the work piece to improve
surface structure

Rolling contact stress fatigue - contact stress fatigue resulting from the rolling action
of one surface on another as in roller bearings. In this type of fatigue, cracks initiate
subsurface.

Rolling mill - equipment used for rolling down metal to a smaller size or to a given
shape employing sets of rolls the contours of which determine or fashion the product
into numerous intermediate and final shapes.

Root cause - for a particular failure the root cause consists of the first abnormal
event (what happened) along with how it happened and who was responsible

Rotating bending fatigue - fatigue fracture of a part resulting from the application
of a rotating bending load

Rotating bending loading - a load applied to a part that cycles the entire
circumference of the part through tension and compression as the part rotates
about one of its axes; most common in shafts or shaft-like parts

Rough machining - initial, preliminary machining on a part to remove metal down close
to the final dimensions

Rule of thumb - any rough and ready practical method for doing something

Rusting - Reaction of water containing dissolved oxygen with iron or steel to form a
series of corrosion products leading to a mixture of various iron oxides (geothite).

33
S
Sacrificial anode - a protective device to prevent electrolytic corrosion. Anodes (often
made of Mg or Al metal) are sacrificed intentionally to protect a steel system, such as a
buried pipeline, offshore platform or ship’s hull.

SAE - abbreviation for Society of Automotive Engineers organization.

Safety factor - Regarding loading on a part, the endurance limit stress divided by the
maximum design stress

Satin finish - See Matte finish

Scale - layer on the surface of a metal part resulting from the combination of the metal
with oxygen

Scaling - loss of metal from a metal surface by the formation of a scale (oxide layer).

Scanning electron microscope -an instrument that can greatly magnify the surface of
an object while at the same time retaining excellent depth of field.

Score - a line or scratch on a surface made by a sharp object; mark with lines, grooves,
scratches, or notches

Scratch - to rub and tear or mark the surface of with something sharp or jagged; a mark
produced by scratching

Scuffing - to become scratched, chipped, or roughened by wear - frequently used to

describe adhesive wear on parts

Seam - surface irregularity that results from a crack, a heavy cluster of nonmetallic
inclusions, a deep lap, or a defect in the ingot surface that has become oxidized and
is prevented from welding up during rolling or forging

Secondary adhesive wear - adhesive wear that occurs after primary wear of fracture
has occurred.

Secondary damage - damage that occurs after primary damage has occurred - for
instance, a connecting rod may be damaged by impact with another part after it initially
failed by mid-shank fatigue fracture

Secondary debris - debris particles generated as a result of a secondary wear process

34
Secondary wear - wear that occurs after or over the top of another type of wear - for
instance, adhesive wear (secondary) may occur after and over the top of abrasive
(primary) wear.

Seizure - to cohere to a relatively moving part through excessive pressure, tempera-

ture, or friction -- used especially of machine parts (as bearings, brakes, or pistons)

SEM - abbreviation for Scanning Electron Microscope

Service loads - forces encountered by a part or assembly during operation in service.

Shaping - Any one of a number of processes such as forging, casting, extrusion, rolling
and sheet metal forming used to produce a desired metal shape.

Shear - an action or stress resulting from applied forces that causes or tends to cause
two contiguous parts of a body to slide relatively to each other in a direction parallel to
their plane of contact

Shearing - the result of applying a shear force to a body

Shear lip - a narrow, slanting ridge along the edge of a fracture surface. The term
sometimes also denotes a narrow, often crescent shaped, fibrous region at the edge
of a fracture that is otherwise of the cleavage type, even though this fibrous region is in
the same plane as the rest of the fracture surface.

Shear load - loading condition where two loads acting in the opposite direction are
applied to a part simultaneously

Shear fracture - fracture that occurs when shear stresses exceed shear strength before
any other type of fracture can occur. Typical shear fractures are transverse fracture of a
ductile metal under a torsional (twisting) stress, and fracture of a rivet cut by sliding
movement of the joined parts in opposite directions, like the action of a pair of scissors
(shears).

