L1 METALS

DEFINITIONS

(i) Tenacity
 Tenacity is strength in tension, usually expressed as tensile stress at failure
i.e.
Maximum load
Original cross-sectional area

(ii) Stress
 Stress is the force carried by unit area, expressed as N/mm2
(iii) Strain
 Stain is the deformation caused by a force. Tensile and compressive strains
are expressed as ratios:
Increase (or decrease) in length
Original length
(iv) Modules of Elasticity (E) or young’s modulus
 Within the elastic limit is the point at which deformation of a stressed
material cease to be elastic and becomes plastic
(v) Yield
 Yield is an increase in strain without any increase of stress. The upper yield
stress is where yield begins and the lower yield stress is the lowest stress at
which it proceeds
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(vi) Proof stress

 Proof stress is the stress required to produce a specified amount, usually
taken as either 0.1 or 0.2 per cent of non-proportional permanent strain.
(vii) Design stress
 This is termed permissible or allowable stress and ensures structural safety
in all conditions allowing for the possibility of defects in materials, bad
workmanship, and errors in design and for overloading in service.
 (viii) Ductility
 This is the ability of a material to undergo plastic deformation before
tensile failure.
(ix) Brittleness
 This is the opposite of ductility, fracture occurs with no plastic deformation.
(x) Malleability
 It is the ability to be forged into required shapes.
(xi) Toughness
 This is a combination of strength and ductility which enables a material to
withstand shock loadings.

(xii) Hardness
 This is resistance to abrasion and penetration.
(xiii) Work hardening
 This is an increase in length and hardness of metals when rolled, forged or
otherwise manipulated at normal temperature.
 Unlike hot working in which the grain structure during manipulation is
constantly refined, cold working distorts the grain structure thus increasing
strength and hardness.
(xiv) Fatigue
 This is a term used to describe loss of strength resulting from repeated
application of a force which is less than would cause failure with a single
application
(xv) Creep
 This is slow plastic deformation under a constant stress which becomes
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significant in concrete stressing tendons. It is more rapid at high

temperatures – particularly in metals such as lead.
(xvi) Heat treatments
 This is a highly specialized process for softening, stress relieving, and
hardening.
 They involve heating the metal to a critical temperature will below its
melting point and controlling the rate of cooling.
 (xvii) Ageing
 This is an increase in length and hardness which occur in certain aluminum
alloys after heat treatment and in steel as a continuation of work
hardening.

OCCURRENCE OF IRON
 Iron is never available pure in nature. It has to be extracted in the form of
pig iron from the various iron ores.
 The ores from which iron is extracted are:-
(i) Magnetite: (Fe304). It contains 70 to 75% iron
(ii) Haematite: (Fe203) . It has about 70% iron
(iii) Iron Pyrites: (FeS3. It contains 47% iron but not preferred because
of higher sulphur content which makes it brittle.
(iv) Siderite: (FeC03): It contains 40% iron.

PIG IRON

 To remove impurities from the iron ore carbon and flux are added while
melting it in a blast furnace at 11000C.
 The refined product so obtained is the crudest form of iron and is called
pig iron. It is cast unto rough bars called pigs.

67Properties.
(i) It is hard and brittle as such it is neither ductile nor malleable.
(ii) It is difficult to bend.
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(iii) It melts easily. The fusion temperature is 12000C.

(iv) It can be hardened but not tempered.
(v) It cannot be magnetized.
(vi) It has very high compressive strength but it is very weak in tension
and shear.
(vii) It does not rust.
(viii) It cannot be welded or riveted.
 Uses:-

i. Cast iron, wrought iron and mild steel are obtained by refining the pig iron.
ii. Because of its high compressive strength it is used in columns, base plates,
door brackets, wheels and pipe work.

CAST IRON

 Pig iron is melted with Limestone and coke and poured into moulds of
deserved shapes and sizes to get purer product known as cast iron.
 Carbon contents in cast irons vary from 2.0% to 4.5%

Properties

(i) Its structure is coarse crystalline and fibrous.

