CHAPTER # 06

PROKARYOTES

Taxonomy Of Prokaryotes:

For a long time, all prokaryotes were classified into a single domain. When all the living organisms were

classified into five kingdoms, Prokaryotes were placed into Kingdom Monera (Prokaryotae).
However, work by microbiologist Carl Woese in the 1970s showed that prokaryotes are divided into two
distinct lineages, or lines of descent: Archaea and Bacteria. Today, these groups are considered to form
two out of three domains of life. The third domain (Eukarya) includes all eukaryotes, such as plants,
animals, and fungi.

Phylogeny Of Prokaryotes:
Prokaryotes are the most primitive form of life. Their fossils tell that they are almost 3.5 billion years
aged. Their early habitat may be the microbial mats.
Prokaryotes are considered as the most primitive organisms and their considered as the first inhabitant of
the earth at that time the available of oxygen in the environment was very low and earth was exposed to
high levels of radiation therefore prokaryotes are considered as adapted organism to these conditions they
are predicted to be evolved from microbial maths which maybe few CM thick and were having moist and
sticky conditions due to extracellular matrix prokaryotes are present in every habitat and comprises of
numerous taxonomic groups they include cyanobacteria which were the photo autotrophs and higher
phototropic autotrophs prokaryotes have ability to adapt themselves according to the environmental
situation the genome has major role in this ability
They can undergo mutation and can develop in different forms.
Domain Archae:
Domain Archae previously classified as archaebacteria are organism comprising of different shapes and
different diameters they do not have peptidoglycan cell wall and have different metabolic activities as
compared to bacteria they can survive on different habitats and on extreme conditions these include
thermophiles which live in hot areas acidophiles which live in acidic condition and methanogens which
live in marshy areas and produces biogas to obtain energy Halophiles which live in salty concentration.
These organisms have the ability to survive as mutualist or by commensals e.g E.Coli, Axinella Mexicana
etc

Comparison of Domain system Classification:

Cell membrane:

 Archaea:  ether linked lipid’s, pseudo peptidoglycan

 Bacteria: Ester linked peprtidoglycan
  Eukarya: Ester linked lipids, various structures
Gene Structure:

 Archaea: Circular chromosomes, Similar translation and transcription to Eukarya

 Bacteria: Circular chromosomes, unique translation and transcription
 Eukarya: Multiple, Linear chromosomes, similar translation and transcription to archaea
Internal cell structure:

 Archaea: No membrane bound organelle or nucleus

 Bacteria: No membrane bound organelle or nucleus
 Eukarya: Membrane bound organelle and nucleus
Metabolism:

 Archaea: Various methanogenesis unique to archaea.

 Bacteria: Various, including photosynthesis, Aerobic and anaerobic respiration,
fermentation an autotrophy
 Eukarya: Photosynthesis and cellular respiration
Reproduction:

 Archaea: Asexual reproduction, horizontal gene transfer.

 Bacteria: Asexual reproduction, horizontal gene transfer.
 Eukarya: Sexual and Asexual reproduction.
Theory of symbiogenesis:
The theory was given by Konstantin Mereschkowski who stated that “ some of the organelles in today's
Eukaryotic cell were one prokaryotic microbes over a long period of time the organelles have evolved and
became more specialised and they cannot survive outside the cell mitochondria and chloroplast are
common example.

Types of Bacteria on the basis of mode of Respiration:

1. Aerobic Bactria:
 Live in places where oxygen is available.
 They produce CO2 and H2O.
 They live in soil, water and open surface
 They produce more energy.
 Example: Lactobacillus, mycobacterium

2. Anaerobic Bacteria:
 Live in places where Oxygen is not available.
 They produce Carbon dioxide, ethanol and lactic acid.
 They live in areas where oxygen is depleted like intestine, marshes.
 Produces less energy.
 Example: Clostridium and E. coli
Difference between Gram-positive and Gram-negative Bacteria:
1. Gram-positive Bacteria:
 They retain crystal violet die and stain blue or purple on Gram's staining.
 Their cell wall is about 20-80 nanometer thick
 Peptidoglycan layer is multi layered and thick
 They are rigid and less elastic
 Their outer membrane is absent
 They have a few amino acids in their cell wall
 Aromatic and sulfur containing amino acid are absent in their cell wall
 Teichoic acid mostly present they have low lipids and lipoprotein content
 Cell wall disruption by lysozyme is high
 Example: staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Bacillus, Clostridium, Enterococcus

