Introduction to the Nervous

System
Khalid Majeed
 The Neuron is the major functional
unit of Nervous System
• The major functional unit of the nervous system is the
neuron, a cell type whose shape varies considerably with its
location in the nervous system.

• Almost all neurons have an information receiving area of the

cell membrane, usually called the dendrite; a cell body, or
soma, containing the organelles for most cell metabolic
activity; an information carrying extension of the cell
membrane, called an axon; and a presynaptic terminal at the
end of the axon to transmit information to other cells.

• The axon is often covered with a fatty coating called the

myelin sheath that enhances the speed of information
transfer along the axon’s length.
 Types of Neurons

A unipolar neuron is a A bipolar A multipolar

type of neuron in neuron or bipolar Pseudounipolar neuron neuron possesses a
which only one cell, is a type contains axon that has single axon and
protoplasmic process of neuron which has split into two branches; many dendrites
(Axon or dendrite) two extensions, one branch runs to the (and dendritic
extends from the cell dendrite and axon. periphery and the other branches).
body. to the spinal cord.
Can you apply your knowledge of
Nervous system???
• Physiology of Locomotion

• Physiology of Vision

• Sensory systems

• CRITICAL Involuntary functions

Neural Systems:
Neurons do not exist in isolation; they are usually interconnected
within neural circuits or pathways that serve a specific function
Neuroglia
 Te other cell type in the nervous
system is the glial cell
• Glial cells play important roles in producing the myelin
sheaths of axons, modulating the growth of developing
or damaged neurons, buffering extracellular
concentrations of potassium and neurotransmitters,
formation of contacts between neurons (synapses), and
they participate in certain immune responses of the
nervous system.
• Glial cells do not produce action potentials, but
growing evidence indicates that they can indirectly
monitor the electrical activity of neurons and use this
information to modulate the effectiveness of neural
communication.
Peripheral Nerve
 Organization of Nervous system
The Mammalian Nervous System Has Two Major
Subdivisions: The Central Nervous System and the
Peripheral Nervous System

The central nervous system (CNS) is divided into the

• Brain
• Spinal cord

• A series of protective bones surround the

entire CNS. The brain is surrounded by the skull, and
the spinal cord is surrounded by a series of cervical,
thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae and ligaments.
• The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed
of the spinal and cranial nerves that carry
electrical signals, called action potentials, away
from or toward the CNS. These nerves are
bundles of PNS axons.
• The axons carrying action potentials toward the
CNS are called afferents, and those carrying such
signals away are efferents.
• PNS is functionally divided into sensory and
motor subsystems. The elements of spinal and
cranial nerves that serve a motor function are
(1) Axons of somatic efferent neurons, which carry
action potential commands from the CNS to
junctions, called synapses, at skeletal muscles
(2) Axons of visceral efferent neurons, which carry
action potentials toward synapses with
peripheral neurons that control smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, and some glands.
• Peripheral nerve axons converge to form a single spinal nerve
at each of the intervertebral foramina. Within the spinal
canal, afferent sensory and efferent motor axons are
separated; afferent sensory axons enter the spinal cord
through the dorsal roots, whereas the efferent motor axons
exit the spinal cord through the ventral root.
 The Central Nervous System Is Protected By the
Meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid
• The innermost layer, lying next to the CNS, is the pia
mater, which is a single layer of fibroblast cells joined
to the outer surface of the brain and spinal cord.
• The middle layer, the arachnoid, so named because of
its spider’s web appearance, is a thin layer of fibroblast
cells that traps cerebrospinal fluid between it and the
pia mater (in the subarachnoid space).
• The outermost meningeal layer, the dura mater, is a
much thicker layer of fibroblast cells that protects the
CNS. Within the brain cavity of the skull, the dura
mater is often fused with the inner surface of the bone.
The Central Nervous System Can Be Divided
Into Six Anatomical Regions
 1. Spinal cord
• The spinal cord is the most caudal region in the CNS. Sensory
dorsal root axons carry action potentials to the cord that
were generated by stimulation of sensory receptors in skin,
muscles, tendons, joints, and visceral organs. The spinal
cord contains the cell bodies and dendrites of motor neurons
whose axons exit through the ventral roots either to reach
skeletal muscles or to reach out toward smooth muscle. It also
contains tracts of axons carrying sensory information to the
brain and motor commands from the brain to the motor
neurons. The isolated spinal cord can control simple reflexes,
such as muscle stretch reflexes and limb withdrawal from
painful stimuli.
The Central Nervous System Can Be Divided
Into Six Anatomical Regions
 2. Medulla
• The medulla lies rostral to the spinal cord and resembles it in
many ways. By way of cranial nerves, the medulla too receives
information from the body’s external and internal sensory
receptors and sends motor commands out to skeletal and
smooth muscle. Large populations of these receptors and
muscles lie in the head and neck region. The cell bodies of
medullary neurons that receive the sensory input from cranial
nerves or that send the motor output are respectively
collected in aggregates called sensory or motor cranial nerve
nuclei. The cranial nerve nuclei of the medulla play a critical
role in life support functions of the respiratory and
cardiovascular systems and in aspects of feeding (e.g. taste,
tongue movement, swallowing, digestion) and vocalization.
The Central Nervous System Can Be Divided
Into Six Anatomical Regions
 3. Pons
• The pons lies rostral to the medulla and contains the
cell bodies of large numbers of neurons in a two-
neuron chain that relays information from the
cerebral cortex to the cerebellum.