(ii) Freshly fractured surface has grey, white or mottled appearance in case
of grey cast iron, white cast iron and mottled cast iron respectively.
(iii) It is brittle.
(iv) It cannot withstand shock and impacts.
(v) It cannot be welded or riveted.
(vi) It cannot be magnetized.
(vii) It can be hardened but cannot be tempered.
(viii) It is neither malleable nor ductile.
(ix) It does not rust.
(x) It becomes soft in saline water.
(xi) It is fairly hard and cannot be worked with a hand file.
(xii) It is strong in compression but weak in tension and in shear.
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(xiii) It lacks plasticity and as such it is unsuitable for forging work.

(xiv) Its melting point is 12000C.
(xv) Its specific gravity 7.5.
 Uses

i. It is used for casting, rain water pipes, gutters, gratings, railings, cisterns,
manhole covers and balustrades
ii. Because of high compressive strength it is used in making columns,
supports for heavy machinery, carriage wheels and bed plates etc.
iii. It is the basic material for the manufacture of wrought iron and mild steel.

WROUGHT IRON
 Nearly all the carbon and other elements in pig iron are oxidized and may
be left with 0.25 per cent of carbon to attain wrought iron.
 It is by far the purest form of iron in which the total impurities do not
exceed 0.5 per cent.

Properties

(i) Its structure is fibrous and has silky luster.

(ii) It is ductile and malleable.
(iii) It is tough and can withstand shock and impacts better than cast iron.
(iv) It can neither be hardened nor tampered.
(v) It can be forged and welded.
(vi) At 9000C it becomes so soft that two pieces can be joined by
hammering. It melts at 15000C.
(vii) It rusts easily.
(viii) It is unaffected by saline water.
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(ix) It forms temporary magnets but cannot be permanently magnetized.

(x) It is nearly equally strong in tension, compression and shear.
(xi) Its specific gravity is 7.25.

USES

i. It is used for making roofing sheets, rods ,corrugated sheets, gas and water
pipes, boiler tubes, plain and ornamented iron work such as grills, gates
and railings, window guards, grating and electromagnets.
 STEEL

 The essential difference between cast iron and steel is the amount of their
carbon contents.
Steel goes on becoming harder and tougher with the increase in its carbon
contents

 Up to a content of about 1.5 per cent all the carbon gets into chemical
combination with iron and none of it exists in its free state.
If carbon contents increases beyond 1.5 per cent then it does not combine
with iron and is present as free graphite.
 It is at this stage that the metal falls in the category of cast iron. The carbon
contents may be increased to 4.5 per cent for cast iron.
 For a material to be classified as steel there should be no free graphite in its
composition.

LOW CARBON STEELS

 Has carbon content upto 0.15 per cent. They are soft and suitable for iron
wire and thin sheet for tin plate.

MILD STEELS

 The carbon content is from 0.15 to 0.25 per cent.

Propjerties
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(i) Its structure is fibrous with dark bluish color.

(ii) It is ductile and malleable.
(iii) It is more tough and more elastic than cast iron and wrought iron
(iv) It is more prone to rusting than the wrought iron.
(v) It corrodes quickly.
(vi) It can be permanently magnetized.
(vii) It can be easily forged, welded and riveted.
(viii) It withstands shock and impacts well.
 (ix) It is not much affected by saline water.
(x) It is equally strong in tension, compression and in shear.
(xi) It is difficult to harden and temper.
(xii) Its specific gravity is 7.8.

Uses

i. In construction work it is chiefly used as rolled structural sections like

I-Section; channel section, angle irons, plates, round square rods.
ii. Mild steel round bars (M.S rounds) are extensively used as reinforcements
in reinforced cement concrete.
iii. Plain and corrugated sheets of mild steel are used as roof coverings.

MEDIUM CARBON STEEL

 The carbon content is 0.20 to 0.50 per cent and are suitable for forgings
and for general engineering purposes.

HIGH CARBON STEEL

 These are steels wherein the carbon contents are between 0.55 to 1.5 per
cent. Higher percentage of carbon is it renders it harder and tougher.

Properties
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(i) Its structure is granular.