2. Gram-negative Bacteria:
 They accept Safranin after decolorization and stain pink or red on Gram staining
 Their cell wall is about 8 to 10 nm thick
 Peptidoglycan layer is single layered and thin
 They are less rigid and more elastic
 Outer membrane is present
 They have several variety of amino acids in cell wall
 Aromatic and sulfur containing amino acids are present in their cell wall
 Teichoic acid mostly absent
 Lipid and lipoprotein content is high because of presence of outer membrane
 Cell wall disruption by lysozyme is low
 Examples: Salmonella, Helicobacter, Klebsiella

Cyanobacteria as photosynthetic bacteria:

Cyanobacteria are aquatic and photosynthetic, that is, they live in the water, and can manufacture their
own food. Because they are bacteria, they are quite small and usually unicellular, though they often grow
in colonies large enough to see.
A carboxysome is a compartmentalized cage-like structure surrounded by a protein shell. Cyanobacteria
use it for concentrating CO2 and therefore increase the efficiency of RuBisCo.
Apart from photosynthesis, these cyanobacteria are capable of nitrogen fixation through
heterocysts.
Cyanobacteria contain only one form of chlorophyll, chlorophyll a, a green pigment. In addition, they
contain various yellowish carotenoids, the blue pigment phycobilin, and, in some species, the red pigment
phycoerythrin.
Bacteria:
Bacteria were discovered by Antony Van Leeuwenhoek. He was first person, who observed
microorganisms by his simple microscope.
Structure:
 Bacteria are considered as the smallest and the simplest living organisms
 They are unicellular and are 0.2 – 2 micron in breadth and 2 to 10 micron in length.
 They may live in the form of colonies
 A typical bacterial cell consists of following structures.
1. Flagella:
a. They are thread like structures used for locomotion
b. They originate from a structure beneath cell membrane, called basal body and traverse the
cell wall.

2. Pilli:
a. They are hollow, filamentous structures smaller than flagella.
b. They help in conjugation

3. Capsule:
a. It is a protective shield made up of polysaccharide and proteins
b. Some bacteria have slime capsule, which provides greater pathogenicity and protects them
against phagocytosis.

4. Cell-Wall:
a. Bacteria have a cell wall, which is made up of amino acids, sugar and chitin
b. It contains peptidoglycans, which are long carbohydrates chains cross-linked with peptide
molecules.
c. Some other compounds like teicholic acid, lipoprotein and lipopolysaccharides and are also
present.
d. It is different from the plant cell wall, as it does not contain cellulose.
e. It surrounds the cell membrane and protects the bacteria from osmotic lysis.
f. It is rigid and determines the shape of the cell.
g. In some bacteria cell wall is surrounded by a thick, rigid capsule.
h. Some bacteria are covered with a loose, soluble polysaccharide covering called slime capsule,
which helps in attacking the host and protects them against phagocytosis
i. Some bacteria may lack cell wall and some do not contain peptidoglycans such as
archaebacteria
j. Cell wall is also used to classify the bacteria by a method of staining called Gram staining
developed by Christian Gram. On the basis of staining bacteria are divided into two groups.
 Gram-positive bacteria are stained purple
 Gram-negative bacteria are stained pink.

5. Cell-Membrane:
a. Cell membrane lies inside cell wall and is attached to it at few places.
 b. It is porous and is made up of lipids and proteins
c. It acts as respiratory organ as it forms mesosomes.
i. Mesosomes are invaginations of cell membrane into the cytoplasm.
ii. They occur in the form of vesicles, tubules or lamella.
iii. Their help in DNA replication, cell division, respiration and in enzyme export.

6. Cytoplasm:
a. Cytoplasm is granular and contains ribosomes, small vacuoles, and glycogen particles.
b. Membrane bound organelles are absent.
c. Nucleus is absent and DNA is found as concentrated structure called bacterial chromosome or
chromatin body
d. Some accessory fragments of extrachromosomal DNA, called plasmids are also present,
which are responsible for the presence of capsule, antibiotic resistance and some other
properties.

