TURNING POINTS

KEERPUNTEN IN DE MODERNE EUROPESE GESCHIEDENIS

SUMMARY / SAMENVATTING

English version. blz. 1

Nederlandse versie. blz. 17

THE START OF EUROPEAN HISTORY WEEK 1

W1 TEXTS
Introduction to Medieval Europe Wim Blockmans & Peter Hoppenbrouwers*
Blockmans and Hoppenbrouwers described the Middle Ages as an interval period between
the classical period and the Renaissance. They write that the term ‘Middle Ages’ is still in
use because of a lack of alternatives. They explain Europe’s development into the most
important player in the world by looking at technological innovation and a lack of absolute
power, which created more opportunities for capitalism to develop.
* Wim Blockmans is a Belgian scientist who specializes in the late middle ages and early modern age. Peter
Hoppenbrouwers is a Dutch scientist who specializes in the history of the middle ages.

The Theft of History Jack Goody*

Goody referred to the popularity of a eurocentric vision on history as a European theft of
history. According to Goody, it’s inappropriate that values and principles like freedom,
democracy and love are deemed European.
* Jack Goody was a British scientist and soldier. He spend three years of his live during the Second World War
as a prisoner of war. After that, he specialized in social anthropology.

W1 FIGURES OF IMPORTANCE
Justinian I (482-565) was an emperor of the Byzantine Empire after the fall of Rome. He
aimed to spread the Roman laws in order to reconstruct the Roman Empire. This project was
called ‘renovatio imperii’.

Charlemagne (747-814) was the leader of the Holy Roman Empire who tried to rebuild the
Roman empire in order to be seen as a legitimate successor to the Roman emperors.
Nowadays he’s seen by many as the father of Europe, but he definitely wouldn’t call himself
that.

Jack Goody (1919-2015) was a British historian who didn’t thought of Rome as a part of
Europe, but instead he thought it was part of a bigger world with Asian and African
influences as well. He was very much against painting temples white (which was quite
common in his time), since the temples used to be very colorful. His reasoning behind this
goes as follows: painting temples white would be the European appropriation of Roman
culture.

W1 CAN IT BE CONSIDERED A TURNING POINT?

476: The fall of the Roman Empire
It is a turning point, because:
● the Roman urban culture disappeared almost entirely, because a lot of people went
on to live together in smaller communities.
● trade and the use of currencies declined and autarky became the new normal.
● loyalty to the empire was no longer a thing. From then on, people were loyal to their
feudal leaders.

Not a turning point, because:

● there were still elements of the Roman culture to be found in the west.
● the Germanians were involved in the Roman Empire and still saw themselves as part
of a Roman culture. They are in a sense the new elite, making use of Roman
religious traditions and other habits.
● with the Byzantine Empire in the east existing for about a 1000 years after the fall of
Rome, there was still a strong Roman Empire existing.

1200-1500: The end of the Middle Ages

It is a turning point, because:
● society changed substantially from mainly agrarian to mainly commercial.
● population increased dramatically.
● urbanization increased dramatically.

It is not a turning point, because:

● it wasn’t considered a turning point by contemporaries.
● christianity was still the dominant religion.
● decentralization was still omnipresent.

RENAISSANCE & REFORMATION WEEK 2

W2 TEXTS
The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy Jacob Burckhardt*
According to Burckhardt, wealth, a cultural background and relative freedom created the
perfect circumstances in Italy for the introduction of a new way of thinking: individualism.
This lead to the emergence of modernity, a situation in which a man could develop himself
by gathering knowledge. Burckhardt describes a ‘renaissance person’ as someone who is
highly developed on several different fronts. His perspective on the Renaissance is almost
romantic.
* Jacob Burckhardt was a Swiss art historian who specializes in the renaissance.

The Renaissance Peter Burke*

According to Burke, the Renaissance can not be considered a turning point because there
are too much similarities with the Middle Ages. He argues the principle of individualism was
already there in the Middle Ages, for instance. Furthermore, he argues Renaissancists differ
very much from the Romans of the classical era on the basis of religious background.
* Peter Burke is an English historian who specializes in the renaissance.

W2 FIGURES OF IMPORTANCE
Robert Bartlett (1950-) is a British historian who argues the principle of Europe was found
between 950 and 1350. To back up this argument, he pointed to factors such as a great
increase of the population, agricultural growth, urban growth, the emergence of commercial
capitalism, the emergence of alphabetism, the development of the catholic church and the
growth of states. Besides, he also argues that the ideas of colonization and expansion
originate in this period.

Jacob Burckhardt (1818-1897) was a Swiss historian who argued that the renaissance
could be seen as the start of modern individualism.

Peter Burke (1937-) criticizes Burckhardt’s vision on the renaissance. He argues there are
a lot of rennaisancists both in the middle ages as well as outside of Europe.

Constantine the Great (273-337) was an emperor of the Roman Empire who managed to
organize the secular power of the pope via the ‘Donatio Constantini’. However, it turned out
that the papers stating the pope’s secular power were falsified, so his power was in fact not
legitimate.

Lorenzo Valla (1406-1457) studied the ‘Donatio Constantini’ and discovered the papers
were falsified.

Martin Luther (1483-1546) was a protestant clergyman and reformist. He was a proponent
of returning to the bible’s original text to debunk corrupt clergymen and because of his
believe in ‘sola fide’ (only faith could make your sins be forgiven). He translated the bible to
German and his ideas were used by German princes in their struggle for independence.

John Calvin (1509-1564) thought the reformation was ‘hijacked’ by the princes. He created
a so called divine community in Geneva, mainly based on the principle of discipline.
Discipline is now seen as a common feature of calvinist protestantism.

Henry IV (1553-1610) was the king of France, also known as ‘le bon roi’. In 1598, he issued
the edict of Nantes, aiming to build a strong and tolerant French state en French economy in
order to forget the religious struggles of the past.

Philip II (1527-1598) was the king of Spain, but also the ruler of The Netherlands (amongst
others). Whilst he aimed for centralisation, the Dutch aristocracy aimed for more autonomy.
Due to bad crisis management, this little conflict escalated into the a war and eventually into
the independence of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands.

Duke Fernando Álvarez de Toledo of Alba (1507-1582) was sent to The Netherlands
by Philip II in order to restore his power, but he didn’t succeed in doing that.

W2 CAN IT BE CONSIDERED A TURNING POINT?

1500s: The Renaissance & the Reformation
It is a turning point, because:
● a skeptical attitude towards religious principles emerges in Europe.
● for the first time in history, political authority is being challenged on a massive scale.
 ● urbanization increased dramatically.
● a new mentality concerning public citizenship emerged (tax money was reinvested
into society).
● religious diversity was seen as threatening social stability.
● wars broke out on the basis of religion.
● the emergence of mass communication (the invention of the printing press) lead to
information spreading way faster.
● numerous advanced weapons were invented.
● population increased dramatically.
● the first voyages of discovery were made.

It is not a turning point, because:

● the agricultural society didn’t cease to exist.
● there wasn’t just one reformation, but multiple reformations, so it can’t be considered
a single individual turning point.
● the renaissance is based on traditional religious values which can’t possibly be
considered innovative.
● there was no radical discontinuity between the ideas of the Middle Ages and the
ideas of the Renaissance (according to Burke).
● it wasn’t considered a turning point by contemporaries.

1600s: The religious wars and the Peace of Westphalia

It is a turning point, because:
● the Peace of Westphalia can be considered the start of the modern international
system of congresses that created a new balance between sovereign nationstates.
● religious pluralism was introduced.
● the stability of the state became more important than religious affiliations.

It is not a turning point, because:

● religion continued to be of great importance in society. This religious continuity can
be seen for instance in the continuation of the Holy Roman Empire.

W2 MOCK EXAM QUESTIONS

The sixteenth century
To what extent can the early sixteenth century be considered a turning point? Give two
arguments in favour of the statement and two arguments against the statement.

Peace of Westphalia
To what extent can the Peace of Westphalia be considered a turning point? Give two
arguments in favour of the statement and two arguments against the statement.

Renaissance and Reformation

What is the relationship between the Renaissance/humanism and the Reformation?