(ii) It is more tough and elastic than mild steel.
(iii) It is easier to harden and to temper.
(iv) It is more difficult to forge and to weld.
(v) It can be permanently magnetized.
(vi) Comparatively it is stronger in compression than in tension or in shear.
(vii) It withstands shock and vibrations better.
 Uses

i. It is used for making tools such as drinks, files, chisels.

ii. Fine quality of cutlery is made of high carbon steel
iii. It is used to manufacture those parts of machinery that need a hard tough,
durable material capable of withstanding shock and vibrations.

TYPES OF FURNACES

 In making steel the carbon, silicon, phosphorous and other elements in pig
iron are reduced in quantity by oxidation.

1. THE BESSEMMER CONVERTER

 Converters oxidize the high carbon, manganese, silicon, and phosphorous
content of molten pig iron by blowing air, or more recently oxygen, into the
melt.
 In about 20 minutes phosphorous, the last undesirable element, reaches an
acceptable level.
 A controlled amount of carbon is added back to the melt and residual
oxides and gases are removed by the addition of ferro- manganese

2. THE OPEN HEARTH FURNACE

 The open earth process developed in 1861 is now obsolete.
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 Gas and preheated air, together with oxygen and oil, later heated a charge
of pig iron with up to 50% per cent of steel scrap.
 Some carbon and most of silicon were oxidized by the flame, and the
remaining impurities were removed by the addition of iron ore, mill scale
and lime.
 3. ELECTRIC FURNACES
 Electric arc and high frequency induction furnaces are used to produce alloy
steels from molten steel and selected scrap.
 Shorter refining periods are possible by injecting oxygen. The high
temperatures attainable allow both the melting of alloy additions and the
removal of impurities.

4. SPRAY STEEL MAKING

 A development of this rapid process in which molten pig iron is finely
atomized by a blast of oxygen and converted to steel as it falls though a
reaction chamber may eventually permit the continuous production of steel
sections.
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 L2 FORMING (SHAPING) PROCESSES
CASTING

 The process of casting results in a coarse grain structure in which the

regions of metal in contact with the mould can be particularly weak in
tension

(1) Sand casting

 Sand casting is economical where a number of complex and identical
objects such as rainwater goods and other components with internal
passage ways are required.
 If the cast metal is brittle e.g. certain grades of cast iron, then walls of
casting must be thick to prevent fracture.
Other metals e.g. cast steels are more ductile and the reduced wall
thickness lead to a weight reduction.
 Most metals and alloys having melting points up to about 15000C can be
cast.
 Although essentially simple, in that molten metal is poured into moulds and
allowed to cool, casting requires considerable knowledge and skill.
Patterns to provide the shape of mould and cores are usually made in wood
in sizes which allows for shrinkage of metal in cooling.
 Mould and cores are usually formed in special foundry sand, the cores
often being held in their correct positions by core nails which are in due
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course included in the casting.

 Pouring of metal must be continuous to ensure even cooling; otherwise the
casting may warp or crack.
 Sand castings are never completely smooth and may be distorted in
cooling, so that surfaces which are required to have a precision fit to other
surfaces must be cast over size to allow for grinding or machining.
 (2).Continuous casting

 Continuous casting is a process of casting small usually rectangular

shapes called slabs or billets in a continuous process.

 With steel the heavy and costly plant used in the ingot making and
heavy rolling process conveniently used to form semi-finished products,
is eliminated.

Continuous cast billets are often used in tube making.

(3) Shell molding

 Very accurate mouldings are made in some metal by using their resin-
bonded sand shells supported in sand.

(4) Die casting

 Accurate and permanent moulds of steel are used for mass producing small
castings of low melting point metals e.g. aluminium, copper and Zinc alloys.
 The practice of gravity die casting is similar to ordinary foundry practice but
in pressure die casting, the molten metal is injected under high pressure to
make complex shapes.
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 (5) Centrifugal casting

 Metal is poured into a cylindrical steel mould rotating about its

horizontal axis.

When the metal has solidified rotation stops and the pipe or tube is
withdrawn.

 The product is stronger and is less likely to contain defects than its san-
cast equivalent. Centrifugal cast products are often termed spun
products but these should not be confused with spun sheet products.

