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Internet and Amazigh Language

Safety
najib rachid

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Ibn Zohr University English Studies
Centre of Letters and Major: Linguistics
Human Sciences,
Ait Melloul.

Internet and Amazigh Language Safety

A paper submitted
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of a B.A in English Studies

Submitted by: Supervised by:

Najib Rachid Prof. Abdelmajid Ridouane
C.A:14003507

Academic Year:
2017/2018

‫ طريق تارودانت‬،‫ أيت ملول‬،‫ حي أزرو‬،‫القطب الجامعي‬

Campus Universitaire, Cité Azrou, Ait Melloul, Route de Taroudant
Site web : clsh-cuam.uiz.ac.ma
 Acknowledgments

Thanks to Prof. Abdelmajid Ridouane for his supervision.

Thanks to my friends for their support.

&

Thanks to my family for their patience.

 Table of contents

General Introduction ……………………………………………………………. 1

Chapter 1: Relation between Language Safety and Internet ………………… 3

1.1 The Problem of Language Extinction ……………………………….. 3

1.2 The Importance of Internet for Language Safety ………………….. 6

Chapter 2: The Amazigh Language and the Internet ……………………….. 13

2.1 Importance of the Internet for the Amazigh Language …………... 13

2.2 Challenges of Amazigh Language Entrance to the Internet ……... 15

Chapter 3: Amazigh Language and the Future of Internet …………………. 22

3.1 Internet Growth and Advancements ………………………………. 22

3.2 Internet as a Platform ………………………………………………. 25

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………… 31

Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………. 32
 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 1

General Introduction

Clearly, most of world languages don’t get enough attention. Hence, they get margined

and by time they finally extinct. Many of languages today are going in the same process, facing

the same destiny, while only few reached one of their best periods and are expected to continue

in their prosperity. Certainly, there been various factors that affected languages, either

empowering or lessening their status. And obviously Internet, which has an impact on almost

every aspect of our life. Has a big role to play in that. Especially with the significance role of

Internet in our modern days and the value it gains throw time, which gives it a more valuable

role to play in the future, regarding world languages safety.

The power of Internet impact on languages safety can be due to: Its cheap way of

communication, its less subjection governmental control, its growth and rapid advancement, and

its tremendous use in most aspects of our life. Thus it will remain and gain more effect on

languages and cultural and linguistic phenomenon throw time. Internet can play both positive

and negative role concerning language safety. According to the way is been employed. The

positive role is that Internet can be used as a powerful tool to save endangered languages,

because it can help in fighting the problem of Intergeneration transmission and negative attitude

towards it. Whereas the negative role is that Internet can be used as a dangerous tool to gain

hegemony of one language or few over many, as Internet aims to make the globe into one small

village, where it represent only languages and cultures of world powers throw frames of

Globalization, Modernization and Fashion.

Thus, this paper is focusing on Amazigh language, which since the constitutional reforms

in 2011 which imposed it as an official language alongside with Arabic in Morocco, and the

controversy about its situation is in increase. Amazigh activists have tried many approaches to
 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 2

improve the status of their language, regarding multi aspects: politics, media, literature,

education, technology and so on. But unfortunately the language is still struggling in concern to

its position within the technological advancements, specifically Internet. due to many reasons

such as: the historical, geographical, political, and economic situation of its speakers, hence

linguistic laxity and regression due to the lack of literal and scientific productions, thus its

insufficiency for youths in our modern world, which make this language a more easy target for

language extinction and linguicide.

Because of that, this paper aims to put the light on the role that Internet can play

concerning Amazigh language status, for this paper demonstrate that by: First, Introducing the

problem of language extinction, its reasons, and degrees of endangerment, and indicating the

importance of Internet as an Information and Communication Technology to languages safety.

Then presenting the importance of Internet to Amazigh language, and illustrating challenges that

face Amazigh language entrance to the Internet. Finally, by denoting Amazigh language and the

future of Internet from its growth and advancements to Internet encompass of life aspects.

This work is based upon Literature Based Research Methodology and observations. The

data varies from observations, to writings and works relevant to the topic. From works of

UNESCO which concern the danger of language extinction and its factors, to works that

discussed language revitalization and ICT, such as The role of Information Technology in

supporting minority and endangered languages by Gary Holton, to famous books, like English as

a Global Language by David Crystal, ending with works published by IRCAM (the Royal

Institute of Amazigh Culture), such as Revitalizing the Amazigh language: Stakes, Challenges,

and Strategies by Ahmed Boukous, and many more works.

 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 3

Chapter 1

Relation between Language Safety and Internet

1.1 The Problem of Language Extinction

Many works have discussed the relation between language safety and the Internet. Each

from a specific field or a viewpoint, some discussions are concerned only with a specific

language. And some are to do with a certain linguistic phenomenon.

One of these linguistic phenomena is language extinction. According to UNESCO project

Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger, about 4% of languages spoken in the world were

extinct since 1950. And it is estimated that At least 43% of the estimated 6000 languages spoken

in the world are endangered. Furthermore National Geographic studies, states that every 14 days

one language dies and by the next century, Meaning that by the year 2100 nearly half of the

roughly 7.000 languages spoken on Earth will likely disappear and it will be hard to trace them.