Reformations
Why do historians tend to use the term ‘Reformations’ instead of ‘Reformation?*
* plural instead of singular
FRENCH REVOLUTION & NAPOLEON WEEK 3
W3 TEXTS
The Enlightenment: An Interpretation Peter Gay*
Gay refers to the Enlightenment as a family; a group of people who’ve got conflicts but
nevertheless pursue the same goals. He describes the typical enlightened philosopher as a
Frenchman, an he often refers to Rousseau and Voltaire.
* Peter Gay was an American-German historian of Jewish descent. He specialized in the history of ideas and
mentality.

The Enlightenment Roy Porter*

Porter emphasizes the importance of enlightened followers for enlightenment thinking to
strive. He argues that the origins of Enlightenment thinking aren’t to be found in France, but
in The Netherlands and England instead. Porter also argues that enlightened thinkers aren’t
as modern as is often thought, because in a sense they are part of the establishment.
* Roy Porter was a British historian who specialized in the history of medicine.

W3 FIGURES OF IMPORTANCE
Frederick the Great (1712-1786) was the enlightened absolutist monarch of Prussia.

Joseph II (1741-1790) was the enlightened absolutist monarch of the Habsburg Empire.
His resistance against certain religious communities without any economic value, gained him
popularity among the masses.

Louis XVI (1754-1793) was the king of France until his execution during the French
revolution. When the revolution started, he was allowed to maintain in his position as king,
but his insecure personality and his attempt to flee the country made him a persona non
grata.

Maximilien de Robespierre (1758-1794) was the leader of France during the Reign of
Terror. He believed in a direct democracy in which he personified the entire state. Not long
after the Reign of Terror, Robespierre was executed.

Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859) was a French aristocrat who believed the French
revolution to be a continuation of an earlier trend of democratization and centralization.

François Furet (1927-1997) was a historian known for his revisionist views regarding the
French revolution. He argues that the French revolution was a political change, instead of a
socio-economic one.

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) was a member of the lower Corsican aristocracy who
rose to power in France after the Coup of 18 Brumaire. He is known as a great political
strategist and in 1804 he decided to crown himself the emperor of France. He married Marie
Louise of Austria (who was part of the ancien régime) and was exiled twice: he managed to
escape the isle of Elba, but after his loss at the Battle of Waterloo, he was definitively
banned to the isle of Saint Helena.
Edmund Burke (1729-1797) was a parliamentarian and anti-revolutionary who believed
Europe should consist out of multiple independent countries without the presence of a
dominant force.

William I (1772-1843) was crowned king of The Netherlands after the Congress of Vienna.

W3 CAN IT BE CONSIDERED A TURNING POINT?

1700s: The Enlightenment
It is a turning point, because:
● the increase of interest of academics caused the creation of a society willing to doubt
its own values, culture and traditions.
● public opinion was no longer controlled because of the development of the printing
press and the increase of rail networks.
● enlightened and rational monarchies emerged.

It is not a turning point, because:

● the 1700s was a period of monarchist power and a transfer from power to the people
did not take place (yet).
● a lot of religious dogmas were still commonplace and the 1700s are known to be the
heyday of superstitious principles such as witch hunts.

1789-1799: The period of the French Revolution

It is a turning point, because:
● feudalism definitely cease to exist (in France) and capitalism becomes more and
more important.
● a new political culture based on the revolutionary values of citizenship and the
importance of the nation emerged.
● the first mass political movement established and public opinion emerged.

It is not a turning point, because:

● geographical borders didn’t change.
● catholicism continued to be the dominant religion in France.

1799-1825: The Napoleonic era

It is a turning point, because:
● Napoleon continued the revolutionary principles of civil rights and equality by creating
juridical equality.
● Napoleon presented himself as the first symbol or representative of the nation.
● Napoleon laid the foundation for modern security services.
● the Napoleonic Empire can be seen as the start of European integration.

It is not a turning point, because:

● just like the ancien régime, Napoleon limited the options for political participation.
● the imperial form of governance was reintroduced.
● the people were still repressed (by the security services, amongst others).
 W3 MOCK EXAM QUESTIONS
Origins of the Revolution
What can be considered the 17th century origin of the French Revolution?

Historiographic debate
Describe the historiographical debate on the French Revolution.

Radical Revolution
Why did the French Revolution become so radical?

Ancien régime
Explain the term ‘ancien régime’.

(CONTRA-)REVOLUTION & GLOBALIZATION WEEK 4

W4 TEXTS
Phantom Terror Adam Zamoyski*
According to Zamoyski, during the Congress of Vienna, a terrorist threat was used to justify
repression. He argues that the Congress of Vienna wasn’t very successful in stopping
revolutionary thought, which eventually made sure the repressive leaders lost their positions
of power.
* Adam Zamoyski is a Polish historian who is a part of the aristocrat Zamoyski family.

The Congress of Vienna Brian E. Vick*

Vick argues that the Congress of Vienna was heavily influenced by external opinions and
enlightenment ideals.
* Brian E. Vick is an American historian who specializes in nationalism, liberalism, historicism and racial theories.

W4 FIGURES OF IMPORTANCE
Napoleon Bonaparte III (1808-1873) was as leader of France eager to reinstate the
Napoleonic empire. He wasn’t taken very seriously at first, but his diplomatic and well-
informed attitude made him gain quite some popularity, Under his leadership, France was
turned into a authoritary, modern economy. He lost power after losing a war, just like his
uncle Napoleon.

Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) was the chancellor and ‘founder’ of the German empire,
which is often (falsely) regarded as a military monarchy.

Harold James (1956-) is a British historian who described the nineteenth century as being
the century of migration and world capitalism.

Christopher Bayly (1945-2015) was a British historian who argued that borders between
cultural identities became more clear in the late nineteenth century. According to Bayly, the
emergence of nationalism can be used to explained the development of imperialism.
Jürgen Osterhammel (1952-) is a German historian who argued that the world became
more efficient in the nineteenth century, which led to ideas spreading more easily.

Victoria (1819-1901) was the queen of the United Kingdom who gained popularity due to
mass marketing in which she and her family were portrayed as a typical middle class family.
At the time of her diamond anniversary in and around 1897, imperialism is commonly
regarded to as a positive principle.

Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924) was a communist Russian revolutionary who believed

imperialism and colonial expansionism to be the result of capitalism.

Ronald Robinson (1920-1999) & Jack Gallagher (1919-1980) were British historians
who believed imperialism not to be pre-planned, but to be a result of local crises. The
reactions of European colonial rulers to problems in the periphery of the colonies were more
or less spontaneous, for instance.

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) believed humans to be irrational, instead functioning on

the basis of will. People who are able to dominate someone else’s will are considered the
most important and strongest. He argues history should be forgotten; the focus should be on
here and now if you want to change something.

Henri Bergson (1859-1941) believed people were functioning on the basis of instinct. His
ideas resemble those of Sigmund Freud, who believed people to be functioning on the basis
of their subconsciousness.

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) wrote On the Origin of Species in 1859, in which the notion
of natural selection was explained as follows: animals who are good in adapting to changing
circumstances, tend to survive. This theory was implemented on humans by other people,
who used the theory to substantiate hierarchical theories on races.

W4 CAN IT BE CONSIDERED A TURNING POINT?

1815: Congress of Vienna
It is a turning point, because:
● for the first time, the principle of diplomatic unity and equality between European
nationstates was being put into practice.
● the Congress of Vienna had a great impact on European borders.

It is not a turning point, because:

● the Congress of Vienna was anti-revolutionary, which means it was quite the
opposite of innovative.
● the Congress of Vienna lead to a lot of unrest and caused the emergence of
nationalist protest movements.

1871: German unification

It is a turning point, because:
● a new federation was established, challenging the existing world powers.
● for the first time in Germany, a military monarchy was introduced.
 ● power was redistributed because of the establishment of the very powerful state of
Germany.

It is not a turning point, because:

● by many countries, Germany wasn’t considered a threat. For instance, most English
people felt relatively sympathetic towards German unification, and Russia was busy
stabilizing the own empire.

1800s: Period of empires

It is a turning point, because:
● a lot of modernization concerning communication and technology took place during
this period.
● mass migration started in this period
● globalization emerged as a consequence of colonialism.
● a new form of colonialism in which imperial powers implement their culture and
values in the colonies is introduced.
● from then on, cultural modernity and a fear of degeneration played a much bigger
role than before.

