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Handouts Tanan
Handouts Tanan
matched
e member of the pair of genes and chromosomes
homologous pair separate in meiosis, so each sperm or egg receives just one member. This
process is just like the segregation of alleles into gametes in Mendel's law of segregation.
another in meiosis, just like the alleles of different genes in Mendel's law of independent
assortment.
A chromosome contains hundreds to thousands of genes.Each chromosome has a centromere
that joins together the two chromatids anddivides also the chromosome into 2 sections or
“arms”. The short arm of chromosome is labelled the “p arm”. The long arm of chromosome is
labelled the “q arm”.
James D. Watson and Francis H. C. Crick found out that DNA is
composed of building units known as nucleotides. It isbuilt on a
deoxyribosesugar and phosphate group that supports the four
nitrogenous bases: guanine pairs with cytosine and vice-versa while
adenine pairs with thymine and vice versa. The bases are
complementary, always appearing opposite to each other on the helix.
NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE
Incomplete Dominance
Incomplete dominance is a form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for a
specific trait is not completely dominant over the other allele. This results in a third
phenotype in which the expressed physical trait is a combination of the dominant
and recessive phenotypes
In codominance both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype of the heterozygote. For
example, red cows crossed with white cows will have offspring that are roan cows. Roan refers to
cows with red hair and white blotches.
Multiple alleles
In humans, there are four blood types (phenotypes): A, B, AB, O.
Blood type Genotypes
Blood type is controlled by three alleles: A, B, O. (Phenotypes)
O is recessive, two O alleles must be present for a person to have type O blood. A IA IA IA i
A and B are codominant. If a person receives an A allele and a B allele, their blood
type is type AB. B IB IB IB i
AB IA IB
23rd pair of chromosomes is called “Sex chromosomes” are XX (female) and XY O ii
(male)
23 pairs of chromosomes in human, 46 chromosomes in total. 23 comes from the mother and another 23 from the father.
Sex-linked traits
Sex-linked traits are inherited through the X chromosomes.
Males have only one X chromosome. Thus, if they inherit the affected X, they will have the disorder. Females have two X
chromosomes. Therefore, they can inherit/carry the trait without being affected if it acts in a recessive manner.
Sex-limited traits
Sex-limited traits are those that are expressed exclusively in one sex.
Sex-influenced traits
Sex-influenced traits are expressed in both sexes but more frequently in one than in the other sex.
threatened species.
cological imbalance. Examples of these are pollution, deforestation, wildlife depletion, and destruction of
coastal resources. All of these results in ecological imbalance.
by Filipino farmers for crop production wherein the forest is set on fire to clear the
area for cultivation.
letion.
ing, the use of explosives and chemicals, and the conversion of coastal areas into resorts and residential areas greatly
affect marine organisms and their habitats.
anisms in a large quantity.
-ami fishing are the known illegal fishing methods used in the Philippines that kill plenty
of marine animals and destroy coral reefs.
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the food making process that occurs in plants, algae and some photosynthetic bacteria.
Autotrophs referred to organisms that can make their own food while heterotrophs feed on other organisms to survive.
Chemical equation for photosynthesis:
The parts of a chloroplast include the outer and inner membranes, intermembrane space, stroma and thylakoids stacked in grana.
The chlorophyll is built into the membranes of the thylakoids. Chlorophyll absorbs white light, but it looks green because white light
consists of three primary colors: red blue and green. Only red and blue light are absorbed, thus making these colors unavailable to
our eyes while the green light is reflected which makes the chlorophyll looks green. However, it is the energy from red and blue light
that is absorbed will be used in photosynthesis. The green light that we can see is not absorbed by the plant and thus, cannot be
used to do photosynthesis
There are two stages of photosynthesis: (a) light-dependent PHOTOSYNTHESIS (2 types of reaction)
reaction and (b) Calvin Cycle (dark reaction). 1. Light dependent reaction 2. Light independent reaction
The light-dependent reaction happens in the presence of Location: Location:
light. It occurs in the thylakoid membrane and converts light 1. granum/thylakoid 1. stroma
energy to chemical energy. Water–one of the raw materials of Raw materials/Requirements: Raw materials/Requirements:
photosynthesis is utilized during this stage and facilitates the 1. water 1. Carbon dioxide
formation of free electrons and oxygen. The energy harvested 2. sunlight 2. ATP
during this stage is stored in the form of ATP (Adenosine 3. NADPH
End products: End products:
TriPhosphate) and NADPH. These products will be needed by
1. oxygen 1. Glucose
the next stage to complete the photosynthetic process.
2. ATP
The Calvin cycle (dark reaction) is a light-independent phase 3. NADPH
that takes place in the stroma and converts carbon dioxide (CO2)
into sugar. This stage does not directly need light but needs the products of the light reaction, thus it occurs immediately after the
light-dependent phase.
Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration – a complex process by which energy in the form of ATP is
released from food molecules.
Internal structure of a mitochondria.------------------------------------------------>
Glycolysis don’t require oxygen, it occurs in the cytoplasm. Glucose is broken down into 2 pyruvate molecule, the 2 pyruvate
molecules generates 2 ATP and 2 NADH, Total ATP produced is 2.
Krebs cycle/Citric acid cycle requires oxygen, it occurs in the Inner matrix of mitochondria. 2 pyruvate molecules leaves cytoplasm
and enters mitochondria, Pyruvate loses CO2 (undergoes oxidation) forming Acetyl CoA, Coenzyme NADH and FADH2 interacts with
Acetyl CoA, Acetyl CoA produces 2 ATP, 6 NADH and 2 FADH2. Total ATP produced is 2.
Electron transport chain requires oxygen, it occurs on the inner membrane of the mitochondria. Electrons from NADH and FADH2
are transfer to the receptors in the protein complex. ATP synthase combines phosphate group and ADP to generate ATP. ATP are
released together with water; 3 ATP/1 NADH; 2 ATP/3FADH2. Total ATP produced is 34.
The beautiful thing about learning is that no one can take it away from you.
God bless on your exams, I know you can do it!
- Ma’am Stiffany T.