Bacterial Cell Wall:

 It is important to note that not all bacteria have a cell wall. But almost 90% of bacteria contain
cell wall.
 They typically have two types of cell wall: a gram positive cell wall or a gram
negative cell wall. Both are differentiated in the labs by a process called Gram staining.
 Both gram positive and gram negative cell walls contain an ingredient known
as peptidoglycan (also known as murein). 
 The cell walls of eukaryotic microbes are typically composed of a single ingredient, like
the cellulose found in algal cell walls or the chitin in fungal cell walls.
 The bacterial cell wall helps maintain the cell shape, which is important for how the cell
will grow, reproduce, obtain nutrients, and move.
 The Gram positive cell wall retains the color of crystal violet due to presence of higher
amount of peptidoglycan.
 The Gram negative cell wall can’t retain crystal violet due to less amount of
peptidoglycan.
Shapes and Size of Bacteria:

There are following shapes of bacteria:

1. Cocci:
They are spherical, non-flagellated bacteria and are of following types.
i. A single rounded bacteria is called monococcus
ii. A pair of cocci is called diplococus
iii. A chain of cocci is called Streptococcus
iv. If cocci are present in a group of four it is called a Tetrad
v. If cocci are present in a group of eight is called a Sarcina
vi. If cocci are present in clusters it is called a Staphylococcus

2. Bacilli:
They are rod-shaped and may be flagellated. They are of following types
i. A single rod shaped bacterium is simply called bacillus
 ii. A pair of bacillus is called diplobacillus
iii. A chain of bacilli is called streptobacillus

3. Spirilli:
i. They are spiral or corkscrew shaped such as Spirochaeta

4. Vibrio or Commas:
They are slightly curved and may be flagellated such as Vibrio cholera
Bacterial are also classified in two major categories from evolutionary point of view.
1. Archaebacteria
2. Eubacteria

5. Spirochetes:
They are long, flexible slender and cork screw like bacteria.

Endospore Formation in Bacteria:

a. Endospore formation is not a method of asexual reproduction and is a method of survival under
unfavorable conditions.
b. During endospore formation, the whole protoplasm shrinks and becomes a small mass.
c. A cyst is formed inside the parental wall around this mass, which is called endospore.
d. When parental wall ruptures due to decay, endospore is set free.
e. On return of favorable conditions, this endospore enlarges to form mature bacterium
f. The process of formation of endospore is called sporulation.

Endospore development:
Step 1: The bacterium copies its DNA. This is important because all of the information the bacterium
needs is in the DNA. A wall then forms, separating the two copies of DNA inside the mother, or starting,
cell.
Step 2: The wall encircles the DNA completely, creating a cell within a cell. the new cell inside of the
mother cell is called a forespore.
Step 3: Peptidoglycan, or a substance made up of sugars and amino acids, acts like a mesh and surrounds
the outside of the forespore. This cell layer structure is now called the cortex.

Step 4: Water is removed from the forespore.

Step 5: Outside of the cortex, yet another layer is added, but this time it's a protein coat called a spore
coat. In some bacterium, there's even another layer added after the spore coat!
Step 6: The mother cell is destroyed, and the endospore bursts out.

Motility in Bacteria:
Motility is defined as the movement of cells by some form of self-propulsion . Many bacterial cells are
motile as it allows them, for example, to escape from unfavorable conditions and to exploit new resources
or opportunities.
There are three types of bacterial movement which are as follows:
a) Gliding Movement:

Some bacteria observed to use “gliding motility” have been found to expel a mucus-like fluid in a way

that might facilitate motion. Others have been found to tether themselves to flat surfaces and pull on those

tethers in order to move. Still other cells that practice “gliding motility” are believed to have rotating parts

on the surfaces of their bodies that allow this form of locomotion.

b) Flagellar Movement:
Bacterial flagella are filamentous organelles that drive cell locomotion. They thrust cells in liquids
(swimming) or on surfaces (swarming) so that cells can move toward favorable environments

On the basis of number of flagella bacteria are classified as:

A. Monotrichous: There is only one flagellum in monotrichous.
B. Amphitrichous: There is only a single flagellum in amphitrichous bacteria but they are
found at both ends.
C. Lophotrichous: In lophotrichous, there are several flagella found as a tuft.
D. Peritrichous: In peritrichous, the flagella are distributed all over the cell, but they are
not found on the pole.

c) Spirochaetial Movement:
In spirochetes, the organelles for motility, the periplasmic flagella, reside inside the cell within the
periplasmic space. A given periplasmic flagellum is attached only at one end of the cell, and
depending on the species, may or may not overlap in the center of the cell with those attached at the
other end.