They also found that nearly 80 percent of the world's population speaks only one percent of its

languages. National Geographic’s Enduring Voices project and the Living Tongues Institute for

Endangered Languages worked together in revitalizing endangered languages, by sending expert

teams to language hotspots around the globe to interview, and document those languages. They

confirm that many of this endangered languages are not yet been recorded. This indicates that

this languages survival is dependent on their last speakers, mostly margined elderly people. As

Michael Krauss states, “for a language to survive, it needs at least 100,000 speakers” (qtd. in

Nelsson 200). In other words the language dies after its last speaker past away, taking with him

all kinds of knowledge that being carried by that language. “When a language dies, we lose not
 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 4

just the language itself, but cultural and scientific information” (qtd. in Ward & Genabith 3), and

according to a UNESCO document Language Vitality and Endangerment “the knowledge of

any single language may be the key to answering fundamental questions of the future.”(2). As

Turin informs “The death of a language is not simply about words, syntax, and grammar, nor

will it affect only small, “traditional” and largely oral cultures. Languages convey unique forms

of cultural knowledge. Speech forms encode oral traditions.” (849), Seyfeddinipur crucially

dispute this. In her TEDX talk she said:

We have with doing things to save species creatures all over the world. plants. but we

often think that language and culture is different, because it's man-made but it is not. the

way that our environment changes influences dramatically the way people live, and so

what happens is that globalization climate change and urbanization makes people give up

their languages. they give up their traditional ways of life they moved to cities, and they

ensure that their children speak the language that will give them a better future that will

give them social and economic mobility (TEDx Talks, 05:02-05:42).

Saving this endangered language, culture and knowledge is where the role of linguists

comes in. for “The linguist is interested in documenting the language before it disappears and

would like to record the language as comprehensively as possible.”(Ward, 808).Concerning the

phenomenon of language extinction, there are many classifications for the degree of

endangerment. For example Terralingua (qtd. in Ward & Genabith 2) divides languages into

three main groups:

1) Moribund: no longer learned by children.

2) Endangered: those which will soon cease to be learned by children.

 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 5

3) Safe: neither moribund nor endangered.

While UNESCO (2017) divides languages into six categories:

1) Safe: language is spoken by all generations; intergenerational transmission is

uninterrupted >> not included in the Atlas.

2) Vulnerable: most children speak the language, but it may be restricted to certain

domains (e.g., home).

3) Definitely endangered: children no longer learn the language as mother tongue in

the home.

4) Severely endangered: language is spoken by grandparents and older generations;

while the parent generation may understand it, they do not speak it to children or

among themselves.

5) Critically endangered: the youngest speakers are grandparents and older, and they

speak the language partially and infrequently.

6) Extinct: there are no speakers left >> included in the Atlas if presumably extinct

since the 1950s.

Thus, in Morocco in link to UNESCO (2017), there is one extinct language (Judeo-Berber

(Morocco), three critically endangered (Ghomara, Sanhaja of Srair, and Tamazight (Ait

Rouadi)), one severely endangered (Moroccan Judeo-Arabic (Morocco)), one definitely

endangered (Tamazight (Beni Iznassen)), and one vulnerable language (Figuig).But the situation

of the Amazigh language as a whole is not quit clear, yet the experts Boukous denote that:

The process of minoritization of the Amazigh language has led to the current situation, in

which the language is endangered in the medium term. The causes are essentially the
 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 6

precarious living conditions of Amazighophone communities and, subsequently, the

assimilation of these communities in urban areas due to contact with the Arabic language

and culture (“Revitalizing the Amazigh language” 18).

Moreover UNESCO (2002 - 2003) offered nine criteria for assessing language vitality

and endangerment: which would be able to determine the viability of a language, its function in

society and the type of measures required for its maintenance or revitalization. Those criteria are:

1) Absolute number of speakers.

2) Proportion of speakers within the total population.

3) Intergenerational language transmission.

4) Community member’s attitude towards their own language.

5) Shifts in domains of language use.

6) Governmental and institutional language attitudes and policies, including official

status and use.

7) Type and quality of documentation.

8) Availability of materials for language education and literacy.

9) Response to new domains and media.

1.2 The Importance of Internet for Language Safety

Internet can be used as a powerful tool in language revitalization. Language revitalization

can be defined as “restoration of vitality to a language that has lost or is losing this attribute”

(qtd. in Tsunoda 168). Revitalization as a process aims not only to save language itself, but also

to save social identity. In addition to saving all types of knowledge contained by that language:

historical, cultural, Scientific, and philosophical. As Tsunoda Express:

 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 7

Language revitalization activities create a cultural climate where the people's ethnic

heritage (the language, culture, history, etc.) is appreciated and respected and where

publications on them are available to those interested. They in turn foster the people's

sense of pride, self-esteem, identity, and ethnicity, and they contribute to the attenuation

of the negative attitude towards the language and to raising its profile (172).

Yet Revitalization and language Maintenance depends a lot on technologies as Williams argues

that social media facilitates language revitalization in an innovative method that is attractive to

the new generations (5). This argument is also implied by Siobhan saying that:

Community members are beginning to show interest in multimedia resources and to

recognize value in them for language maintenance revitalization. For example, such

materials make the lessons more fun and make the younger generation interested in the

language, and they counter the lack of fluent teachers in the classroom (qtd. in Tsunoda

208).