Shear stress - Stress caused by two equal and parallel forces acting upon an object
from opposite directions.

Sheet - wide, flat-rolled steel. It is generally accepted that steel less than 3 mm thick is
sheet and more than 3 mm (1/8 inch) thick is plate.

Shock load - the sudden application of a external force that results in a very rapid
build-up of stress - for example, piston loading in internal combustion engines

35
Shot peen - a cold working process in which the surface of a part is bombarded with
small spherical media called shot. Each piece of shot striking the material acts as a tiny
peening hammer, imparting to the surface a small indentation below which is a hemi-
sphere of cold-worked material highly stressed in compression.

Shrinkage - volume reduction in a casting, accompanying the temperature drop from

the pouring temperature to room temperature.

Shrinkage cavity - a void left in cast metals as a result of solidification shrinkage,

because the volume of metal decreases during cooling. Shrinkage cavities usually
occur in the last metal to solidify after casting.

Silky - See Matte finish

Skew -in anti-friction roller bearings, a condition where the rollers begin to follow an
oblique course so that they slide rather than roll

Slab - The most common type of semi-finished steel. Traditional slabs measure ten
inches thick and 30-85 inches wide (and average about 20 feet long), while the output of
the recently developed "thin slab" casters is approximately two inches thick.
Subsequent to casting, slabs are sent to the hot-strip mill to be rolled into coiled sheet.

Slag - a product resulting from the action of a flux on the oxidized non-metallic
constituents of molten metals. May also be produced by oxidation of the molten bath,
ash from the fuel, erosion of the refractories, and floating of non-metallics in the charge.

Slag inclusions - inclusions consisting of slag products from a prior metal casting
operation

Slant fracture - a type of fracture appearance, in which the plane of metal separation is
inclined at an angle (usually about 45 degrees) to the axis of the applied stress

Sliding contact stress fatigue - contact stress fatigue resulting from the sliding action
of one surface on another as in gear teeth or engine bearings. In this type of fatigue,
cracks initiate on the surface of the part.

Slip - process by which metal grains change shape under a shearing force resulting in
plastic deformation of a part

Slow crack - a fracture that develops and propagates over time, usually due to
repeated loading of the part; also another name used for a fatigue crack.

Sludge - a precipitate or settling (as a mixture of impurities and acid) from a mineral oil

Smearing - to obliterate, obscure or blur surface features by a wiping action

36
“Smushed” - an expression used to describe a portion of fracture surface that has
been damaged to the extent that no useful information can be obtained.

Soft spot - on a heat treated part, a portion of the surface of the part that does not meet
surface hardness requirements specified for the part

Solidification shrinkage - Shrinkage that occurs as solidified metal contracts when it

cools.

Solidify - to go from a liquid state to a solid state on cooling

SOS - abbreviation for Scheduled Oil Sampling

Spall, Spalling - the cracking and flaking of particles out of a surface

Sparkly - when applied to a fracture surface, this term indicates the presence of
multiple facets that reflect incoming light

Spatter - The metal particles blown away from the welding arc. These particles do not
become part of the completed weld.

Spun bearing - a bearing that has been forced to rotate in its bore because it has
adhered to the bore or shaft

Starry fracture - see Starry reverse torsional fatigue

Starry reverse torsional fatigue - a type of transverse fracture in which reversed

torsional loading acts through features on the surface of the part (such as spline teeth)
to produce a fracture surface with pronounced radial features from the center to the
surface of the part giving a starlike appearance.

Steelmaking - The process of refining pig iron, directly reduced iron, and scrap steel
into carbon steel and various alloys of steel.