It is not a turning point, because:

● the political playing field continued to exist of mainly strong monarchies and
dynasties.

W4 MOCK EXAM QUESTIONS

Revolutionary political culture
What are the most important elements of the revolutionary political culture?

Restoration as a reaction
To what extent can the period of restauration be considered a ‘reaction’?

Peace by congresses
‘The Congress of Vienna and the later congress system of diplomatic relations of the
European countries were fundamental in the creation of a century of peace and stability
in Europa.’
Give at least two arguments in favour of this statement and two arguments against this
statement. Do this by using the texts of Adam Zamoyski and Brian Vick.

WORLD WAR I & THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS WEEK 5

W5 FIGURES OF IMPORTANCE
Fritz Fischer (1908-1999) was a German historian who came up with the idea that the
aggressiveness of German rulers was to be blamed for World War I, rejecting the traditional
idea that no one could be deemed guilty of starting a war.

Mark Mazower (1958-) is a British historian who believes national-socialism to be a

broadly supported ideology containing elements of several different ideologies. According to
Mazower, the danger of national-socialism was it’s close connection to liberalism. He argues
the eventual collapse of national-socialism could be blamed on military failure.

Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) was an Indian lawyer and freedom fighter with a cynical
view on western civilization.

Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938) was a Pakistani poet who stated Europe was to be seen
as a beacon of destruction.

René Maran (1887-1960) wrote a comedy on French society.

Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) was a president of the United States who introduced his
ideas about the originally Bolshevik term self-determination by publishing the ‘Fourteen
Points’ plan. The ‘Fourteen Points’ plan was received with lots of joy in the colonies, but it’s
important to consider that Wilson was an anglophile and (definitely when compared to
today’s standards) quite racist.

Hồ Chí Minh (1890-1969) was a Vietnamese freedom fighter who left his country for Paris
in 1919 to take part in the Peace Conference, but he wasn’t invited. Not long after, he joined
the French communist party and after many years of war, he became the leader of an
independent and communist Vietnam.

E.H. Carr (1882-1982) was very critical of the League of Nations and argued
(controversially) that it’s failure could be seen as a major reason World War II broke out.

Margaret MacMillan (1943-), Susan Pedersen (1959-), Patricia Clavin (?-) en

Natasha Wheatley (?-) are female historians who wrote about the League of Nations from
a new perspective after the fall of the Soviet Union.

Eric Drummond (1876-1951) was the first secretary general of the League of Nations.
From a certain perspective, de secretary general of the UN (António Guterres) could be seen
as one of his successors.

Jean Monnet (1888-1979) was the first vice general of the League of Nations. He also
played an important part in the development of the European Union.

Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971), Vladimir Nabokov (1899-1977) & Robert Capa (1913-
1954) were respectively a composer, a writer and a photographer who were all widely known
in their discipline and who profited from the migrant passport introduced by the League of
Nations.

Mary McGeachy (1901-1991) was an idealistic Canadian diplomat. She is known to be

one of the first internationally acclaimed female diplomats and she played an important role
in both the League of Nations, as well as the UN.

W5 CAN IT BE CONSIDERED A TURNING POINT?

1914-1918: First World War
It is a turning point, because:
● new manners of warfare were introduced (weapons of mass destruction).
● the collapse of several different empires in Europe led to massive changes on the
European map.
● a lot of new nationstates emerged out of the ashes of fallen empires.
● Europa was no longer the center of the world.
● national sovereignty and liberal constitutional democracy became the most important
pillars of the European reconstruction.
● alternatives to liberal democracy emerged.
● a new European willingness to cooperate emerged.

It is not a turning point, because:

● a lot of elements of the upcoming alternative ideologies did already exist before the
First World War (eugenics and racial theories, for instance).

1919: League of Nations

It is a turning point, because:
● The League of Nations improved international cooperation and introduced a new
global diplomatic system which inspired later institutions such as the UN.
● The League of Nations made sure people without a passport could get a special
refugee passport, which enabled them to escape their countries.

It is not a turning point, because:

● the League of Nations didn’t manage to maintain peace, and arguably even played a
part in the emergence of the Second World War, just twenty years after the first one.

W5 MOCK EXAM QUESTIONS

Failure of the liberal order
What were the main causes for the failure of the liberal European order after the Treaties of
Paris and Versailles after World War I? Name at least five causes.

WAR, WELFARE & CONFLICT WEEK 6

W6 TEXTS
Paris 1919 Margaret MacMillan & Richard Holbrooke*
MacMillan and Holbrooke argue that the failure of the League of Nations can be seen as a
cause for many contemporary conflicts. According to both, the world powers weren’t capable
of solving international problems because of struggles within their own borders.
* Margaret MacMillan is a Canadian historian who specializes in international relations. Richard Holbrooke was a
leading American diplomat and Democratic Party member who spent a part of his diplomatic career as a UN
ambassador.

The Guardians Susan Pedersen*

Pedersen gives a complete image of the League of Nations, in which she argues that their
mandate policy was of great influence for the current international order.
* Susan Pedersen is een Canadese historica die vooral is gespecialiseerd op 19de en 20ste eeuwse
geschiedenis op het gebied van onder andere Groot-Brittannië en vrouwen.

W6 FIGURES OF IMPORTANCE
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) was the leader of Nazi-Germany, a country which expansionism
was inspired by the US and the British empire. He saw Nazi-Germany as the European
counterpart of the US, arguing Ukraine could be Germany’s California (or: Germany’s
lebensraum).

Tony Judt (1948-2010) was a historian who argued the protests and student movements of
the late 60’s couldn’t be considered a turning point since in retrospect it didn’t really have a
major influence on policy making. He typifies the 80’s as a period of economic stagnation in
the communist bloc, dubbing it a period of ‘grey and drab’. He believed the change in policy
made by Gorbachev to be the main reason for the fall of communism.

James Kennedy (1963-) is a historian who typified the year 1968 as the year of a
generational struggle in which certain ideas of the youth were adopted by the elite.

Winston Churchill (1874-1968) was the first minister of the UK and was a signatory of the
Atlantic Charter (1941), which included agreements on cooperation and self-determination.
According to Churchill, the principle of self-determination had to be applied to areas
occupied by Nazi-Germany only.

Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945) was the president of the United States and was a
signatory of the Atlantic Charter (1941), which included agreements on cooperation and self-
determination. According to Roosevelt, the principle of self-determination had to be applied
to the entire world.

Jan Smuts (1870-1950) was, as prime minister of South-Africa, known as one of the main
proponents of international cooperation. He argued that the League of Nations (and after
that it’s more efficient successor, the UN) should help white, Anglo-American leaders to
maintain their powers. The UN should also promote liberal rights, because that’s what
distincts them from the Nazis. At the conference of Yalta, his proposal to integrate human
rights into the UN was accepted, even though Smuts controversially supported segregation.
He saw the San Francisco conference as an improved version of the peace conference of
Paris 25 years earlier.

Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964) was an anti-colonial activist who believed that non of the
options for an international order could be considered ideal. He argued India should follow a
third way, a middle ground between the capitalist US and the communist Soviet Union. He
was very critical of Smuts’ racial policies in South-Africa and he stated that the UN should be
used to fight colonialism, very much opposed to Smuts’ views on the UN.

Radhabinod Pal (1886-1967) was an Indian anti-colonial thinker and judge during the
Tokyo trials. He tended to vote against the conviction of Japanese war criminals because he
argued the war the Japanese fought against western countries was a matter of self defense.
While doing so, he compared Harry Truman to Nazis for dropping nukes on Japan. His
motivated his peculiar behaviour during the trials by arguing it was out of fear of the
reinstallment of colonial power in many countries.

W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963) was an Afro-American intellectual who wrote about

discrimination in the US, emphasizing the importance of human rights for minorities.
Supported by the Soviet Union, he tried to persuade the UN to intervene.

Charles Malik (1906-1987) & Carlos Romulo (1899-1985) were non-western leaders
who were closely involved in the establishment of the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights. Malik saw himself as a defender of western principles and Romulo put an emphasis
on the importance of christianity as a major western concept.

W6 CAN IT BE CONSIDERED A TURNING POINT?