Nutrition:
Bacteria can be classified into two categories on the basis of nutrition

1. Autotrophic Bacteria:
These bacteria can synthesize organic compounds from simple organic substances.
They may be of the following types

a. Photoautotrophic Bacteria:
 They have chlorophyll like pigments called bacterio-chlorophyll and chlorobium-chlorophyll
 These pigments are not present in the chloroplasts but exists in the invaginations of plasma
membrane
 During photosynthesis, bacteria utilize H 2 S instead of water and liberate sulphur instead of
oxygen
CO 2+2 H 2 S → ( CH 2 O )n + H 2 O+ 2 S

b. Chemoautotrophic Bacteria:
 These bacteria obtain their energy from oxidation of some inorganic substances such as iron,
hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur compounds.
 These are further divided into following types:

i. Sulphur Bacteria (Sulphomonas):

 They oxidize Sulphur to release sulphuric acid.
2S + 2H2O + 3O2 2H2O + 2S + Energy
Example: Thiobacillus denitrificans

ii. Hydrogen Bacteria (Hydromonas):

They oxidize molecular hydrogen into water.
4H2 + CO2 2H2O + CH4 + Energy
Example: Hydrogenomonas, Pseudomonas.

iii. Iron Bacteria (Ferromonas):

They oxidize ferrous compounds into ferric compounds by using chemical energy.
4FeCO3 + 6H2O + O2 4Fe (OH)3 + 4CO2 + Energy
Examples: Thiobacillus, Ferrobacillus.

iv. Methane Bacteria (Methanomonas):

They oxidize methane into water and carbon dioxide.

v. Nitrifying Bacteria (Nitrosomonas):

They oxidize Nitrogen compounds into nitrates.
2NO2 + O2 2NO3 + Energy
Example: Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas

vi. Carbon Bacteria:

They oxidize CO into CO2
2CO + O2 2CO2 + Energy
Example: Bacillus oligocarbophillous

2. Heterotrophic Bacteria:
Heterotrophic bacteria are those, which cannot synthesize organic compounds from simple
substances. Heterotrophic bacteria maybe of the following types:

a. Saprotrophic Bacteria:
 Bacteria, which get their food from dead organic matter, are called saprotrophic bacteria. They
use enzymes to break down complex substances to simpler compounds and utilize these simple
compounds as a source of energy
 Some saprotrophic bacteria cause decay of dead animal and plant material and convert complex
organic compounds to simpler ones.

b. Symbiotic Bacteria:
 They are found in association with other living organisms
 They obtain food from the host without harming it, such as Rhizobium lives as a symbiont in root
nodules of leguminous plants.

c. Parasitic Bacteria:
They grow inside the tissues of other living organisms and obtain food at the expense of host, such as
Pnuemococcus.

Growth & Reproduction in Bacteria:

Growth:
1. Bacteria can grow very rapidly in suitable environment conditions of temperature, nutrition
availability, pH and ionic concentrations.
2. Obligate aerobes can grow only in the presence of oxygen but it is fatal for anaerobes
3. Four distinct phases are recognized in bacterial growth.
a. Lag Phase:
It is active phase during which bacteria prepare for division.
b. Log Phase:
Log phase, aslo referred to as exponential phase. In this phase number of microbes in an
exponentially increasing population increases slowly at first, then extremely rapidly.
c. Stationary Phase:
During stationary phase, bacterial multiplication is equal to death rate

d. Death/ Decline Phase:

During decline phase, death rate is more rapid than multiplication rate.