ROLLINGS

1. Hot rolling

 Hot rolling is used to produce long lengths of sections e.g. strips, sheets and
sections such as angles, channels and I- sections.
 Heavy rollers are used to reduce the section size and thus extend the
length.
With steel a billet or slab is heated to above 7000oC prior to rolling so that
rolling forces are reduced and the grain structure refined to improve the
durability of the finished product.
 Steel I-Sections are produced up to 920mm deep and strips up to 1830mm
wide.
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2. Cold rolling

 Using of heavy rollers improves the surface finish, dimensional accuracy,

hardness and strength of those hot rolled products it is applied to, eg steel
sheet, which can be cold rolled up to 1830mm wide.
 3. Forging

 Forging is a process of squeezing hot metal into shapes, the products being
tougher than casting. Hammering by hand is more today, most products
being drop forged using mechanical hammers and suitable dies.

4. Extension

 Heated metal is forced through a suitably shaped hole in a hardened steel

die, to produce continuous solid or hollow sections including those which
can not be rolled such as finned sections.

5. Drawing

 Wire and tubes are pulled through tapered dies or a series of dies to reduce
the thickness of the metal.
 Normally the metal is cold and the process improves its strength.

6. Forming from a cold steel

 Suitable soft and ductile sheets can be shaped by cold forming. Prefinished
products such as plastics coated steel sheets can be cold formed since most
coatings withstand more deformation than the base metal.

7. Roll forming

 Corrugated and other profled sheets, simple sections (beams and purlins)
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and complex sections are formed in any length by passing flat strip through
a series of rollers.
 With steel the maximum strip thickness is normally 5mm and the minimum
economic run is about 3000m, although for simple sections smaller
quantities may complete with press- baked sections.
 8. Pressing

 The rubber can produce lightly dished or patterned products are building
panels.
 The sheet is pressed over a wooden former by rubber pads which are
placed on the sheet and pressurized by an oil filled rubber bag contained in
the upper part of an hydraulic press.
 Tool press brake employs a V shaped die and punch which is able to form a
bend with each stroke of the punch. It can be used to make limited
quantities of troughed sheets and other open sections.
 Low tool costs and great versatility facilitate small quantity production.
Length unlike in roll forming, is commonly limited to 4m although some
presses produce sections above 9m long.

9. Deep pressing

 Deep pressing are made in hydraulic presses using highly accurate matched
steel dies which prevent the metal from buckling during the extensive
deformation which takes place.
 It is important to realize that large dies are very costly and require mass
production runs such as those provides by baths and can body panels.

10. Stretch forming

 Sheet is held at the edges and stretched over a male former of simple
shape.
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11. Spinning

 Hemispheres, cones and similar regular shapes for lighting, fittings and
containers up to about a rotating sheet against a rotating former.
 Copper, bronze, aluminum alloys and stainless steel are the metals most
commonly spun while cold boomed ends for pressure vessels are spun from
heated steel plate up to 4.3m diameter.
 12. Panel beating

 Irregular shapes are beaten from flat sheets and damaged car bodies re
repaired by this highly skilled hand work.

13. Bossing

 Steel lead, soft temper copper, aluminium and stainless steel can be
formed to complex shapes by bossing by hand using box-wood shapes and
a mallet.

HEAT TREATMENT FOR STEEL

 Steel is subjected to heat treatment so as to develop in it specific

properties .
 It involves not only heating but also cooling steel.

(a) Hardening

 This treatment of steel consist of heating the steel to red heat and then
suddenly cooking it by dipping it in a bath of cold water or oil.
 This way of cooking hot steel is known as quenching or hardening. The steel
after quenching is known as quenched steel which become hard and brittle.
 The hardness of quenched steel depend upon the medium used for
quenching and the rate of cooling.

(b) Tempering
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 Tempering gives hardened steel increased ductility with only a slight loss of
strength, by reheating to a temperature below the hardening temperature
followed by cooling at any rate.

 The higher the reheating temperature the greater the ductility and also the
loss in strength.
 (c) Annealing

 Steel is heated to a critical temperature above 7000c, held at this

temperature for a period related to the thickness of the section, and then
cooled slowly and at a controlled rate, usually in the furnace.

 Annealing softens the steel and removes internal stresses caused, for
example, by welding or cold working.