1968: Student movements & demonstrations
It is a turning point, because:
● the post-war consensus which caused relative peace and stability was criticized.
● people broke with traditional societal values and replaced them by new ideas
concerning sexuality, for instance.
● individualism definitively broke through and eventually replaced a compartmentalized
society.
● society repoliticized: people were interested in politics again.
● progressive and populist political movements emerged.

It is not a turning point, because:

● the movement didn’t really succeed in influencing policy making.

1945-: A new liberal world order

It is a turning point, because:
● the idea of the end of history emerged. This means the combination of liberal
democracy, capitalism and cosmopolitanism defeated the ideological alternatives,
and therefore definitively appeared to be the best in the world. The expectation was
that liberal democracy, capitalism and cosmopolitanism would not be challenged.
● in the ‘80s neoliberalism emerged as a political ideology of massive influence in the
coming years.
● international cooperation was introduced on a large scale through organizations such
as the UN and the EU.
● colonialism definitively ceased to exist.
● the US definitively emerges as the major world power.

It is not a turning point, because:

● new (hybrid) ideologies emerge and threaten the dominant position of liberalism. An
example of a new hybrid ideology is the Chinese combination of communism,
economic liberalism and technological social elements.
● countries such as China are challenging the US’ position as major world power and a
new global distribution of power with multiple big players seems to emerge.
● transnational organisations originated before 1945, with the emergence of the
League of Nations in 1919.
 ● manny transnational organisations include illiberal features, therefore they cannot be
considered completely in line with liberalism.

W6 MOCK EXAM QUESTIONS

Thirty glorious years
Why is the post-war period (post 1945) in European history often referred to as the ‘thirty
glorious years? Make use of political, cultural, and economic reasons.

THE THIRD WAY & THE END OF HISTORY WEEK 7

W7 TEXTS
The End of History? Francis Fukuyama*
Fukuyama writes about the principle of the end of history; the believe that the ideological
struggles have definitively finished with the liberal democratic free market system coming out
as a winner, eventually spreading over the whole world. Fukuyama substantiates this by
arguing the only two rival ideologies (fascism and communism) are no longer of any
significance on the world stage. He believes the end of history will be a somewhat dull period
in which ideology will be replaced by economics and statistics.
* Francis Fukuyama is an American politicologist and sociologist who is known for being a neo-conservative
thinker.

Age of Anger Pankaj Mishra*

Mishra argues that the combination liberal democracy and capitalism has got positive
consequences as well as negative consequences. For instance, the emergence of
nationalism and extremist groups can be seen as reactions to globalization.
Pankaj Mishra is an Indian writer.

W7 FIGURES OF IMPORTANCE
Margaret Thatcher (1925-2013) was the British first minister mainly known as one of the
figureheads of neoliberalism. Deprecated industries, lack of development and a sense of
eurosclerosis led to the rise of Margaret Thatcher, who was inspired Friedrich Hayek’s ideas
on the role of the state in the economy. Her economic policy was radically conservative:
state intervention was minimized, taxes for companies were drastically lowered and loads of
state companies were privatized. She was very critical of the EU, but she did see the
importance of cooperation in order to successfully liberalize the economy. She was very
much against the ideas of the student movements of the 60’s. She was also an opponent of
the idea of ‘one society’, the existence of the Unions and feminism.

François Mitterrand (1916-1996) was the president of France. He was originally a

socialist, but he adopted a lot of elements of Thatcher’s liberal model.

Francis Fukuyama (1952-) wrote The End of History in 1989, in which he states that the
fall of communism proves that the combination of liberal democracy, cosmopolitanism and
capitalism is to be considered the best ideology. He also expects that those principles will
eventually rule the entire world.
Tony Blair (1953-), Wim Kok (1938-2018), Bill Clinton (1946-), Lionel Jospin (1937-)
en Gerhard Schröder (1944-) were all social democratic politicians who aimed to create
social equality by implementing liberal legislation. Kok once said: ‘Ideology is no longer of
importance, the leader of a country should be a good manager.’ This statement typifies all of
these politicians quite accurately.

Salman Rushdie (1947-) is an Indian writer who was outlawed by the Iranian cleric
Khomeini via a fatwa.

Samuel Huntington (1927-2008) was an American historian and writer. He wrote Clash of
Cultures in 2001, in which he criticizes Fukuyama’s work by giving his very pessimistic
perspective on the future.

Sir Halford John Mackinder (1861-1947) was a British geographer who discovered the
importance of a ‘heartland’ when aiming for a role on the international stage. The struggle for
the ‘heartland’ can also be seen as a major part of both of the world wars. Another major
area of importance is the so-called ‘pivot area’, which houses a lot of people and a lot of
natural resources.

Xi Jinping (1953-) is the current president of China, the country that will soon develop into
the world’s major powerhouse. He is a descendant of an elitist family who got involved with
communist politics.

W7 MOCK EXAM QUESTIONS

End of history vs. age of anger
Compare the interpretation of Francis Fukuyama and Pankaj Mishra on the international
order after the Cold War. Whilst answering the question, explain the concepts ‘end of history’
and ‘age of anger’.

DE START VAN DE EUROPESE GESCHIEDENIS WEEK 1

W1 TEKSTEN
Introduction to Medieval Europe Wim Blockmans & Peter Hoppenbrouwers*
Blockmans en Hoppenbrouwers schrijven over de Middeleeuwen als tussenperiode tussen
de klassieke oudheid en de renaissance. Ze schrijven dat bij gebrek aan alternatieven de
term nog altijd in gebruik is en verklaren de ontwikkeling van Europa tot absolute
wereldmacht door te kijken naar technologische innovatie en de afwezigheid van absolute
machten, waardoor het kapitalisme zich kon ontwikkelen.
* Wim Blockmans is een Belgische wetenschapper die gespecialiseerd is in de laatmiddeleeuwse en
vroegmoderne tijd. Peter Hoppenbrouwers is een Nederlandse wetenschapper die gespecialiseerd is in
middeleeuwse geschiedenis.

The Theft of History Jack Goody*

Goody spreekt van een Europese diefstal van de geschiedenis. Hij benadrukt dat een
eurocentrische visie op de geschiedenis populair is en dat dat te zien is aan het feit dat
waarden en principes als vrijheid, democratie en liefde eigenlijk alleen maar als Europese
verworvenheden worden gezien, terwijl ook andere gebieden er grote invloed op hebben
gehad volgens hem.
* Jack Goody was een Britse wetenschapper en soldaat. Hij spendeerde in de Tweede Wereldoorlog drie jaar als
krijgsgevangene en specialiseerde zich later op academisch niveau in sociale antropologie.

W1 BELANGRIJKE PERSONEN
Justinianus I (482-565) was an emperor of the Byzantine Empire after the fall of Rome. He
aimed to spread the Roman laws in order to reconstruct the Roman Empire. This project was
called ‘renovatio imperii’.

Karel de Grote (747-814) was the leader of the Holy Roman Empire who tried to rebuild
the Roman empire in order to be seen as a legitimate successor to the Roman emperors.
Nowadays he’s seen by many as the father of Europe, but he definitely wouldn’t call himself
that.

Jack Goody (1919-2015) was a British historian who didn’t thought of Rome as a part of
Europe, but instead he thought it was part of a bigger world with Asian and African
influences as well. He was very much against painting temples white (which was quite
common in his time), since the temples used to be very colorful. His reasoning behind this
goes as follows: painting temples white would be the European appropriation of Roman
culture.

W1 IS HET EEN KEERPUNT?

476: De val van het Romeinse Rijk
It is a turning point, because:
● de Romeinse stedelijke cultuur nam in grote mate af en veel mensen gingen
samenleven in kleine gemeenschappen.
● de handel en het gebruik van valuta nam ook af en zelfvoorziening werd de norm.
● de loyaliteit aan het keizerrijk was er niet langer. De belangrijkste loyaliteit van het
volk ging nu uit naar de feodale leiders.

Geen keerpunt, want:

● elementen uit de Romeinse cultuur bleven bestaan in het westen.
● de Germanen waren betrokken bij het Romeinse rijk en zagen zich nog steeds als
deel van de Romeinse cultuur. Ze vormen een nieuwe elite met Romeinse
gewoonten en namen voornamelijk religieuze elementen over.
● in het oosten zien we dat Byzantium nog zo’n 1000 jaar als sterk Romeins rijk
functioneert.