Reproduction:
Asexual Reproduction in Bacteria:
Asexual reproduction takes place in bacteria by following means:
1.Fission 2. Conidia 3. Budding
1. Fission:
a. Bacteria generally reproduce asexually by the process of binary fission.
b. Since asexual reproduction does not involve exchange of genetic material, genetic variation takes
place by muations.
c. It is the fastest mode of reproduction and takes about 20 minutes.
d. Fission takes place in favorable conditions.
e. It involves following steps
i. First the replication of hereditary material occurs and chromatin body is replicated
ii. Daughter chromatin bodies move to opposite poles and a constriction appears in the
middle of the cell
iii. This constriction divides the cell splits into two.
iv. The new cells grow in size and form mature bacteria.

2. Conidia:
a. These are non-motile, asexual spores, which are cut off at the end of modified hyphae called
conidiophores that are present in chains or clusters.
b. These are produced in a large number and can survive for weeks and cause rapid colonization
of the substrate.

3. Budding:
a. Budding is found in unicellular yeasts.
b. Bud is a tiny outgrowth, which separates after growing to a certain size
c. The cells continue to divide and the bud grows to form a new fungus.

Mutation and genetic recombination in Bacteria:

Sexual reproduction does not take place in bacteria but genetic recombination may take place which
causes mutation.
a. Conjugation
Conjugation is a simple process of genetic recombination in which genetic material is transferred
from one bacterium to another through a tube called conjugating tube.
 b. Transduction:
It is a mode of genetic recombination in which genetic material is transferred from one bacterium
to another by a bacteriophage virus.

c. Transformation:
It is a process of transmitting genetic information from one bacterium to another bacterium
causing it to transform. During transformation a bacterium takes up the genetic material from the
environment.

Importance of Bacteria:

a. Decomposers:
i. Bacteria are the important biotic components and act as decomposers of dead plants and
animals.
ii. Example: Nitrifying bacteria convert the protein of dead bodies into nitrates, which are
absorbed and utilized by green plants.

b. Alimentary Canal Bacteria:

i. They produce an enzyme called cellulase, for which digests cellulose.
ii. They help herbivores in digestion of cellulose
iii. They reside in the rumen, appendix and colon of different animals.

c. Industrial Bacteria:
i. They are usually symbionts which help in different industries such as
 Curing and ripening of tobacco leaves
 Fermentation of sugar into alcohol
 Ripening of cheese
 Retting of fibers
 Curdling of milk
 Conversion of hides into leather.

d. Medicinal Bacteria:
Bacteria are important source of antibiotics and other drugs

e. Genetically Engineered Bacteria:

Many bacteria are genetically programmed to produce various proteins such as E. coli produces
human growth hormones and insulin

f. Harmful Bacteria:
i. Pathogenic Bacteria:
 They are responsible for many diseases in human beings, animals and plants
 They produce typhoid, tetanus, food poisoning, diphtheria, tuberculosis in man.
 In plants bacteria cause black rot of cabbage, citrus canker, fire-blight of pear and apple, ring root
of potato and other disease.
ii. Food Spoilage:
 Bacteria can spoil food by fermentation, purification and decomposition.

The Bacterial Flora of Humans:

A diverse microbial flora is associated with the skin and mucous membranes of every human being from
shortly after birth until death. The human body, which contains about 10 13 cells. This bacterial population
constitutes the normal microbial flora.

The normal flora:

These are the microorganisms which live on the other organism without causing any harm to it. The
surface tissues of the living organisms are normally covered with microorganisms and then they become
colonized by various microbial species. A human first becomes colonized by a normal flora at the
moment of birth and passage through the birth canal.

Significances Of normal flora:

The normal flora prevent colonization by pathogens by competing for attachment sites or for essential
nutrients. The functions of the normal flora include digestion of substrates, production of vitamins,
stimulation of cell maturation, stimulation of the immune system, aid in intestinal transit and colonization
resistance.

CONTROL OF HARMFUL BACTERIA:

Chemical Methods:
Bacterial harmful activities can be controlled by following chemical methods:

1. Sterilization
Sterilization is the process of destroying all living organisms and viruses. A sterile object is one free of all
life forms, including bacterial endospores, as well as viruses.