But unfortunately, Internet as one of these technologies can be used also negatively in the raise

of language extinction. To dive more into this idea, this efforts of Hoffmann, does a very good

job. His work gives many reasons why a language might become endangered or even extinct:

There are many reasons why a language might become endangered or even extinct. The

physical loss of speakers (due to genocide, natural disasters, or similar causes), the

disintegration of the language community (due to displacement, assimilation into the

dominant population, or economic concerns), the homogenizing effects of mainstream

media (in the form of dominant language television, radio, and print media), and the

forced abandonment of the language (through overt suppression, often accompanied by

 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 8

the institution of dominant-language schools) are among the possible factors that lead to

language abandonment(14).

Here, Technological advancement is indicates as homogenization contributor. Hoffmann

explains that in more details when he said that “… not only because of the small number of

speakers but also because those speakers will not be able to pass the language on to the next

generation” (15). And he went to state in another part that:

Languages have become endangered or extinct because the speakers have been

purposefully forced to abandon their language by outsiders. By forcing local people to

learn and use a new language, conquerors assert their supremacy over the people they

have suppressed. In these cases, language shift is caused by deliberate language

suppression (16).

Moreover he points to the fact that: “Technology, for the most part, is not available in indigenous

languages, requiring these speakers to use the majority language if they want to make use of

technology – especially the Internet – or have access to mass media” (15-16). Nonetheless he

suggested that:

If the speakers of a language feel that it is valuable and important to maintain their

language, then they are less likely to stop using it. An increase in prestige can be

achieved in many different ways, including the use of the language in media and

technology, official governmental recognition for the language, and increased economic

status of its speakers (18).

Similar points are to be found in the work of Holton. Where he argues that:

Information technology has the potential to create virtual language communities which

bridge the gaps created by language shift in minority-language communities. In

 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 9

particular, information technology can bring together speakers and learners who are

scattered over great distances (371).

Holton additionally agreed that “It is true that endangered languages tend to be spoken by those

with less access to IT.” (373). Even though Crystal didn’t agree that number of speakers,

linguistic properties, and historical facts, have much to do today with how much powerful a

language is:

Why a language becomes a global language has little to do with the number of

people who speak it. It is much more to do with who those speakers are (7).

A language does not become a global language because of its intrinsic structural

properties, or because of the size of its vocabulary, or because it has been a vehicle of a

great literature in the past, or because it was once associated with a great culture or

religion. These are all factors which can motivate someone to learn a language, of course,

but none of them alone, or in combination, can ensure a language’s world spread. Indeed,

such factors cannot even guarantee survival as a living language – as is clear from the

case of Latin, learned today as a classical language by only a scholarly and religious few.

Correspondingly, inconvenient structural properties (such as awkward spelling) do not

stop a language achieving international status either. A language has traditionally become

an international language for one chief reason: the power of its people – especially their

political and military power. The explanation is the same throughout history (9).

Having said that, Crystal does agree that technology and Internet can play a very important role

in that, the way he sees it is that Technologies works as soft power tool to gain the cultural and

lingual hegemony of one language over the others. This idea is highlighted in:
 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 10

So mother-tongue use by itself cannot give a language global status. To achieve

such a status, a language has to be taken up by other countries around the world. They

must decide to give it a special place within their communities, even though they may

have few (or no) mother-tongue speakers (4).

But international language dominance is not solely the result of military might. It may

take a militarily powerful nation to establish a language, but it takes an economically

powerful one to maintain and expand it. … Technology, chiefly in the form of movies

and records, fuelled new mass entertainment industries which had a worldwide impact.

The drive to make progress in science and technology fostered an international

intellectual and research environment which gave scholarship and further education a

high profile (10).

In accordance with that, Ward & Genabith tells us that a language dies mainly for non-linguistic

reasons:

However, languages do not necessarily fit into the Darwinian concept of “survival of the

fittest”. Languages do not usually disappear because they are “not as good” as other

languages. All (mature) languages of the world allow their speakers to express

themselves fully This occurs when an incoming language displaces and then replaces

original languages. This happened extensively in the Americas, Australia and in parts of

Africa and Europe (qtd. in Ward & Genabith 2).

Ward and Genabith discussed the phenomenon of Linguicide (language genocide). This occurs

according to Terralingua:
 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 11

when a language is 'killed off” by a group (usually the dominant group in society) against

the wishes of its speakers. Linguicide (whether intentional or not) is speeding up as local

languages are excluded from the education system. In many parts of the world, the

language and cultural rights of linguistic minorities are not being met (qtd. in Ward &

Genabith 2).

This use of Technology, as a tool for cultural domination, calls attention to the question of

human right. In view of Romaine:

The issue of human rights comes into play in connection with the disappearance of

languages and the erosion of cultural diversity when we confront the fact that people do

not normally give up their languages or cultures willingly, but continue to transmit them,

albeit in changed form over time. Not coincidentally, the vast majority of today’s

threatened languages and cultures are found among socially and politically marginalized

and/or subordinated national and ethnic minority groups (32).

Linguistic human right is significant. As it can protect Margined communities and their

languages from such a use of technology. Any negative use of power to supplant others from

their identity, their language is considered as a violation to human right. Tsunoda Expresses this

“… But such an action, if forced from the outside, will violate human rights.”(181).