• The cerebellum is not a part of the brainstem but is

often described along with the pons because of a
similar embryological origin. The cerebellum is
important for smooth, accurate, coordinated
movement and for motor learning. Cranial nerve
nuclei of the pons play important roles in the motor
control of chewing.
The Central Nervous System Can Be Divided
Into Six Anatomical Regions
 4. Mesencephalon
• The midbrain, or mesencephalon, lies rostral to the
pons and contains the superior and inferior
colliculi, which are important in processing and
relaying visual and auditory information that has
entered the brain at other levels. The midbrain also
contains cranial nerve nuclei that directly control
eye movement and that induce pupillary
constriction. Some midbrain regions coordinate
particular eye movement reflexes.
• Each region of the brainstem contains axon tracts
carrying action potentials to or from the forebrain,
as well as tracts that carry action potentials to or
from the spinal cord. Each brainstem region also
contains a portion of the reticular formation, a
netlike complex of many small clusters of cell
bodies (nuclei) and loosely organized axonal
projections, located near the midline. The reticular
formation plays important roles in modulating
consciousness and arousal, pain perception, and
spinal reflexes, as well as in movement.
The Central Nervous System Can Be Divided
Into Six Anatomical Regions
 5. Diencephalon
• Te diencephalon contains the thalamus and the
hypothalamus, both of which are large structures
consisting of several subnuclei. The thalamus is a relay
station for and a modulator of information being
passed to the cerebral cortex from sensory systems
and other brain regions.
• The hypothalamus regulates the autonomic nervous
system, controls hormone secretion of the pituitary
gland, and plays a major role in physiological and
behavioral aspects of homeostasis (e.g., maintenance
of temperature and blood pressure; feeding).
The Central Nervous System Can Be Divided
Into Six Anatomical Regions
 6. Telencephalon
• The telencephalon, also commonly referred to as the cerebral
hemispheres, is made up of the cerebral cortex and a small
number of prominent subcortical structures, such as the
basal ganglia and hippocampus. The cerebral cortex mediates
the most complex forms of sensory integration and conscious
sensory perception. It also formulates and executes
sequences of voluntary movement.
• The basal ganglia are a collection of nuclei that modulate the
motor functions of cerebral cortex.
• The hippocampus plays an important role in memory and
spatial learning. Considering the function of the
hippocampus, it is fascinating that it is one of the very few
regions of the adult mammalian brain where new neurons
are born.
Concept of a Reflex Arc
 A Reflex Arc Contains Five Fundamental Components
• All reflex arcs contain five basic components. If any one
of these five components malfunctions, the reflex
response is altered.
1. All reflex arcs begin with a sensory receptor. Sensory
receptors vary widely within the body but share a
common function: they transduce a range of
environmental energy and convert that energy into
action potential along a sensory nerve. For example,
receptors of the retina transduce light; those in the skin
transduce heat, cold, pressure, and other cutaneous
stimuli; muscle spindle receptors transduce stretch; and
taste receptors transduce chemical stimuli from
ingested material.
• Action potentials resulting from stimulus
transduction are generated along sensory neurons
at a frequency proportional to the intensity of the
transduced stimulus. This proportionality between
the intensity with which the receptor is stimulated
and the frequency of the resulting sensory neuron
action potentials is called frequency coding; it is
one major way the receptor communicates to the
central nervous system (CNS) the intensity of light,
heat, stretch, and so forth, that it has
transduced.
2. The next component in a reflex
arc, is a sensory neuron (CNS