2. Disinfection:
Disinfection is the elimination of microorganisms, but not necessarily endospores, from inanimate objects
or surfaces.

Following are some chemicals which are used as disinfectants:

 Phenol: In 1867, Joseph Lister used phenol as disinfectant. It is the standard for other
antiseptics and antibiotics.
 Halogen: Among halogen, Iodine and Chlorine are used as disinfectants.
 Heavy metals: Many heavy metals are used as disinfectants such as Silver nitrate is used as a
prophylactic agent in ophthalmic neonatorum (eye infection) in newborn infants caused by
Neisseria gonorrhea
 Soaps and Detergents: They help in cleaning the surface by decreasing surface tension between
microorganisms and the surface.
 Aldehydes: Formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde are the two most commonly used aldehydes
that are used as disinfectants. They are highly reactive molecules that combine with nucleic and
alkylating molecules.
 Ethylene oxide: Ethylene oxide is a colorless liquid used for gaseous sterilization. It is
active against all kinds of bacteria, spores, and viruses. It kills all types of microorganisms by
inhibiting proteins and nucleic acids.
  Oxidizing Agents: This group includes halogens, hydrogen peroxide etc. They are good
disinfectants and antiseptics but are less effective in the presence of organic matter.
 Food Preservatives: Foods can be preserved by using a number of organic acids such
as Benzoic acid, Sorbic acid etc to maintain a low microbial population. 
 Antibiotics: An antibiotic is a microbially produced substance that has antimicrobial
properties. Streptomyces and Penicillium are the two organisms which have given us antibiotics,
they act in following different ways to kill microorganisms:

 Antibiotics that inhibit cell wall synthesis.

 Antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis.
 Antibiotics that inhibit Nucleic acid synthesis.
 Antibiotics that interfere with metabolic pathways.

Physical Methods:

 Boiling: Boiling water (100°C) will generally kill vegetative cells after about 10 minutes
of exposure.
 Dry heat:  Dry heat kills microorganisms through a process of protein denaturing at about
1700C for about 2 hours.
 Incineration: Incinerators are used to destroy disposable or expendable materials by burning.
We also sterilize our inoculating loops by incineration.
 Autoclave: Autoclaving employs steam under pressure. During autoclaving, the materials to
be sterilized are placed under 15 pounds per square inch of pressure, the boiling point of water is
raised to 121°C, a temperature sufficient to kill bacterial endospores.
 Pasteurization: Pasteurization is the mild heating of milk and other materials to kill
particular spoilage organisms or pathogens. Milk is usually pasteurized by heating to 71.6°C for
at least 15 seconds in the flash method or 138°C for 2 seconds (UHT).
 Refrigeration: Low temperature inhibits microbial growth by slowing down microbial
metabolism. Refrigeration at O to 7°C slows the growth of microorganisms and keeps food fresh
for a few days.
 Freezing: Freezing below -2°C stops microbial growth, but generally does not kill
microorganisms, and keeps food fresh for several months.
 High pressure process: Exposure to high pressure kills many microbes. The application
of high pressure between 100 and 800 MPa is sufficient to kill vegetative cells by protein
denaturation.
 Hyperbaric oxygen therapy: It is sometimes used to treat infections. In this form of therapy, a
patient breathes pure oxygen at a pressure higher than normal atmospheric pressure, typically
between 1 and 3 atmospheres (atm).
 Desiccation: Drying, also known as desiccation or dehydration, is a method that has
been used for millennia to preserve foods such as raisins, prunes, and jerky. It works because all
cells, including microbes, require water for their metabolism and survival.
 Lyophilization: It is another method of desiccation in which an item is rapidly frozen
and placed under vacuum so that water is lost by sublimation. It is used for food preservation etc.
 Ionizing radiation: It includes X-rays, gamma rays which are strong enough to pass into the
cell, where it alters molecular structures and damages cell components. For example, ionizing
radiation introduces double-strand breaks in DNA molecules
 Membrane filtration: Membrane filter is used to remove microbes from liquid samples with an
effective pore size of 0.2 µm. Membrane filtration is useful for removing bacteria from various
types of heat-sensitive solutions such as antibiotic solutions and vitamin solutions.
  Nonionizing radiation: It is commonly used for disinfection and uses less energy than
ionizing radiation. It does not penetrate cells or packaging. Ultraviolet (UV) light is one example;
it causes thymine dimers to form which causes mutation in bacteria.