(d) Normalizing

 This treatment is done to refine the structure and to remove strains that
might have been caused by cold working. When steel is cold worked its
crystallized structure may get brittle and even crack.
 Also when the metal is heated to very high temperatures as for forging
then it may loose its toughness.
 To remedy these defects steel is slowly heated to about 10000c and
allowed to cool in air.

(e) Case hardening

 It is the method whereby only the surface of metal is hardened to a depth

of about 1.5mm. case hardening consist of two operations:-

(i) Converting the outer skin to high carbon steel.

(ii) Hardening the case and refining the core.

 To increase the carbon content steel is encased in cast iron or steel boxes
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together with a substance rich in carbon like charcoal granules, bone dust
etc and the boxes are heated in furnace to a temperature of 9000c to 9500c
 At this temperature carbon infuses into the surfaces of steel and converts it
to high carbon steel. The depth to which this effect takes place depend
upon the time of heating, usually 3-4 hours are sufficient.
 The steel when taken out of boxes that have been allowed to cool has a
soft core and a casting of high carbon steel.
 DETERIORATION OF METALS AND PROTECTION METHODS

 Rusting id just the oxidation of iron at the surface. This process is

activated by the atmospheric pollution too accelerates rust formation.
 Corrosion is slow but steady eating away of moisture and carbon
dioxide. Atmospheric pollution too accelerates rust formation.
 Corrosion is slow but steady eating away of the metal and is a
consequence of rusting.
 Rusting and corrosion can be avoided by not letting moist air come into
contact with the iron surface.
 The following methods minimize corrosion and rusting.

1. Tarring

 Iron is dipped in hot coal so that a film of it sticks to the surface which
protects the surface from rusting and corrosion. Pipes or ends of poles to
be embedded in earth are usually given this protective treatment.

2. Painting

 Paints, usually the lead paints, are applied on the surface to be protected,
exposed metal surfaces as in case of roof, trusses and bridge structures are
given this treatment which has to be invariably repeated after regular
intervals of time.

3. Enameling

 Enamel provides better and long protections as compared to painting. This

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treatment is given only to smaller surfaces.

4. Plastic coating
  Steel sheet or strip up to 1320mm wide and any length available surfaced
on one both sides with pvc, acrylic, expoxide or phenolic coatings applied as
liquids or laminates.
 These products like those having paint coatings, can be pressed and
otherwise fabricated without damage to the coating. For external and
corrosive exposures a zinc pretreatment is necessary and lives up to thiry
years can be expected.
 Polyester powder coatings on steel window sections are likely to last atleast
fifteen years, after which they can be painted In the normal way.

5. Metal coatings

(a) Galvanizing

 Depositing a fine film of zinc on the iron / steel surface is termed as

galvanizing. The surface to be galvanized is first is first cleaned of all foreign
matters by giving it an acid wash followed by a wash of clean water.

 The surface is then dried and dipped in molten zinc. The fine film of zinc
that get deposited protects the surface from contact with atmosphere and
consequent oxidation.

 Removal of zinc film caused by wear or scratches, however, exposes the

surface to rust and corrode.

(b) Electroplating

 By the process of electrolysis a thin film of nicked, chromium, cadmium,

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copper or zinc is deposited on the surface to be protected. The surface to

be protected is made the cathode and the metal to be deposited is made
the anode.

(c) Tin plating

  After cleaning the surface with acid wash followed by was with plain water
and drying it, it is dipped in a bath of molten tin. A protective covering of tin
layer is left on the surface.

(d) Sheradizing

 Surface to be treated is cleaned of all foreign deposits by washing it with

acid solution and then with clear water.
 It is dried and covered with zinc dust and enclosed in steel boxes to be
heated in a furnace under controlled temperatures. Molten zinc spreads
over the whole surface and on cooling form a thin protective layer.

 Sheradizing gives better protection than galvanizing..

(e) Cladding

 Metals are hot-rolled on a stronger, less durable or cheaper base so that

a degree of allowing takes place at the interface. Thus steel can be clad
with brass, lead, nickel and aluminium.