Most of This goes hand in hand with conclusions that Boukous come into:

A language which is used in high technology has more weight than one used in the

traditional sectors of production. The new information, communication and education

technologies provide considerable opportunities for the dissemination and expansion of

 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 12

languages. As a result, those transmitted through the Internet, multimedia, software

packages, computer programs, etc. are immediately integrated into the new culture and,

thus, gain weight in comparison to others. It is, therefore, clear that the digital divide

plays a decisive role in the distinction between the languages of digital technology and

the others. Consequently, technology watch is increasingly becoming a need for

languages which do not want to pay the price of technological backwardness.

(“Revitalizing the Amazigh language” 53).

 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 13

Chapter 2

The Amazigh Language and the Internet

2.1 Importance of the Internet for the Amazigh Language

Indeed, Amazigh linguists and non-linguists realized the importance of Internet for the

safety of the Amazigh Language. One can argue that the use of technology in revitalization of

the Amazigh language has already started with arrival of VCR (videocassette recorder) into the

region, when many Amazigh poets and music makers had finally the ability to distribute and

share their arts with vast audiences. This has been expressed by Almasude:

When cheap portable audiocassette recorders came on the market, they began to replace

the reel to reel tape decks and the record players. Cassette recorders provided Moroccans

not only with the option to record and play their favorite music, but also to utilize them as

a form of communication on a mass scale (120).

Crawford and Hoffman stated that: “An array of list-servers, newsletters, radio broadcasts,

academic programs, and international conferences now provides Berber speakers with the means

to forge a sense of Amazigh consciousness across national borders.” (120) Almasude argues the

same thing:

Indigenous youth took the opportunity to express their everyday struggle with

government, family, and self. They produced hundreds of poems and songs on domestic

recorders and distributed them locally. The success of such productions led to the

creation of a dozen influential associations with Interest in educating the public about the
 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 14

existence of Imazighen. After these groups became popular, music producers became

interested and began to market the revolutionary music (120).

But Internet has given the Amazigh language a much bigger platform for its speakers to express

their thoughts. The same author Almasude points out that:

Prior to the Internet, the Amazigh identity was an internal question, meaning that

Imazighen in Morocco for instance did not know about their “brothers” in Algeria,

Tunisia, or Mali. The countries of North Africa succeeded in censuring information

regarding the Amazigh community. Given that Imazighen were divided and isolated

regionally as subgroups (such as Riffians, Shluh, Twareg,and Kabils), each assumed that

their problems were local and did not have any significance to others(124).

Hence, these different speakers of the Amazigh language from different regions with the

communication technologies, they started to realize each other’s problems. Almasude covered

this in saying that:

With the Internet, Imazighen from all over the world have established a Virtual

Community through which they have access to the various issues regarding their

culture/language and identity. … North African countries found themselves at an

impasse. Through various forces, especially the computer communication technology,

they were pressured to recognize for the first time in history the existence of Imazighen

as a separate cultural entity (125).

Moreover, Crystal Has pointed out that Internet is a very powerful tool. As it provides an easy

cheaper method, and a platform for expression:

 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 15

A particularly interesting effect of the Internet has been its role in relation to minority and

endangered languages. These languages are finding that the Net gives them a louder and

cheaper voice than is available through such traditional media as radio, and Websites and

chat groups (‘virtual speech communities’) are now common in(120).

Almasude also adds another property of the Internet which is a less subjection to governmental

control. he stated that “It does provide a means for the expression of oppressed voices that is less

subject to government control than newspapers, magazines, radio, television, and movies that

needed to be shown in theatres”(117). So, “With the availability of computer communication

technology in the 1990s and the growth of an important Amazigh student body in the Western

hemisphere, the Imazighen seized the opportunity to build worldwide forums.” (Almasude 124),

and maybe one of these forums is what Crawford and Hoffman talked about as “Amazigh-net”,

they state that:

Amazigh-net [is] an Internet discussion group for people interested in Amazigh issues.

This Internet community is far from being the whole of the international Amazigh

movement, but it is an accessible window into the issues of concern for at least some

people interested for whom being Amazigh has meaning (120).

2.2 Challenges of Amazigh Language Entrance to the Internet

There are many challenges that can cause obstruction against the entrance of the

Amazigh language into the field of technology. As for a language to enter the world of the

Internet, it’s important for it to be standardized, and to be dictionary sufficient. And those are the
 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 16

two main problems that faced the Amazigh language. These two Issues are traced back to

historical, geographical, and political factors.

First of all, let’s start with the facts. Amazigh Language generally speaking is as Boukous

express “Amazigh is a language in its own right; it is not a dialect of another language. It has its

own dialect.” (qtd. in Chafik 51) It is spoken in “Morocco, Algeria, and in the south of Tunisia

and Mauritania, and in Mali and Niger” (Encyclopédie berbère, in Chafik 51). Noting that, in this

work Amazigh language is just as Boukous stated, but it’s more to do with the name given to

standard Amazigh language in morocco by IRCAM which includes Moroccan dialects. As “In

Morocco, there are roughly three geolectal areas, from south to north: Tashlhit, Tamazight and

Tarifit” (Boukous, “Revitalizing the Amazigh language” 29). And I find it true what Crawford

and Hoffman have said “Berber varies to such an extent that many native speakers claim they

cannot understand native speakers from other regions, even within a single country like

Morocco” (121). Besides this linguistic variety, Amazigh is mostly an oral tradition use based

language. But it has its own script called Tifinagh script. Tifinagh is written from left to right

(Ait_Ali and Sedrati 5), It does not have capitalization in its script (“IT Communication as

institutional” 7).