afferent). These neurons carry
action potentials, resulting from
receptor activation, to the CNS.
Again, in some cases the receptor
is just a specialized, usually
peripheral, region of the sensory
neuron (primary receptors). In
other cases the receptor is
physically separate from and
synapses on the sensory neuron
(secondary receptors). Sensory
neurons enter the spinal cord by
way of the dorsal roots or enter
the brain through cranial nerves.
3) The third component of a reflex arc is a synapse
in the CNS. Actually, for most reflex arcs, more
than one synapse occurs in series (polysynaptic).
However, some reflex arcs that originate from the
muscle spindle are monosynaptic.
In polysynaptic reflexes, where one or more
neurons lie between the sensory neuron input to
the CNS and the motor neuron output, these
interposed neurons are called interneurons and
can be considered part of this third component of
the reflex arc.
4) The fourth component is a motor neuron
(CNS efferent), which carries action potentials
from the CNS toward the synapse with the
target (effector) organ. Motor neurons leave
the spinal cord through the ventral roots, and
motor neurons leave the brain through the
cranial nerves.
5) The last component is some target organ
(effector organ) that causes the reflex
response. This is usually a muscle, such as the
skeletal muscle fibres of the quadriceps
muscle of the leg, in the case of the “knee
jerk” (muscle stretch) reflex, or the smooth
muscle of the iris in the pupillary light reflex.
The target could also be a gland, such as a
salivary gland in the salivary reflex .
Reflex arcs can be segmental or Intersegmental
• A segmental reflex (7-3 A) is a reflex in which the
reflex arc passes through only a small rostrocaudal
portion of the CNS. In such cases the sensory
neuron entrance to the CNS, the CNS circuitry, and
the motor neuron exit all have a similar
rostrocaudal location. The quadriceps stretch reflex
(knee jerk reflex) and the pupillary light reflex are
examples of segmental reflexes because they use
only, respectively, a small number of spinal cord
segments (e.g., L4-L6) or a small rostrocaudal
region of the brainstem.
• In an intersegmental reflex the reflex arc traverses many
segments of the spinal cord or several major brain
divisions (e.g., medulla to midbrain). In one class of
intersegmental reflex, the motor neuron exit is located, or
extends, a considerable rostral or caudal distance from
the location of the sensory neuron entrance
to the CNS.
• (Example of 7-3 B) Vestibulospinal reflexes that produce
postural adjustments in response to acceleration or tilt of
the head. The sensory input, originating in the vestibular
apparatus of the inner ear, enters the CNS near the
pontomedullary border of the brainstem, and the motor
neurons exit from the spinal cord, over a large number of
spinal cord segments.
• (Example of 7-3 C) For some intersegmental reflexes, the
sensory neuron entrance and motor neuron exit are at a
similar rostrocaudal location, but the CNS circuitry lying
in between travels to and returns from a distant region of
the CNS. These are sometimes referred to as longloop
intersegmental reflexes. The proprioceptive positioning
reaction is often associated with this category. This
reaction involves the animal promptly returning its paw
to the normal pad-down position after the clinician flexes
it to make the dorsal surface touch the floor or tabletop.
The sensorimotor circuitry of this reaction courses from
the limb’s peripheral nerves and associated spinal cord
segments all the way through the cerebral cortex and
back to the limb’s spinal cord segments and peripheral
nerves.
• A 3 year old male neutered Doberman presents for
weakness and difficulty walking. Your physical exam
shows the dog is ataxic in all limbs, has conscious
proprioception deficits in all limbs, and has a stiff,
stilted gait in all limbs. All spinal reflexes are
hyperreflexive and all limbs have increased muscle
tone. Where is the anatomic localization of the
lesion?