Bacterial diseases in human:

1. Cholera:

Cause: Vibrio Cholera

Signs & Symptoms:

 profuse watery diarrhea, sometimes described as “rice-water stools”

 vomiting
 thirst
 leg cramps
 restlessness or irritability
 rapid heart rate
 loss of skin elasticity
 dry mucous membranes
 low blood pressure

Treatment & Prevention:

 Drink rehydration solution (ORS) and take antibiotics.

2. Typhoid:

Cause: Salmonella typhi

Signs & Symptoms:

 Headache
 Weakness and fatigue
 Muscle aches
 Sweating
 Dry cough
 Loss of appetite and weight loss
 Stomach pain
 Diarrhea or constipation
 Rash
 Extremely swollen stomach
Treatment & Prevention:

 Wash your hands, avoid drinking untreated water, eat properly cooked food
 Visit doctor if symptoms persist.

Tuberculosis:

Cause: Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Signs & Symptoms:

 Coughing for three or more weeks
 Coughing up blood or mucus
 Chest pain, or pain with breathing or coughing
 Unintentional weight loss
 Fatigue
 Fever
 Night sweats
 Chills
 Loss of appetite
Treatment & Prevention:
 Stay away from crowdy and congested places wearing a mask and sanitizing yourself.

Pneumonia:

Cause: Streptococcus pneumoniae

Signs & Symptoms:

 Chest pain when you breathe or cough

 Confusion or changes in mental awareness

 Cough, which may produce phlegm

 Fatigue

 Fever, sweating and shaking chills

 Lower than normal body temperature

 Nausea, vomiting or diarrhea

 Shortness of breath
Treatment & Prevention:
 Wash hands, eat clean and properly cooked food, do exercise, quit smoking.

CHAPTER #06
PROKARYOTS

1. _________observed bacterium for the first time

a) Antony VAN Leeuwenhoek b) Wendell Stanley c) Iwanowsky d) Robert
Hooke

2. _______ are considered as the smallest and the simplest living organism
a) Virus b) protozoans c) bacteria d) unicellular algae

3. Bacterial cells are ______ um wide and um long

a) 0.2 to 2, 2 to 10 b) 0.1 to 1, 1 to 20 c) 0.1 to 2, 2 to 20 d) 0.2 to 10, 2 to 10

4. Bacterial are strictly_______

a) Acellular b) multicellular c) unicellular d) eukaryotic

5. Not found in bacterial cells

a) Nucleoid b) membrane bounded nucleus c) mesosomes d) pilli

6. Not related to pilli

a) Conjugation b) locomotion c) appendages smaller than flagella d)
hollow and filamentous

7. Bacterial capsule is made up of _____

a) Oligosaccharide and protein b) polysaccharide and protein c) lipoprotein d)
polysaccharide and lipids

8. Slime capsule is made up of_______

a) Protein b) polysaccharide c) lipids d) oligosaccharide

9. Gram positive bacteria are stained _______

a) Pink b) purple c) orange d) both a and b

10. Gram negative bacteria are stained ______

a) Pink b) purple c) orange d) both a and b

11. Unique macromolecules mostly found in bacterial cell wall

a) Glycolipid b) peptidoglycan c) nucleoprotein d) none

12. Peptidoglycan is not found in ________

a) Eubacterium b) archaebacterium c) gram positive bacterium d) gram
negative bacterium

13. Not related to mesosomes

a) Infoldings of bacterial cell membrane
b) Infoldings of bacterial cell wall
c) DNA replication d) energy production
14. Not found in bacterial cytoplasm
a) Vacuole b) glycogen particles c) ribosomes d) chloroplast

15. Group of 8 cocci is called _________

a) Octacocci b) sarcina c) staphyl; ococci d) streptococci

16. Not true about cocci

a) Rounded b) un-flagellated c) may be colonial d) bi-flagellated

17. Not true about Bacilli

a) Rod like b) may be flagellated c) may be colonial d) spiral

18. Most bacterial are

a) Autotrophic b) heterotrophic c) phototrophic d) parasitic
19. ________lives in the root nodules of Pisum sativum
a) Denitrifying bacteria b) ammonia forming bacteria c) nitrifying bacteria d)
parasitic bacteria