Due to these Facts, standardization was very challenging. But it’s important mentioning

that what is meant by standardization of the Amazigh language is not the view that some

Moroccans have: that the standardization of Amazigh language is the invention and the

borrowing of new rules (Belkacem). The objective of this standardization is clearly mentioned by

Boukous:

It is to turn Amazigh into a language that is written and oral, and a language with its

references at the disposal of all speakers; a language that is functional, accessible and
 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 17

uniform, and that meets the needs of users in communication situations imposed by

modern life. The task will not be easy (“The planning of Standardizing Amazigh

language” 9).

Also as El-Hakkouni stated “Standard languages/dialects cut across regional differences,

providing a unified means of communication, and thus an institutionalized norm which can be

used in the mass-media, in formal education, in teaching language to foreigners, and so on”( 41).

In order to achieve this objectives and for the Amazigh language to be successfully used in the

Internet, there is two main issues that’s need to be dealt with. Firstly, providing a common-term

between all different dialects as “Imposed standardization, which involves the selection and

promotion of one dialect at the expense of others, may fraught with political and social

difficulties” (El-Hakkouni 43). Secondly a unified and a standard Tifinagh Script that can be

easily applied within technology field, this is very important as Boukous argue that:

The coding problem has intensified since the advent of the Internet and the globalization

of information sharing in the form of text documents. The ideal is to ensure that a

document containing information can be treated on a system using a set of Western letters

(“The planning of Standardizing Amazigh language” 16).

With the codification of the Tifinagh writing, Amazigh may thus benefit from the

standardization of electronic products and the allocation of a computer code (directory,

name and number) to the Tifinagh letters, thereby ensuring the exchange of electronic

documents without information loss. The Tifinagh writing can thus be integrated into

software developed by large companies specialized in the production of software. This

 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 18

will facilitate its use especially at the level of the Internet and word processing (“The

planning of Standardizing Amazigh language” 17).

Furthermore “Tifinagh Unicode covers the alphabets present in all the four subsets making it

very flexible and easily extendable. This Unicode standardization was particularly important for

the integration of Tifinagh in the new information systems such as the Internet.” (Ait_Ali and

Sedrati 6) Ait_Ali and Sedrati also argue that:

It is undeniable that the exploitation of new technologies conveyed in the wake of

globalization has enabled Amazigh to have a keypad, a codified spelling the Tifinagh-

Unicode, and multimedia supports that virtually allow the Amazigh language and culture

to be disseminated at the international level. Benefiting from this contribution, Amazigh

will accordingly no longer have only the status of an ethnolinguistic marker of the

Amazigh identity characterized by rurality and under-development (31-32).

Another Challenge was the lack of terminologies and vocabulary to express modern

meanings and concepts. This problem can be due the lack of scientific research, also economic

and political weakness that Amazigh language suffered from for years. As Within the category of

limited diffusion languages, Azeriah adds Tamazight into a subcategory he suggested and named

“little-known languages”. He puts the characteristics of languages within this subcategory as

follows:

1-They often exist alongside one or more ‘major’ languages. A good example is

Tamazight which exists alongside Arabic and French/Spanish.

2-They have a relatively short writing tradition.

 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 19

3-They have a rich oral tradition.

4-They tend to have a limited vocabulary.

5-They tend to have a high rate of illiteracy among their users.

6- A significance percentage of their speakers in rural areas are monolingual.

7-writter, thinkers and scientist from these little known-langauges, seeking to reach larger

readerships, tend to write in the important language spoken alongside their mother

tongues. A write who is originally Amazigh would write in Arabic or French or

Spanish… (20-21).

Due the lack of Tamazight terms and concepts in the field of media and the urge need of

Tamazight terms and concepts to express the new meanings and concepts in the field, there been

many attempts taken by IRCAM. Where for example Tamazight media Terminologies were

adopted, derived and borrowed from French, English and Arabic. An example of that will be

Amazigh Media Dictionary by IRCAM.

In consequence of lack of standardization and lack of terminology, people’s positive

attitude towards the language will drop slowly and continuously. As the language does not

satisfy their needs, especially in modern fields, and they finally end up using a foreign language.

No wonder that a UNESCO Document Language Vitality and Endangerment points out that

language endangerment “may be caused by internal forces, such as a community’s negative

attitude towards its own language” (“Language Vitality & Endangerment” 2). For more

explanation, Ward and Genabith argue that: “Linguistic suicide occurs when the speakers of a
 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 20

language decide to ‘kill off’ a language, usually because it is deemed to be no longer

‘worthwhile’ ” (2-3). This can also imply a soft type of colonialism. As in the name of

modernization and globalization, powerful languages displace weaker ones. Thus our world goes

gradually from a multilingual to bilingual one and finally ends with the immergence of a

monolingual world. Crystal expresses these in much better way:

Perhaps a global language will cultivate an elite monolingual linguistic class, more

complacent and dismissive in their attitudes towards other languages. Perhaps those who

have such a language at their disposal – and especially those who have it as a mother-

tongue – will be more able to think and work quickly in it, and to manipulate it to their

own advantage at the expense of those who do not have it, thus maintaining in a linguistic

guise the chasm between rich and poor. Perhaps the presence of a global language will

make people lazy about learning other languages, or reduce their opportunities to do so.