(f) Spraying

 Zinc and aluminium in wire or powder form is heated by an electric arc or

gas flame, nad the atomized metal is sprayed from a gun by compressed
air. Adhesion is mainly mechanical and it is desirable to first roughen the
surface by shot blasting.
 A skilled operator can apply an even matt finish, of a thickness suitable for
painting or a greater thickness for grinding and polishing.
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(g) Hot-dipping
  Hot-dipping is most commonly used process on steel products such as
cisterns, corrugated and flat sheets, light structural sections and windows.
 Essentially, after pickling in acid, drying and pre-heating, the object is
dipped in molten zinc which form an alloy longer with it.
 Distortion resulting from the hot process can usually be avoided by correct
design and galvanizing techniques, and it can be corrected mechanically.
 Whenever practicable thick-walled components should be galvanized “after
manufacture” to avoid unprotected cut and drilled edges.
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 L3 NON-FERROUS METALS
1. ALUMINIUM

 It is getting into wider and wider usage in every field of Engineering.

Modified metallurgical processes have improved strength and durability of
Aluminium to an extent that has made it versatile material for use by
engineers.

Properties

i. It is silvery white color and shows bright lustre on a freshly broken surface.
ii. It is highly ductile and malleable.
iii. It is very light in weight.
iv. It withstands atmospheric corrosion exceedingly well.
v. It is a very good conductor of electricity.
vi. It is very soft.
vii. It can be welded and riveted but cannot be soldered.
viii. It is very easy to work upon.

Uses

i. It is used in making door and window frames, corrugated sheets for

roofing, piping, railings, posts, panels and balustrades in building
construction.
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ii. It is used in powder form in painting.

iii. 87yg Air craft and automobile parts are made of aluminium.
iv. Because of good conductivity electric wires and cables are made of
aluminium.
v. Its alloys with metals like copper, magnesium, manganese and silicon etc
have high tensile strength and hardness still being light and durable.
 2. COPPER

 It is one of the most widely used metals. High cost is prohibitive factor in its
extensive usage in engineering.

Properties

1) Its structure is crystalline and the color is reddish brown.

2) It is highly ductile and malleable.
3) It can be wielded only at red heat.
4) It is an excellent conductor of electricity.
5) It withstands corrosion well.
6) It turns greenish on exposure to atmosphere.
7) It is soft and highly flexible.
8) It is tough and withstands wear well.
9) It is light in weight .
10) Dents in copper can be hammered out without any damage to it.

Uses

i. Copper wires are used for winding electric motors and generations and for
transmission of electricity. It is used for electro-plating.
ii. It has wide usage in making alloys like brass, bronze and gun metal.
iii. In form of sheets it is used in damp proofing buildings.
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 3. LEAD

 It is an extensively used metal in building construction and has the

drawback of being poisonous.

Properties

(i) It is bluish grey metal.

(ii) It is so soft that it can be cut with a knife.
(iii) Its melting point is 3260oC and boiling point 11500oC.
(iv) It is highly ductile and malleable.
(v) It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
(vi) It does not corrode.
(vii) It specific gravity is 11.35.
(viii) It marks the paper.

Uses

i. It is used as a base in paints, lead pipes and lead joints in sanitary fittings
are widely used
ii. It is used in lead batteries, cable coverings, making bullet shots, as lining in
chemical and metallurgical industries.

4. TIN

 It is one of the most commonly used protective metals used in construction

activities.

Properties
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(i) It is lustrous silvery white metal.

(ii) It is highly ductile and malleable.
(iii) It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
(iv) Its melting point is 2300C.
(v) Its specific gravity is 7.3.
(vi) It is soft and has good plasticity.
(vii) It withstands corrosion due to acids.
 (viii) It becomes brittle at 2000C.

Uses

i. It is used to give protective coatings to iron and steel sheets, as an alloying

element in soft solders and for moisture proof packing
ii. It forms alloys

5. ZINC

 In building construction zinc is commonly used either as a protective

covering for metals or as a base for paints.

Properties

(i) It is a bluish white crystalline metal.

(ii) It is brittle at ordinary temperature and when heated beyond
1500C.
(iii) It becomes ductile and malleable between 100 to 1500C.
(iv) Its specific gravity is 7.0.
(v) Its melting point is 4200C.
(vi) It forms important alloys like brass and German silver.