1200-1500: Het einde van de middeleeuwen

It is a turning point, because:
● de maatschappij veranderde voor een substantieel deel van agrarisch naar
commercieel.
● de populatie nam enorm toe.
● de urbanisatie nam enorm toe.

It is not a turning point, because:

 ● het idee van verandering werd niet erkend door tijdgenoten.
● het christendom was nog altijd de dominante religie.
● decentralisering was nog altijd zeer nadrukkelijk aanwezig.

RENAISSANCE & REFORMATIE WEEK 2

W2 TEKSTEN
The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy Jacob Burckhardt*
Burckhardt schrijft hoe rijkdom, culturele achtergrond en relatieve vrijheid er voor heeft
gezorgd dat er in Italië ruimte was voor een nieuwe manier van denken: het individualisme.
Dit leidde volgens hem tot de ontwikkeling van de moderniteit, waarin een man zich
onafhankelijk kon ontwikkelen door middel van kennisvergaring. Hij omschrijft de
renaissance-persoon als iemand die op vele fronten hoog ontwikkeld is. Hij heeft een bijna
romantisch perspectief op de renaissance.
* Jacob Burckhardt was een Zwitserse (kunst)historicus die vooral bekend staat om zijn werk over de
renaissance.

The Renaissance Peter Burke*

Burke verwerpt de renaissance als keerpunt en benadrukt dat veel elementen uit de
renaissance al zijn terug te zien in de middeleeuwen. Denk hierbij aan bijvoorbeeld
individualisme. Ook benadrukt hij het religieuze verschil tussen renaissancisten en
Romeinen uit de klassieke tijd.
* Peter Burke is een Engelse historicus die gespecialiseerd is in de renaissance.

W2 BELANGRIJKE PERSONEN
Robert Bartlett (1950-) is a British historian who argues the principle of Europe was found
between 950 and 1350. To back up this argument, he pointed to factors such as a great
increase of the population, agricultural growth, urban growth, the emergence of commercial
capitalism, the emergence of alphabetism, the development of the catholic church and the
growth of states. Besides, he also argues that the ideas of colonization and expansion
originate in this period.

Jacob Burckhardt (1818-1897) was a Swiss historian who argued that the renaissance
could be seen as the start of modern individualism.

Peter Burke (1937-) criticizes Burckhardt’s vision on the renaissance. He argues there are
a lot of rennaisancists both in the middle ages as well as outside of Europe.

Constantijn de Grote (273-337) was an emperor of the Roman Empire who managed to
organize the secular power of the pope via the ‘Donatio Constantini’. However, it turned out
that the papers stating the pope’s secular power were falsified, so his power was in fact not
legitimate.

Lorenzo Valla (1406-1457) studied the ‘Donatio Constantini’ and discovered the papers
were falsified.
Maarten Luther (1483-1546) was a protestant clergyman and reformist. He was a
proponent of returning to the bible’s original text to debunk corrupt clergymen and because
of his believe in ‘sola fide’ (only faith could make your sins be forgiven). He translated the
bible to German and his ideas were used by German princes in their struggle for
independence.

Johannes Calvijn (1509-1564) thought the reformation was ‘hijacked’ by the princes. He
created a so called divine community in Geneva, mainly based on the principle of discipline.
Discipline is now seen as a common feature of calvinist protestantism.

Hendrik IV (1553-1610) was the king of France, also known as ‘le bon roi’. In 1598, he
issued the edict of Nantes, aiming to build a strong and tolerant French state en French
economy in order to forget the religious struggles of the past.

Filips II (1527-1598) was the king of Spain, but also the ruler of The Netherlands (amongst
others). Whilst he aimed for centralisation, the Dutch aristocracy aimed for more autonomy.
Due to bad crisis management, this little conflict escalated into the a war and eventually into
the independence of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands.

Hertog van Alva (1507-1582) was sent to The Netherlands by Philip II in order to restore
his power, but he didn’t succeed in doing that.

W2 IS HET EEN KEERPUNT?

1500s: De renaissance & de reformatie
It is a turning point, because:
● er ontstaat in Europa een skeptische houding ten opzichte van religieuze principes.
● de politieke autoriteit wordt voor het eerst op grote schaal uitgedaagd.
● de urbanisatie nam enorm toe.
● er ontstond een nieuwe mentaliteit met betrekking tot publiek burgerschap
(belastinggeld dat werd geherinvesteerd in de samenleving).
● religieuze diversiteit werd gezien als een bedreiging voor de sociale stabiliteit
● er breken oorlogen uit op basis van religie.
● de opkomst van massacommunicatie (de uitvinding van de drukpers) leidde ertoe dat
informatie zich snel kon verspreiden.
● er werden allerlei nieuwe, meer geavanceerde wapens uitgevonden.
● er was sprake van een flinke toename in de bevolkingsgroei.
● er werd een begin gemaakt aan de ontdekkingsreizen.

It is not a turning point, because:

● de agrarische maatschappij bleef bestaan.
● er is geen sprake van één reformatie, maar meerdere reformaties, en het kan
daarom geen individueel keerpunt worden genoemd.
● de renaissance kent zijn kern in religieuze traditionele waarden uit de oudheid, en is
dus niet zo zeer modern of vernieuwend.
● er was geen sprake van radicale discontinuïteit tussen de ideeën in de
middeleeuwen en de renaissance en volgens bijvoorbeeld Burke is de renaissance
als losstaand principe daarom een mythe.
 ● mensen in deze periode geloofden niet dat ze in een keerpunt leefden.

1600s: De religieoorlogen en de Vrede van Westfalen

It is a turning point, because:
● de vrede van Westfalen vormt het begin van het moderne internationale
verdragssysteem en zorgt voor de aanvaarding van een nieuwe balans tussen
soevereine natiestaten.
● we zien voor het eerst religieus pluralisme.
● de stabiliteit van de staat werd belangrijker dan religieuze affiliaties.

It is not a turning point, because:

● religie bleef van groot belang in de samenleving. Deze religieuze continuïteit wordt
gekenmerkt door de voortzetting van het Heilige Roomse Rijk.

W2 OEFENVRAGEN
De zestiende eeuw
In hoeverre kan de vroege zestiende eeuw worden gezien als een keerpunt in de Europese
geschiedenis. Geef twee argumenten voor en twee argumenten tegen.

Vrede van Westfalen

In hoeverre kan de Vrede van Westfalen (1648) beschouwd worden als een keerpunt in de
Europese geschiedenis? Geef tenminste twee argumenten voor en twee argumenten tegen
dit standpunt.

Renaissance en reformatie
Wat is de relatie tussen de renaissance/het humanisme en de reformatie?

Reformaties
Waarom gebruiken historici de term ‘reformaties’ (meervoud in plaats van enkelvoud)?

FRANSE REVOLUTIE & NAPOLEON WEEK 3

W3 TEKSTEN
The Enlightenment: An Interpretation Peter Gay*
Gay schetst de Verlichting als een familie; een groep mensen die ondanks conflicten
overeenkomstige doelen nastreefden. Hij benadrukt hierin het belang van een aantal grote
denkers als Rousseau en Voltaire. Hij omschrijft de typische verlichte filosoof als een
Fransman.
* Peter Gay was een Amerikaans-Duitse historicus van Joodse komaf die zich specialiseerde in ideeën- en
mentaliteitsgeschiedenis.

The Enlightenment Roy Porter*

Porter benadrukt het belang van de verlichte achterban en schrijft dat de oorsprong voor het
verlichte gedachtegoed niet in Frankrijk, maar in Nederland en Engeland te vinden is. Hij
schetst dat verlichte denkers in zekere zin deel uitmaakten van het establishment, en
daarom helemaal niet zo modern zijn als dat beweert wordt.
* Roy Porter was een Britse historicus die zich voornamelijk specialiseerde in geneeskundige geschiedenis.
W3 BELANGRIJKE PERSONEN
Frederik de Grote (1712-1786) was the enlightened absolutist monarch of Prussia.