Perhaps a global language will hasten the disappearance of minority languages, or – the

ultimate threat – make all other languages unnecessary (14-15).

Additionally one manifestations of this can be language shift. For Reino argues that:

The language shift is only a part of a larger shift towards modernization. For instance,

older people live a traditional life style, while their children are used to a more

westernized life in the cities, or one generation of women leaves the house only to visit

female friends, while the next generation travels around the globe (18).

This attraction towards modernization can be a reason for which “The speakers whose first

language is Amazigh tend to practice diglossia” (Boukous, “Revitalizing the Amazigh language”

26). Moreover, this calls another important topic, which is the response of Amazigh speakers
 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 21

towards the entrance of Amazigh language into Internet. A survey done by Reino state: “Most of

the interviewees were Berbers, and they all showed positive attitudes towards their own

language” (26), But the question that might be asked next is: was this positive attitude a practical

one or just superficial one. Herein with Amazigh language starting to enter the word of Internet,

Ait_Ali and Sedrati state that:

Until recently, the use of Tifinagh in the Internet was very limited. Nowadays, it is

increasingly used and supported by different platforms. For instance, Microsoft started to

support Tifinagh in their Operating Systems starting from Windows 7 when Microsoft

web browser Internet Explorer started to support the characters. Another example is

Google browser Chrome which also supports the alphabet as of 2016. Apple in its turn

started to support Tifinagh starting from its mobile operating system ‘iOS’ (6).

As that indicate bigger technology companies such as: Google, Apple, Microsoft, and Facebook

started to support Amazigh language and Tifinagh script in their platforms. Ait_Ali and Sedrati

explain “this support trend of Tifinagh in the Internet means that more and more people will be

able to read and write using the alphabet on the web. Similarly, to Arabic and languages with

special writing scripts” (6).Yet, I think we still have to wait to finally see how the interest of

younger generation of Imazighen towards their language will be.

 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 22

Chapter 3

Amazigh Language and the Future of Internet

3.1 Internet Growth and Advancements

Internet is witnessing many fast changings in very short periods. Internet starts to take over

and replace most of other Information technologies. Television both cable and satellite is

replaced by Vloging and online broadcasting (e.g. Netflix and YouTube). Radio is replaced by

(e.g. SoundCloud). traditional phone calls are replace by phone applications (e.g. Viper,

WhatsApp). Internet’s big purpose is media and communication for whatever reason that might

be. And this can be very important for language safety. as Dalby state “Throughout history

languages have died out and been replaced by others through language contact, or through

divergence due to lack of communication over distances.” (qtd. in Sallabank 57) Another

important thing is the number of worldwide users which is in continues growth. According to

Statista web Site the number is expected to reach some 3.02 billion monthly active social media

users by 2021.

Moreover Technical advancements of web technologies are also rising. In these days we

are witnessing the rise of Artificial intelligence in the web space. Artificial intelligence (AI)

which can be defined as: “The theory and development of computer systems able to perform

tasks normally requiring human intelligence, such as visual perception, speech recognition,

decision-making, and translation between languages.”(Oxford Dictionaries) Computational

linguistics and Natural language processing are some of its interdisciplinary fields which deal

with languages. Advancements taking place in these fields are the reason why Crytsal suggested
 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 23

an interesting scenario for technologies effect on world languages at the future as he expresses

this:

A rather more plausible scenario is that an alternative method of communication could

emerge which would eliminate the need for a global language. The chief candidate here is

automatic translation (‘machine translation’). If progress in this domain continues to be

as rapid as it has been in the past decade, there is a distinct possibility that, within a

generation or two, it will be routine for people to communicate with each other directly,

using their first languages, with a computer ‘taking the strain’ between them (26).

As he also stated that:

The accuracy and speed of real-time automatic translation is undoubtedly going to

improve dramatically in the next twenty five to fifty years, but it is going to take much

longer before this medium becomes so globally widespread, and so economically

accessible to all, that is poses a threat to the current availability and appeal of a global

language (27).

Thus according to Crystal:

It is difficult to predict the future, with something so dynamic as the Internet. In a few

generations’ time, the Net will not be like anything we know today. Automatic speech

synthesis and recognition will be routine, and […] more use will be made of automatic

translation. The arrival of high-quality immediate translation facilities will have a major

impact on the use of English (or any lingua franca) on the Net; but these are a long way

off. For the near future, it is difficult to foresee any developments which could eliminate

the significant role of English on the information superhighway (122).

 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 24

The Amazigh language attention towards these advancements is still at its beginnings.

TICAM (the international conference on Amazigh along with information and communication

technologies) is an event by Computer Science Studies, Information Systems and

Communications Center (CEISIC), and held by The Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture

(IRCAM). This event brought the interest of many researches who submitted their works to

improve Amazigh language position and use within the field of ICT. Some of this works are:

1-Amazighe Transliterator, “The need of transliterations is in most cases due the lack of

Amazighe script support in ICT environments” (IRCAM, “2ème” 26).