• A) C6-T2 of the spinal cord

• B) T3-L3 of the spinal cord
• C) C1-C5 of the spinal cord
• D) L4 and caudal of the spinal cord
Concept of Lower and Upper Motor Neuron
• The lower motor neuron Is
classically defined as the alpha (α)
motor neuron.
•Disease of lower motor neurons
causes stereotypical clinical signs like
Paralysis or paresis, atrophy, loss of
segmental and inter-segmental
reflexes, abnormal electromyogram.
•Upper motor neurons lie completely in
the central nervous system and control
lower motor neurons.
•They are (1) corticospinal (cerebral
cortex to spinal cord), (2) corticobulbar
(cerebral cortex to brainstem), and (3)
bulbospinal (descending brainstem to
spinal cord) pathways.
•Signs of upper motor neuron disease
differ from signs of lower motor neuron
disease and include inappropriate
movement, No atrophy, retained but
exaggerated segmental reflexes, normal
electromyogram.
• A 3 year old male neutered Doberman presents for
weakness and difficulty walking. Your physical exam
shows the dog is ataxic in all limbs, has conscious
proprioception deficits in all limbs, and has a stiff,
stilted gait in all limbs. All spinal reflexes are
hyperreflexive and all limbs have increased muscle
tone. Where is the anatomic localization of the
lesion?

• A) C6-T2 of the spinal cord

• B) T3-L3 of the spinal cord
• C) C1-C5 of the spinal cord
• D) L4 and caudal of the spinal cord
• Explanation - The correct answer is C1-C5 of the
spinal cord. All 4 limbs are showing signs of an upper
motor neuron lesion which would be consistent with
a C1-C5 myelopathy or multifocal spinal lesions. A
C6-T2 lesion would manifest as lower motor neuron
signs in the thoracic limbs and upper motor neuron
signs in the pelvic limbs. A T3-L3 lesion would
manifest as upper motor neuron signs in the pelvic
limbs with normal thoracic limbs. A L4 and caudal
lesion would manifest as lower motor neuron signs in
the pelvic limbs with normal thoracic limbs.
• Remember that multifocal lesions in different areas
of the spinal cord can make neuroanatomic
localization trickier.
 Regenerative ability of Nerves
• The PNS and CNS differ in the regenerative ability
of their neural axons following physical injury.
Peripheral nerve axons can slowly re-grow and
reconnect to their peripheral targets.

• Damaged CNS axons do not effectively regenerate

due, in large part, to inhibitory features of their
local environment. Experimental manipulations of
this environment have been shown to
improve CNS axonal re-growth.
 Neurons do not regenerate
• Most human neurons arise in about the first 4
months of intrauterine life.

• After birth, neurons do not divide, and if a

neuron is lost for any reason, it is generally
not replaced, which is the main reason for the
relatively limited recovery from serious brain
and spinal cord injuries.
Neurons production theory- A “holy
grail” for regeneration science
• New evidence suggests that neurons are
produced in the hippocampus (structure for
learning and memory)

• Ependymal cells serve as neural stem cells

with potential to form not only glial cells but
neurons.