Stellite - commercial trade name for a series of cobalt based alloys with excellent resis-
tance to thermal, mechanical and chemical degradation

Stick out - in wire welding processes, the length that the wire protrudes beyond the
nozzle in the gun

Stiffness - a material property that measures resistance to deflection, i.e. stiffer

materials are more difficult to bend

37
Straightening - A bending process following heat treatment used to remove distortion
cause by heat treatment so that the part conforms to print tolerances.

Straightening crack - a crack in a part that results from trying to remove distortion
due to heat treatment by loading the part in a hydraulic press

Strength - a material property that measures the resistance of a material to tensile

and shear loads

Strain - a measure of relative change in the size or shape of a body. “Linear strain” is
change (increase or decrease) in a linear dimension. Usually expressed in inches per
inch (in./in.), or millimeters per millimeter (mm/mm).

Striation - a fatigue fracture feature often observed in electron micorgraphs a that

indicates the position of the crack front after each succeeding cycle of stress.

Stringer - in wrought materials, an elongated configuration f microconstituents or

foreign material aligned in the direction of working. The term is commonly associated
with elongated oxide or sulfide inclusions in steel.

Stripped thread - internal or external threads that have been removed by a shearing
overload

Steel - a commercial iron based alloy that contains carbon in any amount up to about
1.7 percent as an essential alloying constituent, is malleable when under suitable condi-
tions, and is distinguished from cast iron by its malleability and lower carbon content

Strength - the ability of a material or part to resist an applied force

Stress - the intensity of the internally distributed forces or components of forces that
resist a change in the volume or shape of a material that is or has been subjected to
external forces. Stress is expressed in force per unit area and is calculated on the
basis of the original dimensions of the cross section of the specimen. Stress can either
be direct (tension or compression) or shear.

Stress concentration - a change in contour or a discontinuity that causes local

increased in stress in materials under load. Typical examples are sharp-cornered
grooves or notches, threads, fillets, holes, etc. Also called a stress raiser.

Stress concentration factor - a multiplying factor for applied stress that allows for the
presence of a structural discontinuity such as a notch or hole. This factor is determined
by taking the ratio of the greatest stress in the region of the discontinuity to the nominal
stress for the entire section.

Stress concentrator - see stress raiser

38
Stress corrosion cracking, SCC - failure by cracking under combined action of
corrosion and a tensile stress, either external (applied) or internal (residual). SCC
excludes corrosion reduced sections that fail by fast fracture. However, SCC does
include intergranular or transgranular corrosion, which can disintegrate an alloy without
applied or residual stress.

Stress raiser - physical irregularities such as a change in shape or a discontinuity that

causes a local increase in stress in the part. Some examples of stress raisers include
sharp cornered grooves or notches, threads, fillets, holes, etc.

Stress relief heat treatment - A heat treatment process wherein a part is heated to a
suitable temperature, held at temperature long enough to reduce residual stresses, and
cooled slowly enough to minimize the development of new residual stresses.

Striations - microscopic lines on a fatigue fracture surface e that show the location of
the tip of the fatigue crack at some point in time. In ductile metals, the fatigue crack
advances by one striation with each load application, assuming the magnitude of the
load is great enough. Striations should not be confused with beach marks which are
much larger and form in a different manner.

Stringer - in wrought materials, an elongated configuration of microconstituents or

foreign material aligned in the direction of working. The term is commonly associated
with elongated oxide or sulfide inclusions in steel.

Surface asperities - Tiny projection from the surface of a part; the roughness of the
surface of a part

Surface crack - an elongated fissure or opening on the surface of a part

Surface hardened - a part that has undergone a heat treating operation to increase the
hardness at the surface of the part while leaving the core material at some lower
hardness.

Surface oxide - oxide layer on the surface of a part composed of the metal in the part
and oxygen

Surface scale - See Surface Oxide

Surface texture - the visual or tactile surface characteristics and appearance of the
surface of a part

Supersaturated - metastable solution in which the dissolved material exceeds the

amount the solvent can hold in normal equilibrium at the temperature and under the
conditions that prevail

39
Swirl pattern - when used in conjunction with inertia or friction welded parts - the
twisted appearance on a weld surface that did not achieve sufficient temperature to
complete the weld

T
Tap - in the casting process, to pour molten metal from one vessel into another such as
from a furnace into a ladle or from a ladle into a mold.