Uses

i. It is used for galvanizing iron sheets and pipes, for batteries and printing
blocks, for preparing paints and for making important alloys like brass and
German silver.
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6. NICKEL

 Nickel is a white metal which is resistant to many acids, is hard and takes a
high polish.
 It is used for electroplating food vessels, equipment for the chemical
industry and on steel as a base for chromium plating.
 7. CADMIUM

 Cadmium is ductile and malleable at room temperatures but brittle at

800C.
 . It is used for electroplating steel components such as screws and as an
alloying element in metal for bearings.

DETERIORATION AND METHODS OF PROTECTION OF NON-FERROUS METALS

i. Anodizing
 Anodizing which is an electro-chemical process which applies only to
aluminium, form a coating which is integral with, but harder than the
parent metal.

ii. Electroplating
 The metal to be protected should be made the cathode in a bath and metal
is deposited on it either from a reactive anode or from the electrolyte.

iii. Frequent cleaning of surfaces.

 The surfaces need to be cleansed regularly to remove all the dirt that may
affect the metal.

iv. Polishing and painting

 The metal surfaces are coated with paint to prevent them from effects of
atmosphere.
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v. Shot or sand blasting

 Shot blasting produce a rough texture sand blasting gives a malt finish, the
nature of which can be varied according to the sand, the air pressure and
the distance of the nozzle from the work.

vi. Grinding or hand filing.

 Metal alloys used in construction
(A) Non- Ferrous metal Alloys

(i) Copper based alloys.

 These alloys have high resistance to corrosion, and high electrical and
thermal conductivities.

 These alloys include:-

(a) Brasses
(b) Brass-based alloys
(c) Bronze
(d) Bronze-based alloys
(e) Copper – nickel alloys
(f) Copper-silicon alloys and
(g) Copper- aluminium alloys

(i) Lead Alloys

 Solders are lead-tin alloys.
In engineering lead alloy bearing metals permit deformation and require
less Lubrication.
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(ii) Aluminium alloys

 For building purposes, the alloys commonly used may contain magnesium,
manganese and silicon, together with a number of minor additions which
increase the strength of pure aluminium.
 (iii) Wrought alloys
 These alloys which are suitable for rolling, pressing and extrusion are of two
kinds:
a) Heat- treatable and
b) Non-heat treatable
i. Heat-treatable alloys
 The tensile strength of these alloys is increased by heat treatment.
 The heat-treatable alloys used in building include those which contain
magnesium and silicon but no copper.

ii. Non-heat – treatable alloys

 Like pure aluminium these alloys gain strength by cold working but not by
heat treatment.

(iv) Casting alloys.

 These are used in building mainly for door and window furniture, rain water
goods and statuary.

(v) Structural alloys

 Modulus of elasticity, coefficient of expansion, density and melting point

are, for all practical purposes, the same for all alloys but tensile strength,
ductility and durability vary with composition.
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(vi). Super plastic aluminium alloys

 Super plasticity is the ability of a material to extend many times its length
before breaking occurs in certain metals at critical temperature.

 This property enables sheets to be thermoformed into complex shapes in a

single-sided mould by air pressure with savings in costs of tooling, assembly
and finishing operations.
 (B). Steel alloys

(i). Stainless steel

 Structural steel with a copper content of 0.2 per cent resistant to

atmospheric corrosion better than structural steel with no copper content.
 Chromium is the most effective ingredient for making steel resistant to
corrosion and to heat.

(ii). Nickel - steel

 It is used in the manufacture of auto-mobile parts, aeroplane parts, cables

and propeller shafts.

(iii). Vanadium steel

 It contains 0.1 to 2.0 percent vanadium and is very strong and ductile. It is
capable of resisting shocks. Its elastic limit is high.

(iv). Tungsten steel.

 It is used for making drilling machines and high speed cutting tools.

(v). Manganese Steel

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 Addition of 12-15 percent manganese to steel makes the steel very hard,
tough and non – magnetic.

 It is used for making paints and crossings in rail track and machine parts
etc.