2-Amazigh POS-tagger (parts of speech) tagging which is “the first step needed for

automatic text processing” (IRCAM, “2ème” 33).

3-Amazigh (OCR) Optical Character Recognition (IRCAM, “2ème” 81)

4-Amazigh Speech Recognition (IRCAM, “2ème” 93)

5-cross-language plagiarism detection for less resourced languages (IRCAM, “4ème” 53)

6-A universal Amazigh keyboard for latin script and Tifinagh(IRCAM, “4ème” 165)

7- Recognition of Tifinaghe Handwritten Characters (IRCAM, “4ème” 345).

8-Amazigh Digital Dictionary and a Spell Checker (IRCAM, “6ème” 81)

9-Towards Internet Domain Names in Tifinagh (Ait_Ali and Sedrati)

But generally Amazigh language is still facing bigger problems such as: “low-density which:

refers to a lack of resources, usually digital, for a language. Basic language text resources make
 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 25

invaluable contributions to NLP research and provide the basis of the development of advanced

NLP tools.” (Lynn 4). As she explains that: “For a language to have a presence on these digital

platforms, language content (text) needs to be both computationally accessible and

processable.”(Lynn 1). In Order to relate this with Amazigh language, a study points to that in

saying: “Scarcity of tools and resources: like most of the languages that has only recently started

being investigated for the NLP tasks, Amazigh lacks of annotated corpora and processing tools

and resources”(“ IT Communication as institutional promotion” 7).

3.2 Internet as a Platform

The power of Internet is not only limited to the fast growing in use and scientific

advancement, but also the fact that Internet is becoming the platform that encompass different

life aspects and subjects. Which are believed to be capable of changing people negative attitude

towards a language, hence they help improve the intergenerational transmission. In the following

are some of life aspect and subjects for which Amazigh language can take advantage of, in order

to reinforce its existence on the Internet:

First With Culture, this is very important to Amazigh language safety. Language travels

whenever culture goes. And Internet accentuate as a culture of our modern age. Further “On the

web, you're more easily able to find your tribe." (Campbell qtd. In Krotoski) Undoubtedly

Amazigh speakers as any other group appreciate their culture and consider it as a very significant

part of their identity. Amazigh culture is a very rich culture. Its traditions and folklore varies

from proverbs, poetry, music, food and celebrations. With that in mind “this accessibility to the

virtual world [(talking about technological platform supporting Tifinag script)] has enhanced the

Amazigh language and culture and has facilitate the developers to adventure in the production
 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 26

and realization of tools and applications intended to promote the learning of the Amazigh

language.”(“IT Communication as institutional promotion” 4), Thus for younger generations

whom Trudgen pointed to being: “weakly integrated into traditional culture, and disconnected

from their elders, and family support networks” (qtd. in Romaine 35). Internet can be platform to

express their Culture, in modern ways, such as embedding culture content in movies, Vlogs,

blogs, Social networks posts, trolls and memes.

Another Subject which might get attention of Amazigh speakers is religion, from religion

lessons, discussing and preaching. As religion start depending on Internet, new types of

Evangelization and Dawah (Islamic preaching) were to be found in the cyberspace and new

terminologies appeared (e.g. Cyber-spirituality). In view of Campbell “Religion online has also

received attention in several significant large-scale studies of Internet use,” (8). She believes that

“The Internet has provided religious practitioners with new ways to explore religious beliefs and

experiences through a growing number of web sites, chat rooms, and email discussion groups

dedicated to a variety of faith related issues.”(4).this can be very significant to Amazigh speakers

whom are proud of their Islamic faith, as preaching in Amazigh language is not something new:

Amazigh is used as a liturgical language in Amazighophone areas whose speakers are not

conversant with Classical Arabic, especially in fulfilling religious rituals. However, the

fact remains that this language is considered inferior to Classical Arabic given that the

latter is considered as a sacred language, while Amazigh is basically the linguistic code

of the profane world ( Boukous, “Revitalizing the Amazigh language” 59).

Literature is also important. And yes the digital age had also an effect on writing as well.

Works of all kind, millions of them: dictionaries, translators and books are more available online.
 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 27

Search engines can count the number of words, find phrases, and answer questions in a few

seconds. Amazigh language can really benefit from that, especially in enriching academic studies

and rise about Amazigh issues, in addition to providing sources for natural language processing

tools. Moreover, “Giant players of technology taking much interest in the production and

circulation of literature digitally. These players include Google, Amazon, Barnes and Noble,

Apple. “(Gugane 3) He explains because “It has offered a platform for writers to reach to the

masses. Several books are published online in digital form. The response of readers to the digital

copies is overwhelming.”(Gugane 3) His view can be detailed more in:

Technology and its devices have offered a unique platform for renowned authors as well

to the common people. People are easily expressing themselves through means of

electronic media like blog and social networking sites. There is a vogue; famous

personalities are sharing their views with readers through blogs. These ways to reach to

the people have been adopted by politicians, sportspersons, actors, social activists,

industrialists and so on (Gugane 4).

Further, with the digital age, the status of translation also has been changed. As Escarrá

Jiménez elaborates that:

The competence needed to translate has also evolved due to different factors, mainly

technological factors.