Taper - gradual diminution of thickness, diameter, or width in an elongated object

Tear ridges - alternating high and low areas in the form of concentric ridges on a
fracture face that result from deformation of the metal crystals prior to fracture

Temper color - surface discoloration on metal due to heating it in air; the color can give
some indication of the temperature to which the metal was heated

Temper, Tempering - A heat treatment process consisting of heating a quenched steel

part in a furnace to a specified temperature below the lower critical temperature and
then allowing it to cool at any desired rate

Tensile fatigue - fatigue fracture in a part that results from repeated (cyclic) application
of tensile loads

Tension - the force or load that produces elongation

Tension load - force that occurs when the load is applied to a part in a stretching
manner

Tensile strength - in tension testing, the ratio of maximum load to the original cross-
sectional area

Thermal cracks - cracks in a part that result from sudden, non-uniform changes in the
temperature of the part

Thermal fatigue - fracture resulting from the presence of temperature gradients that
vary with time in such a manner as to produce cyclic stresses in a structure.

Thermal fatigue cracks - cracks that develop on the surface of a part as a result of
repetitive, rapid heating and cooling cycles

Thermal shock - the development of a steep temperature gradient and accompanying

high stresses within a structure.

40
Thermal stresses - stresses in metal resulting from nonuniform temperature distribu-
tion

Three body wear - a type of abrasive wear in which a third body is introduced between
two other bodies causing abrasive damage to each such as a large particle passing
between a crankshaft and engine bearing

Through harden - To harden a part with a heat treating process so that the hardness of
the metal is essentially constant throughout the cross section of the part.

Time line - an illustration showing the succession significant events that occurred
during a failure.

Tin flash - a very thin layer of tin metal applied to the outside surface of engine
bearings to resist corrosion prior to installation of the bearing.

Tool steel - a group of steels generally having high carbon and alloy content character-
ized by high hardness and wear resistance sometimes accompanied by toughness and
resistance to softening at elevated temperature. These steels are frequently used to
make tools for cutting, shaping and forming materials.

Torsion - a twisting action applied to a shaftlike or cylindrical member. The twisting

may be either reversed (back and forth) or unidirectional (one way).

Torsional deformation - alteration of the shape of a part that remains permanently

after the removal of a torsional load on the part

Torsional fatigue - fatigue fracture that results from repeated (cyclic) torsional loads on
a part.

Torsional load - force that occurs when a load is applied to a part in a twisting manner

Torsional shear fracture - a type of ductile shear fracture that can occur under
torsional loading

Torsional shear stress - stress developed in a plane perpendicular to the axis in a

cylindrical part about which there is a torsional load

Toughness - ability of a material to absorb energy (especially at high strain rates) and
deform plastically before fracturing

Transgranular - through or across crystals or grains. Also called intracrystalline or tran-

scrystalline.

41
Transgranular fracture - fracture that propagates within the metal grains along specific
crystallographic planes. See also Cleavage fracture.

Transverse (direction) - literally, “across” usually signifying a direction or plane perpen-

dicular to the direction of working.

Transverse rupture - ductile fracture perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a part.

Transverse rupture strength - the stress, calculated from the flexure formula, required
to break a specimen as a simple beam supported near the ends and applying the load
midway between the fixed center line of the supports.

Transverse shear fracture - ductile shear fracture that occurs on a transverse shear
plane

Transverse shear plane - plane that is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a part
on which a ductile shear fracture can occur under torsional loading.

Transverse torsional shear - transverse shear fracture that occurs as a result of

torsional loading; for example, twisting the head off a bolt.