Jozef II (1741-1790) was the enlightened absolutist monarch of the Habsburg Empire. His
resistance against certain religious communities without any economic value, gained him
popularity among the masses.

Lodewijk XVI (1754-1793) was the king of France until his execution during the French
revolution. When the revolution started, he was allowed to maintain in his position as king,
but his insecure personality and his attempt to flee the country made him a persona non
grata.

Maximilien de Robespierre (1758-1794) was the leader of France during the Reign of
Terror. He believed in a direct democracy in which he personified the entire state. Not long
after the Reign of Terror, Robespierre was executed.

Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859) was a French aristocrat who believed the French
revolution to be a continuation of an earlier trend of democratization and centralization.

François Furet (1927-1997) was a historian known for his revisionist views regarding the
French revolution. He argues that the French revolution was a political change, instead of a
socio-economic one.

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) was a member of the lower Corsican aristocracy who
rose to power in France after the Coup of 18 Brumaire. He is known as a great political
strategist and in 1804 he decided to crown himself the emperor of France. He married Marie
Louise of Austria (who was part of the ancien régime) and was exiled twice: he managed to
escape the isle of Elba, but after his loss at the Battle of Waterloo, he was definitively
banned to the isle of Saint Helena.

Edmund Burke (1729-1797) was a parliamentarian and anti-revolutionary who believed

Europe should consist out of multiple independent countries without the presence of a
dominant force.

Willem I (1772-1843) was crowned king of The Netherlands after the Congress of Vienna.

W3 IS HET EEN KEERPUNT?

1700s: De verlichting
It is a turning point, because:
● de toename van wetenschappelijk interesse creëerde een samenleving die meer
bereid was haar waarden, cultuur en tradities in twijfel te trekken.
● de publieke opinie kan niet langer gecontroleerd worden door de ontwikkeling van de
drukpers en de toename van spoorwegnetwerken
● er ontstonden verlichte en rationele monarchieën
It is not a turning point, because:
● de 18e eeuw was ook een monarchistische periode waarin de macht nog niet in
grote mate naar het volk verschoof, en is daarom niet het begin van de
modernisering.
● er heersen nog steeds veel religieuze dogma’s en we zien de hoogtijdagen van
bijgelovige principes als heksenjachten.

1789-1799: De periode van de Franse revolutie

It is a turning point, because:
● het feodalisme verdwijnt definitief (uit Frankrijk) en het kapitalisme komt op.
● er wordt een nieuwe politieke cultuur gebaseerd op de revolutionaire waarden van
burgerschap en het belang van de natie.
● het betekent het ontstaan van de eerste massale politieke beweging en de opkomst
van de publieke opinie.

It is not a turning point, because:

● de geografische grenzen van gebieden bleven hetzelfde.
● het katholicisme bleef de dominante religie in Frankrijk.

1799-1825: De Napoleontische tijd

It is a turning point, because:
● Napoleon zette de erfenis van burgerrechten en gelijkheid voort en bracht
revolutionaire ideeën van juridische gelijkheid in de praktijk.
● hij presenteerde zichzelf voor het eerst als symbool en vertegenwoordiger voor de
natie.
● hij zaaide de kiemen voor de moderne veiligheidsdiensten.
● het Napoleontische rijk vormde het begin van de Europese integratie.

It is not a turning point, because:

● Napoleon onderdrukte net als het ancien regime politieke participatie.
● hij keerde terug naar de keizerlijke bestuursvorm.
● er was nog altijd sprake van repressie van de bevolking, middels onder andere de
veiligheidsdiensten.

W3 OEFENVRAGEN
Herkomst van de revolutie
Wat is de herkomst van de Franse Revolutie in de 17de eeuw?

Historiografisch debat
Beschrijf het historiografische debat over de Franse revolutie.

Radicale revolutie
Waarom werd de revolutie zo radicaal?

Ancien régime
Verklaar de term ‘ancien régime’.

(CONTRA-)REVOLUTIE & GLOBALISERING WEEK 4

W4 TEKSTEN
Phantom Terror Adam Zamoyski*
Zamoyski schrijft over het feit dat in de tijd na het Congres van Wenen een vermeende
terroristische dreiging als rechtvaardiging werd gebruikt voor repressie. Hij schrijft dat het
Congres van Wenen revolutionaire gedachten niet erg succesvol de kop indrukte en dat het
repressieve beleid uiteindelijk geen blijvende machtspositie voor de contemporaine leiders
opleverde, maar dat er niet veel later evengoed revolutionaire stromingen opkwamen.
* Adam Zamoyski is een Poolse historicus van het adellijke geslacht der Zamoyski’s.

The Congress of Vienna Brian E. Vick*

Vick benadrukt in zijn stuk dat de leiders tijdens het Congres van Wenen erg werden
beïnvloed door externe opinies, wat ertoe leidde dat een relatief grote groep mensen indirect
invloed hadden op de besluitvorming. Ook de invloed van verlichte ideeën staat centraal in
het stuk van Vick.
* Brian E. Vick is een Amerikaanse historicus die zich voornamelijk specialiseert in nationalisme, liberalisme,
historicisme en rassentheorieën.

W4 BELANGRIJKE PERSONEN
Napoleon Bonaparte III (1808-1873) was as leader of France eager to reinstate the
Napoleonic empire. He wasn’t taken very seriously at first, but his diplomatic and well-
informed attitude made him gain quite some popularity, Under his leadership, France was
turned into a authoritary, modern economy. He lost power after losing a war, just like his
uncle Napoleon.

Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) was the chancellor and ‘founder’ of the German empire,
which is often (falsely) regarded as a military monarchy.

Harold James (1956-) is a British historian who described the nineteenth century as being
the century of migration and world capitalism.

Christopher Bayly (1945-2015) was a British historian who argued that borders between
cultural identities became more clear in the late nineteenth century. According to Bayly, the
emergence of nationalism can be used to explained the development of imperialism.

Jürgen Osterhammel (1952-) is a German historian who argued that the world became
more efficient in the nineteenth century, which led to ideas spreading more easily.

Victoria (1819-1901) was the queen of the United Kingdom who gained popularity due to
mass marketing in which she and her family were portrayed as a typical middle class family.
At the time of her diamond anniversary in and around 1897, imperialism is commonly
regarded to as a positive principle.
Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924) was a communist Russian revolutionary who believed
imperialism and colonial expansionism to be the result of capitalism.

Ronald Robinson (1920-1999) & Jack Gallagher (1919-1980) were British historians
who believed imperialism not to be pre-planned, but to be a result of local crises. The
reactions of European colonial rulers to problems in the periphery of the colonies were more
or less spontaneous, for instance.

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) believed humans to be irrational, instead functioning on

the basis of will. People who are able to dominate someone else’s will are considered the
most important and strongest. He argues history should be forgotten; the focus should be on
here and now if you want to change something.

Henri Bergson (1859-1941) believed people were functioning on the basis of instinct. His
ideas resemble those of Sigmund Freud, who believed people to be functioning on the basis
of their subconsciousness.

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) wrote On the Origin of Species in 1859, in which the notion
of natural selection was explained as follows: animals who are good in adapting to changing
circumstances, tend to survive. This theory was implemented on humans by other people,
who used the theory to substantiate hierarchical theories on races.

W4 IS HET EEN KEERPUNT?

1815: Congres van Wenen
It is a turning point, because:
● voor de eerste keer werd het idee van een diplomatieke eenheid en gelijkheid tussen
Europese natiestaten in de praktijk gebracht.
● het congres veranderde de kaart van Europa rigoureus voor een grote periode.

It is not a turning point, because:

● het congres was anti-revolutionair en dus in zekere zin conservatief, behoudend, en
juist niet vernieuwend te noemen.
● het congres heeft tot veel onvrede geleid en aanleiding gegeven tot de opkomst van
nationalistische protestbewegingen in de volgende periode.

1871: Duitse eenwording

It is a turning point, because:
● er ontstond een nieuwe federatie die zich ontwikkelde als concurrent voor de
grootmachten.
● er ontstond in Duitsland voor het eerst een militaire monarchie.
● er ontstond een nieuwe verdeling van de macht in Europa; het evenwicht verdween
aangezien Duitsland veel meer macht had dan haar buren.