Translators have always been associated with the image of a man writing or typing

behind a heap of dictionaries and with a bunch of books behind him. However, in recent

years this image has changed. Now when we think of a translator we can imagine a man

behind a computer with Internet connection and maybe a couple of books on his desk.
 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 28

Yes, with the arrival of the information era many things changed. The translation

profession has also changed. Now, in order to be a competent translator it is necessary to

be computer literate and to keep one’s information technologies skills updated (1-2).

Indeed the flexibility that technologies provide for translators make it unavoidable, especially

that now robots and computers became more reliable, due the advancement researches done in

the field of natural language processing. Now when we speak of Amazigh language and

translation, Boukous stated that:

The translation activity is also a factor which makes it possible to gauge the weight of a

language and assign a particular status to it. Regarding Amazigh, the translation which

takes Amazigh as a source language is still limited to some ethnographic literature works,

while target translation knows a few significant titles of international literature, especially

French literature.(“ Revitalizing the Amazigh language” 131).

Thus In short, As Azeriah suggested and said regarding translation of Amazigh oral tradition that

“Is fairly recent and needs to be nurtured, encouraged, and sustained in case of Tamazight” (31).

In order to create a platform where cultures are interchanged, hence enabling youths to share and

distribute their Amazigh language and culture. While learning from other languages culture by

having their mother language “lexical repertory extended, relished and developed [Especially in,]

the domains where this real need is most obvious [which] are information, science and

technology.”(El-Hakkouni 54).

Furthermore, Education is started to rely entirely on technologies, especially last decades

with the birth of online platforms. Many data have showed the highly growth in use of

technologies in education. Now days a learner will acquire language from earlier age using
 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 29

technologies. Not to forget that many studies have shown that the use of mother tongue in

teaching leads to a better educational outcome. Professor Angelina Kioko summarized some of

these studies in:

The use of learners’ home language in the classroom promotes a smooth transition

between home and school. It means learners get more involved in the learning process

and speeds up the development of basic literacy skills. It also enables more flexibility,

innovation and creativity in teacher preparation. Using learners’ home language is also

more likely to get the support of the general community in the teaching/learning process

and creates an emotional stability which translates to cognitive stability.

Teaching in Amazigh language can not only improve education outcomes, but it can also save

the language by eliminating the negative attitude towards it. In another side, Ward stated that

“the EL [(Endangered language)] community members may prefer to avail of the linguist's

services to develop language teaching material (rather than scholarly documentation) for the

community, to enable them to pass on the language to their children”(Ward 808). One way to do

that is the use of Internet in Education. Internet can really challenge the difficulties that Amazigh

speakers have in learning and teaching their language.

Finally Commerce and advertisement, with the rise of electronic commerce many of

Service providing companies and media agencies depend on their profit on commercial adverts.

Company’s websites and applications offer multi language options in order to be more

customers-attracted. But the auto selected language is most of the times in one major language,

mostly English. This can relate to these realizations:

 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 30

The current push for globalization generates serious and growing linguistic inequality.

There is a worldwide economy that needs a worldwide market of information (usually in

one of the world’s major languages and most often in English). Minority languages are

being squeezed out (Ward and Genabith 3).

Furthermore, technically and economically speaking, the use of a global language can be very

beneficial for world economies. For “Industrialisation has boosted the process of linguistic

standardisation as language diversity is seen as an obstacle to trade (UNESCO qtd. in Ward and

Genabith, 3). Thus it will be extremely challenging for the Amazigh language to compete. But In

targeting Amazigh areas, advertising in Amazigh language have the potentials to get the attention

and the respect of the Amazigh speakers. Boukous comments on that: “The presence of Amazigh

in advertising is very weak. We notice from time to time spots in Amazigh, especially when

regional promoters are involved. Thus, it is clear that advertising does not yet contribute to

increasing the weight of Amazigh.”(“Revitalizing the Amazigh language” 60-61).

 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 31

Conclusion

In Conclusion, I agree with Crystal view point. That the future of Internet impact on

language safety is not yet quite clear, and that we can predict two scenarios. The first is that

Internet will lead to one global language which will eliminate the use of others. The other

scenario is that the advancements in artificial intelligence can lead to a much a multilingual

world where there is no need to learn a second language to communicate. But in the meanwhile

more efforts are required from the Amazigh people to engage in raising the status of Amazigh

language by using all the advantages that Internet can offer: from cheaper way of

communication, to less governmental control, ending with its encompass of life aspects. This

can be done first by developing Amazigh areas educationally and technologically, also

revitalizing and standardizing Amazigh language. All this can solve the problems of negative

attitude towards the language, and improve intergenerational transmission. Besides it can help in

riding out from the problem of lingual and cultural domination of other languages and cultures,

thus escaping from the problem of language extinction.

Furthermore, we find that those languages that their speakers developed these

technologies were able to keep up with the necessities of the present time. Moreover their

languages evolve to include the expectations of the future. Enabling them to develop more, stay

longer, and expand on a larger scale, While languages which their speakers could not produce

science and develop technologies or at least use it. Their languages start to disappear slowly.

This language extinction can be an internal process caused by the native speakers themselves,

because of linguistic laxity and lack of modern terminologies and cultural expressions. Or due a

foreign powers, through frames of globalization and Modernity and Fashion which attract more

and more speakers especially youths, for its matchmaking with the needs of the present time.
 Internet and Amazigh Language Safety 32

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