• However, BRAIN spontaneously repairing

itself after head trauma etc. is a matter of
debate.
 AXONAL
DEGENERATION
AND
REGENERATION
• These PNS (peripheral nervous system) axons can slowly
regenerate and connect to muscles and sensory receptors.
It is believed that the inability of CNS axons to regenerate
is the fault of the local environment more than it is an
intrinsic property of these axons. For example, on their
surface, oligodendrocytes and myelin carry molecules,
such as myelin-associated glycoprotein, that inhibit axon
growth. Experiments have shown that if severed CNS
axons are given the opportunity to re-grow in the same
environment that surrounds axons in the PNS, they are
capable of re-growth and can make functional connections
with CNS targets. The remarkable ability of damaged
peripheral nerves to regenerate, even in mammals, has
encouraged hope that CNS axons might, under the right
conditions, be able to perform this same feat. It would
mean that victims of spinal cord injury might walk again.
 Protection of CNS
• Enclosed by hard, bony structures
• Wrapped by three protective and nourishing
membranes – meninges
– Dura mater
– Arachnoid mater
– Pia mater
• Floats in cushioning fluid – cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
– Surrounds and cushions brain and spinal cord
– Shock absorbing
– Formed primarily by choroid plexuses
• Blood-brain barrier limits access of blood-borne
materials into brain tissue
Embryonic development of Brain and cavities
associated
Subarachnoid space of brain CSF exits the fourth ventricle at the
CSF flows in the
CSFcirculates
isisproduced
finally subarachnoid
reabsorbed
through the from
by choroid space
the
Ventricles
plexuses
Cerebrospinal fluid Lateral ventricle base of brain
between the
subarachnoid meningeal
space into thelayers
venous
Arachnoid villus Dural sinus blood across the arachnoid villi
Venous blood
Cerebrum
Vein
5
Choroid plexus of lateral ventricle
Choroid plexus of third ventricle
1
Third ventricle
2
4 Pia mater
Arachnoid mater Cranial meninges
3 Dura mater
Cerebellum
Aperture of fourth ventricle
Choroid plexus of fourth ventricle
Spinal cord
Central canal
Pia mater
Arachnoid mater Spinal meninges
4
Brain stem Dura mater

Fourth ventricle

Subarachnoid space of spinal cord

4. CSF flows in the subarachnoid space 5. CSF is finally reabsorbed from the
between the meningeal subarachnoid space into the venous
layers blood across the arachnoid villi
 Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)
• Protects brain from chemical fluctuations in blood
• Minimizes possibility that harmful blood-borne
substances might reach central nervous tissue
• Prevents certain circulating hormones that could also act
as neurotransmitters from reaching brain.
• Limits use of drugs for treatment of brain and spinal
cord disorders
– Many drugs cannot penetrate BBB
– Keeps K+ low and Na+ High
• Cells joined by tight junctions
 Autonomic Nervous System
• The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a part of
the nervous system that is generally not under
conscious, voluntary control, nor is the organism
usually conscious of its operation.
• The ANS is commonly defined as a peripheral
motor system innervating smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle, glandular tissue and the organs of the
body cavity, known as viscera (e.g., stomach,
urinary bladder), that these tissues often
comprise.
 Parasympathetic Nervous
system
Origin It arises from cranial nerves
and sacral spinal nerves.
Pre-ganglionic Long pre-ganglionic nerve
nerve fibre fibres
Post-ganglionic Short post-ganglionic nerve
nerve fibre fibres
Neurotransmitter The postganglionic
at Post-ganglionic neurotransmitter is
nerve fibre acetylcholine (Cholinergic)
Post-synaptic Acetylcholine stimulates
receptors muscarinic and nicotinic
receptors (Cholinergic).
Sympathetic Nervous system
It arises from thoracolumbar spinal
cord.
Short pre-ganglionic nerve fibres
Long post-ganglionic nerve fibres
The postganglionic
neurotransmitter is norepinephrine
(Adrenergic), with exception of
sympathetic postganglionic nerve
fibres to blood vessels of skeletal
muscles and sweat glands in some
species (Cholinergic).
Adrenergic receptors are alpha(α)
and beta (β). Beta receptors are
further divided into β1 and β2
receptors.