It is not a turning point, because:

● Duitsland werd door veel landen niet gezien als een directe bedreiging. Hieronder
vallen Engeland, waar relatieve sympathie heerste voor Duitse
 eenwordingsgevoelens, en Rusland, wat veel te druk was met de stabilisering van
het eigen rijk.

1800s: Periode van imperia

It is a turning point, because:
● in dit tijdperk vond er op grote plaats modernisering plaats op gebied van
communicatie en technologie.
● in deze periode zien we massale migratiestromen.
● de globalisering krijgt in deze periode vorm door kolonisatie.
● er vindt een nieuwe vorm van kolonisatie plaats waarbij de imperiale machten hun
cultuur en waarden actief gaan toepassen op hun overzeese gebiedsdelen.
● er ontstaat een nadruk op culturele moderniteit en een fobie voor degeneratie.

It is not a turning point, because:

● het politieke speelveld bestond nog altijd voornamelijk uit sterke monarchieën en
dynastieën.

W4 OEFENVRAGEN
Revolutionaire politieke cultuur
Wat zijn de belangrijkste elementen van de revolutionaire politieke cultuur?

Restauratie als een reactie

In hoeverre kan de periode van de restauratie worden omschreven als een ‘reactie’?

Vrede door congressen

‘Het congres van Wenen (1814-1815) en het daaropvolgende congressysteem van
diplomatieke betrekkingen van de Europese grootmachten is verantwoordelijk voor een
eeuw van vrede en stabiliteit in Europa’. Geef tenminste twee argumenten voor en twee
tegen deze stelling, gebruik makend van de teksten van Adam Zamoyski en Brian Vick.

WOI & DE VOLKERENBOND WEEK 5

W5 BELANGRIJKE PERSONEN
Fritz Fischer (1908-1999) was a German historian who came up with the idea that the
aggressiveness of German rulers was to be blamed for World War I, rejecting the traditional
idea that no one could be deemed guilty of starting a war.

Mark Mazower (1958-) is a British historian who believes national-socialism to be a

broadly supported ideology containing elements of several different ideologies. According to
Mazower, the danger of national-socialism was it’s close connection to liberalism. He argues
the eventual collapse of national-socialism could be blamed on military failure.

Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) was an Indian lawyer and freedom fighter with a cynical
view on western civilization.
Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938) was a Pakistani poet who stated Europe was to be seen
as a beacon of destruction.

René Maran (1887-1960) wrote a comedy on French society.

Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) was a president of the United States who introduced his
ideas about the originally Bolshevik term self-determination by publishing the ‘Fourteen
Points’ plan. The ‘Fourteen Points’ plan was received with lots of joy in the colonies, but it’s
important to consider that Wilson was an anglophile and (definitely when compared to
today’s standards) quite racist.

Hồ Chí Minh (1890-1969) was a Vietnamese freedom fighter who left his country for Paris
in 1919 to take part in the Peace Conference, but he wasn’t invited. Not long after, he joined
the French communist party and after many years of war, he became the leader of an
independent and communist Vietnam.

E.H. Carr (1882-1982) was very critical of the League of Nations and argued
(controversially) that it’s failure could be seen as a major reason World War II broke out.

Margaret MacMillan (1943-), Susan Pedersen (1959-), Patricia Clavin (?-) en

Natasha Wheatley (?-) are female historians who wrote about the League of Nations from
a new perspective after the fall of the Soviet Union.

Eric Drummond (1876-1951) was the first secretary general of the League of Nations.
From a certain perspective, de secretary general of the UN (António Guterres) could be seen
as one of his successors.

Jean Monnet (1888-1979) was the first vice general of the League of Nations. He also
played an important part in the development of the European Union.

Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971), Vladimir Nabokov (1899-1977) & Robert Capa (1913-
1954) were respectively a composer, a writer and a photographer who were all widely known
in their discipline and who profited from the migrant passport introduced by the League of
Nations.

Mary McGeachy (1901-1991) was an idealistic Canadian diplomat. She is known to be

one of the first internationally acclaimed female diplomats and she played an important role
in both the League of Nations, as well as the UN.

W5 IS HET EEN KEERPUNT?

1914-1918: Eerste Wereldoorlog
It is a turning point, because:
● er ontstonden nieuwe manieren van oorlogvoering (massavernietigingswapens).
● de ineenstorting van diverse rijken in Europa leidde tot enorme veranderingen in de
Europese landkaart.
● uit de uiteengevallen rijken ontstonden vele nieuwe natiestaten.
 ● het betekende het einde van Europa als centrum van de wereld.
● de nationale soevereiniteit en de liberale constitutionele democratieen werden de
belangrijkste pijlers voor de Europese wederopbouw.
● er was sprake van een opkomst van alternatieve ideologieën in plaats van de liberale
democratie.
● er ontstond een nieuw Europees verlangen tot samenwerking.

It is not a turning point, because:

● veel kenmerken uit de alternatieve ideologieën die opkomen in deze periode zien we
al voor de eerste wereldoorlog terug. Denk hierbij aan eugenetica en andere
rassentheorieën.

1919: Volkerenbond
It is a turning point, because:
● de Volkerenbond bevorderde de internationale samenwerking en zorgde voor een
nieuw mondiaal diplomatiek systeem die de inspiratiebron vormde voor later
internationale instituties als de Verenigde Naties.
● de Volkerenbond zorgde ervoor dat mensen zonder paspoort een speciaal
vluchtelingenpaspoort konden aanvragen, waardoor ze de mogelijkheid kregen om
naar het buitenland te vluchten.

It is not a turning point, because:

● de Volkerenbond slaagde er niet in de vrede te waarborgen, wat leidde tot de
verwoestende tweede wereldoorlog slechts twintig jaar na de eerste.

W5 OEFENVRAGEN
Mislukking van de liberale orde
Wat waren de voornaamste oorzaken van het mislukken van een liberale Europese orde na
de Vrede van Parijs/Versailles na de Eerste Wereldoorlog? Geef tenminste vijf redenen.

OORLOG, WELVAART & CONFLICT WEEK 6

W6 TEKSTEN
Paris 1919 Margaret MacMillan & Richard Holbrooke*
MacMillan en Holbrooke benaderen de Volkerenbond als mislukking en als deel van de
oorzaak van veel contemporaine conflicten. Ze stellen dat de grootmachten niet in staat
waren internationale problemen op te lossen door onenigheid binnen hun eigen
landsgrenzen.
* Margaret MacMillan is een Canadese historica die gespecialiseerd is in internationale betrekkingen. Richard
Holbrooke was een Amerikaanse topdiplomaat die lid was van de Democratische Partij en onder andere
fungeerde als VN-ambassadeur.

The Guardians Susan Pedersen*

Pedersen geeft een alomvattend beeld van de Volkerenbond en benadrukt het belang van
de Volkerenbond, en voornamelijk de afdelingen op het gebied van mandatenbeleid, in de
vorming van de huidige internationale orde.
* Susan Pedersen is een Canadese historica die vooral is gespecialiseerd op 19de en 20ste eeuwse
geschiedenis op het gebied van onder andere Groot-Brittannië en vrouwen.

W6 BELANGRIJKE PERSONEN
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) was the leader of Nazi-Germany, a country which expansionism
was inspired by the US and the British empire. He saw Nazi-Germany as the European
counterpart of the US, arguing Ukraine could be Germany’s California (or: Germany’s
lebensraum).

Tony Judt (1948-2010) was a historian who argued the protests and student movements of
the late 60’s couldn’t be considered a turning point since in retrospect it didn’t really have a
major influence on policy making. He typifies the 80’s as a period of economic stagnation in
the communist bloc, dubbing it a period of ‘grey and drab’. He believed the change in policy
made by Gorbachev to be the main reason for the fall of communism.

James Kennedy (1963-) is a historian who typified the year 1968 as the year of a
generational struggle in which certain ideas of the youth were adopted by the elite.

Winston Churchill (1874-1968) was the first minister of the UK and was a signatory of the
Atlantic Charter (1941), which included agreements on cooperation and self-determination.
According to Churchill, the principle of self-determination had to be applied to areas
occupied by Nazi-Germany only.

Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945) was the president of the United States and was a
signatory of the Atlantic Charter (1941), which included agreements on cooperation and self-
determination. According to Roosevelt, the principle of self-determination had to be applied
to the entire world.