20. True about bacterial respiration

a) Presence of oxygen is lethal for obligate aerobes
b) Presence of oxygen is lethal for obligate an-aerobes
c) Absence of oxygen is necessary for obligate aerobes
d) Absence of oxygen is necessary for obligate aerobes

21. Orientation behavior of flagellated bacteria towards various stimuli

a) Taxis b) LAG phase c) stationary phase d) decline phase

22. Phase during which bacteria prepare themselves for division is called ______
a) LOG phase b) LAG phase c) stationary phase d) decline phase

23. Phase during which bacterial multiplication rate is greater than decline rate is called _______
a) LOG phase b) LAG phase c) stationary phase d) decline phase

24. Phase during which bacterial multiplication rate is less than decline rate is called ______
a) LOG phase b) LAG phase c) stationary phase d) decline phase

25. Phase during which bacterial multiplication rate is equal to Decline rate is called _________
a) LOG phase b) LAG phase c) stationary phase d) decline phase

26. Usual way of reproduction in bacteria

a) Multiple fission b) binary fission c) endospore formation d)
mitosis

27. Way of survival in bacteria

a) Akinete formation b) endospore formation c) genetic formation d)
fission

28. Bacterial genetic recombination with the involvement of third party

a) Conjugation b) transduction c) transformation d) none
29. Bacterial genetic recombination through pilli
a) Conjugation b) transduction c) transformation d) none

30. Bacterial genetic recombination which results in the change of a bacterium

a) Conjugation b) transduction c) transformation d) none

31. ________bacterial convert the proteins of dead organisms into nitrates

a) Denitrifying bacteria b) nitrifying bacteria c) ammonia forming bacteria d) none

32. Riboflavin is a vitamin produced by a bacterium named __________

a) E. coli b) Vibrio cholera c) clostridium d)
pneumococcus

33. The target/s of antibiotics in bacteria is/are ______

a) Cell wall b) cell membrane c) protein and nucleic acid synthesis
d) All

34. Antibiotics used against the wide range of bacteria are called ________
a) Narrow spectrum antibiotics b) broad spectrum antibiotics c) both d) All

35. Not related to Cyanobacteria

a) Prokaryotic b) double layered cell wall c) unicellular or colonial d)
reproduction is sexual

36. Nostoc is ________

a) Eukaryotic b) multicellular c) non-chlorophyllous d) filamentous

37. Not true about the single filament of Nostoc

a) Known as Trichome b) U-branched c) having rounded or oval cells
d) branched

38. Not true about heterocyst

a) Oblong color less cells b) nitrogen fixation c) helps in reproduction d)
chlorophyllous

39. Portion of filament between two heterocysts is called ______

a) Coenobium b) trichome c) hormogonium d) none

40. Way of survival in Nostoc is called ______

a) Endospore formation b) akinete formation c) fission
d) none

41. Not true about Akinetes

a) Non-motile spores
b) Oval with two walls
c) Formed during un-favorable conditions in case of Nostoc
d) Formed during un-favorable condition in case of bacteria

42. A circular DNA called plasmid is present in

a) Viruses b) bacteria c) algae d) fungi
43. Rod-shaped bacteria are called
a) Bacilli b) spiralla c) cocci d) streptococci

44. Nostoc belongs to

a) Kingdom plantae b) kingdom monera c) kingdom Protista d)
kingdpm fungi

45. Conjugation in bacteria was observed by

a) Lederberg and Tatum b) Lederberg and Zinder c) Beadle and Tatum
d) Griffith

ANSWERS
1. A 10. A 19. C 28. B 37. D
2. C 11. B 20. B 29. A 38. D
3. A 12. B 21. A 30. C 39. C
4. C 13. B 22. B 31. B 40. B
5. B 14. D 23. A 32. C 41. D
6. B 15. B 24. D 33. D 42. B
7. B 16. D 25. C 34. B 43. A
8. B 17. D 26. B 35. D 44. B
9. B 18. B 27. B 36. D 45. A