Tribology - the science concerned with the design, friction, lubrication, and wear of con-
tacting surface that move relative to each other.

Tuliping - See Dishing.

Two body wear - a type of abrasive wear in which one body directly abrades another
such as a hard file on a piece of metal

U
Ultrasonic - having a frequency above the human ear's audibility limit of about 20,000
hertz

Ultrasonic inspection - Inspection technique that uses ultrasonic sound waves to

assess internal quality characteristics or measure the wall thickness of parts.

Ultimate strength - the maximum stress (tensile, compressive or shear) that a material
can sustain without fracture, determined by dividing maximum load by the original cross
sectional area of the specimen.

Unit cells - smallest arrangement of atoms that repeats itself within metal grains. The
configuration of the unit cell depends on the metal. The most common unit cells are
cubic, body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic, hexagonal and tetragonal.

42
Upper critical temperature - temperature in any specific steel composition at which the
austenite phase change begins or is completed (for a specific rate of heating or
cooling).

V
Varnish - a hard, lustrous, typically transparent coating of deposits sometimes found on
internal combustion engine parts

Vent - a passageway in a sand mold that allows for the escape of hot gasses generated
when a casting is poured and cooled

Viscosity - the property of resistance to flow in a fluid or semifluid

Visual examination - a process by which failed parts are examined to discover facts
(also called road signs) that will identify the type of fracture or wear that led to failure of
the part

WXYZ
Water quench - To rapidly cool a hot metal part in a bath of water.

Weakest link - area of a part that carries the highest load or that contains an unusual
or abnormal stress raiser

Wear - damage to a solid surface, generally involving progressive loss of material, due
to relative motion between that surface and a contacting surface or substance.

Wear environment - the set of conditions that allow or promote some particular type of
wear

Wear resistance - ability to resist to damage due to wearing, grinding, or rubbing away
by friction

Weld - to unite (metallic parts) by heating and allowing the metals to flow together or by
hammering or compressing with or without previous heating

Weldment - assembly whose component parts have been joined by welding

Weld metal - the electrode and base metal, that was melted while welding was taking
place, that forms the weld bead.

Welded fabrication - see Weldment

43
Widefield stereomicroscope - binocular microscope designed to observe the surfaces
of parts using reflected light.

Woody - rough, dark fracture face having a somewhat fibrous appearance

Woody ductile fracture - a type of ductile fracture that occurs along flow lines in a part
and results in a rough, woody surface texture with the grain flow clearly exposed

Woody fracture - a type of ductile fracture that results when loads are applied to a part
in such a way that fracture can occur along the natural grain flow lines in the part

Work hardening - increase in hardness and strength caused by plastic deforming metal
at temperatures below the recrystallization range.

Wrought - a material designation indicating that the material has been shaped by
heating and plastic deformation

Wrought metal - metal that has been shaped by heating and mechanically forming by
processes such as rolling, forging, extruding or drawing.

Wrought steel - steel that has been forced to assume a shape through heating and
plastic deformation

Yielding - evidence of plastic deformation in structural materials

Yield point - the first stress in a material, usually less than the maximum attainable
stress, at which an increase in strain occurs without an increase in stress.

Yield strength - the stress at which a material exhibits a specified deviation from pro-
portionality of stress and strain. The specified deviation is usually 0.2% for most metals.

Young’s modulus - See Elastic modulus.

Zyyglo - A trade name for a type of liquid penetrant nondestructive testing wherein the
test object or material is coated with a visible or fluorescent dye solution, the excess dye
is removed from the surface, and then a developer is applied. The developer acts like a
blotter and draws penetrant out of imperfections which open to the surface. With visible
dyes, the vivid color contrast between the penetrant and the developer makes the
"bleedout" easy to see. With fluorescent dyes, an ultraviolet lamp is used to make the
"bleedout" fluoresce brightly, thus allowing the imperfections to be seen readily.