Jan Smuts (1870-1950) was, as prime minister of South-Africa, known as one of the main
proponents of international cooperation. He argued that the League of Nations (and after
that it’s more efficient successor, the UN) should help white, Anglo-American leaders to
maintain their powers. The UN should also promote liberal rights, because that’s what
distincts them from the Nazis. At the conference of Yalta, his proposal to integrate human
rights into the UN was accepted, even though Smuts controversially supported segregation.
He saw the San Francisco conference as an improved version of the peace conference of
Paris 25 years earlier.

Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964) was an anti-colonial activist who believed that non of the
options for an international order could be considered ideal. He argued India should follow a
third way, a middle ground between the capitalist US and the communist Soviet Union. He
was very critical of Smuts’ racial policies in South-Africa and he stated that the UN should be
used to fight colonialism, very much opposed to Smuts’ views on the UN.

Radhabinod Pal (1886-1967) was an Indian anti-colonial thinker and judge during the
Tokyo trials. He tended to vote against the conviction of Japanese war criminals because he
argued the war the Japanese fought against western countries was a matter of self defense.
While doing so, he compared Harry Truman to Nazis for dropping nukes on Japan. His
motivated his peculiar behaviour during the trials by arguing it was out of fear of the
reinstallment of colonial power in many countries.

W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963) was an Afro-American intellectual who wrote about

discrimination in the US, emphasizing the importance of human rights for minorities.
Supported by the Soviet Union, he tried to persuade the UN to intervene.

Charles Malik (1906-1987) & Carlos Romulo (1899-1985) were non-western leaders
who were closely involved in the establishment of the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights. Malik saw himself as a defender of western principles and Romulo put an emphasis
on the importance of christianity as a major western concept.

W6 IS HET EEN KEERPUNT?

1968: Studentenbewegingen & demonstraties
It is a turning point, because:
● er kwam kritiek op de naoorlogse consensus die voor relatieve vrede en stabiliteit
had gezorgd.
● er werd gebroken met de traditionele samenleving en ruimte gemaakt voor nieuwe
ideeën op het gebied van onder andere seksualiteit.
● het individualisme kent haar definitieve doorbraak en vervangt uiteindelijk de
verzuilde samenleving.
● er is sprake van een herpolitisering van de samenleving: men raakt weer
geïnteresseerd in de politiek.
● we zien de opkomst van progressieve en populistische politieke bewegingen.

It is not a turning point, because:

● uiteindelijk heeft de beweging weinig directe invloed gehad op de besluitvorming.

1945-: Een nieuwe liberale wereldorde

It is a turning point, because:
● er is sprake van een tendens van ‘The end of history’, het idee dat de liberale
democratie met kapitalisme en kosmopolitisme definitief de beste staatsvorm blijkt te
zijn aangezien de concurrenten (het fascisme en communisme) niet in staat blijken
op de lange termijn tegenwicht te bieden.
● met het neoliberalisme ontstaat er in de jaren ‘80 na het stoppen een politieke
stroming die het tijdsbeeld voor de komende periode tekent.
● er is sprake van internationale coöperatie op grote schaal middels organisaties als de
VN en de EU.
● het kolonialisme heeft zijn langste tijd gehad en houdt op te bestaan.
● de Verenigde Staten vestigt zich definitief als absolute supermacht.

It is not a turning point, because:

● we zien dat nieuwe (hybride) ideologieën bedreigingen vormen voor het
onaantastbaar gewaande liberalisme. Denk hierbij bijvoorbeeld aan China, met haar
combinatie van communistische elementen, liberale elementen (op het gebied van
economie) en technologische elementen (op het gebied van sociale verhoudingen).
 ● landen als China lijken de positie van de VS als absolute supermacht aan te gaan
tasten en er lijkt een globale machtsverdeling te komen met ruimte voor meerdere
grootmachten.
● de transnationale organisaties die voortkomen uit de nieuwe liberale wereldorde
kennen hun oorsprong al bij de Volkerenbond, en vormen dus een continuering.
● de transnationale organisaties hebben ook bepaalde illiberale kenmerken en zijn dus
niet geheel in de lijn van het liberalisme.

W6 OEFENVRAGEN
Dertig glorieuze jaren
Waarom wordt de naoorlogse periode (na 1945) in de Europese geschiedenis vaak de
‘dertig glorieuze jaren’ genoemd? Betrek in je antwoord politieke, culturele en economische
redenen en beschrijf de onderlinge relatie tussen deze verschillende aspecten.

DE DERDE WEG & ‘THE END OF HISTORY’ WEEK 7

W7 TEKSTEN
The End of History? Francis Fukuyama*
Fukuyama schrijft over ‘the end of history’, het geloof dat de ideologische strijd ophoudt te
bestaan en dat de gehele wereld overgaat op een liberaal democratisch systeem waarin de
vrije markt een belangrijke rol speelt. Hij onderbouwt dit door te wijzen naar het feit dat de
enige concurrenten - het fascisme en het communisme - niet langer een rol van betekenis
spelen/hun rol van betekenis aan het verliezen zijn. Hij gelooft dat ‘the end of history’ een
saaie periode gaat zijn waarin ideologie wordt vervangen door economie en statistieken.
* Francis Fukuyama is een Amerikaanse politicoloog en socioloog die bekend staat als neo-conservatief denker.

Age of Anger Pankaj Mishra*

Mishra benadrukt dat de liberale democratie en het kapitalisme niet alleen positieve
resultaten kent, maar uiteindelijk ook mede heeft geleid tot de opkomst van nationalisme en
extremistische groeperingen als tegenreactie tegen de globalisering.
Pankaj Mishra is een Indiase schrijver.

W7 BELANGRIJKE PERSONEN
Margaret Thatcher (1925-2013) was the British first minister mainly known as one of the
figureheads of neoliberalism. Deprecated industries, lack of development and a sense of
eurosclerosis led to the rise of Margaret Thatcher, who was inspired Friedrich Hayek’s ideas
on the role of the state in the economy. Her economic policy was radically conservative:
state intervention was minimized, taxes for companies were drastically lowered and loads of
state companies were privatized. She was very critical of the EU, but she did see the
importance of cooperation in order to successfully liberalize the economy. She was very
much against the ideas of the student movements of the 60’s. She was also an opponent of
the idea of ‘one society’, the existence of the Unions and feminism.

François Mitterrand (1916-1996) was the president of France. He was originally a

socialist, but he adopted a lot of elements of Thatcher’s liberal model.
Francis Fukuyama (1952-) wrote The End of History in 1989, in which he states that the
fall of communism proves that the combination of liberal democracy, cosmopolitanism and
capitalism is to be considered the best ideology. He also expects that those principles will
eventually rule the entire world.

Tony Blair (1953-), Wim Kok (1938-2018), Bill Clinton (1946-), Lionel Jospin (1937-)
en Gerhard Schröder (1944-) were all social democratic politicians who aimed to create
social equality by implementing liberal legislation. Kok once said: ‘Ideology is no longer of
importance, the leader of a country should be a good manager.’ This statement typifies all of
these politicians quite accurately.

Salman Rushdie (1947-) is an Indian writer who was outlawed by the Iranian cleric
Khomeini via a fatwa.

Samuel Huntington (1927-2008) was an American historian and writer. He wrote Clash of
Cultures in 2001, in which he criticizes Fukuyama’s work by giving his very pessimistic
perspective on the future.

Sir Halford John Mackinder (1861-1947) was a British geographer who discovered the
importance of a ‘heartland’ when aiming for a role on the international stage. The struggle for
the ‘heartland’ can also be seen as a major part of both of the world wars. Another major
area of importance is the so-called ‘pivot area’, which houses a lot of people and a lot of
natural resources.

Xi Jinping (1953-) is the current president of China, the country that will soon develop into
the world’s major powerhouse. He is a descendant of an elitist family who got involved with
communist politics.

W7 OEFENVRAGEN
‘End of history’ vs. ‘age of anger’
Vergelijk de interpretatie van Francis Fukuyama en Pankaj Mishra van de internationale orde
na het einde van de Koude Oorlog. Leg in je antwoord de begrippen ‘End of History’ en ‘Age
of Anger’ uit.