CIRED 2021 Conference 20 – 23 September 2021

Paper 0261

OPTIMIZATION OF TRANSFORMERS FOR SOLAR

OR BATTERY STORAGE INSTALLATIONS BASED
ON A CYCLIC LOADING PATTERN
Gokhan Kalkan1*, Radoslaw Szewczyk2
1
KYTE Powertech, Cavan, Ireland
2 ®
Nomex Electrical Infrastructure, DuPont, Lodz, Poland
*gokhan.kalkan@kytepowertech.com

Keywords: STEP-UP TRANSFORMER, SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC INSTALLATION, BATTERY

STORAGE, CYCLIC LOADING, ARAMID ENHANCED CELLULOSE PAPER

Abstract
The popularity of distributed generation forces suppliers to offer more price competitive equipment. This study is aimed at
optimization of photovoltaic inverter connected step-up transformers. It also applies to other associated installations, e.g.
battery storage. The daily loading patterns in both cases are known. Hence, the effect of this loading would be predicted.

The study is for developing a peak load transformer based on the real data collected in a solar farm. The first task is to find out
a suitable transformer rating that is equal to average “dissipated” power. The peak generation and the peak loading only occur
for a short time during each day. Hence, the equipment does not have to be designed to this maximum capability of the solar
panels and the inverter. The transformer rating could be reduced, to reduce the cost of the equipment while keeping the
performance and reliability at the highest level.

The second aim is to find optimal transformer design, including the most suitable insulation system for handling the expected
cyclic loading. The analysed insulation systems included Kraft papers, thermally upgraded papers and the thermally upgraded
cellulose paper enhanced with aramid. That last solution appears to be the best option for transformers experiencing repetitive
loading cycles.

1 Introduction The study is for developing a sustainable peak load

Continuously growing number of distributed generation
sites drives development of components for these
installations. The first installations could use the “out-of-
shelf” components. For example, the regular distribution
transformers were used in first wind turbine step-up
applications, or in solar inverter connected step-up
applications. The increasing popularity of distributed
generation pushes towards more and more optimal designs
and forces suppliers of solutions to offer more and more
price competitive equipment and systems. This popularity
also means there are increasing numbers of equipment
installed, and the return of experience from their operation
is growing. It is important to analyse findings from
existing installations and use them for equipment design
optimization.
This study is aimed at optimization of solar photovoltaic
(PV) inverter connected step-up transformers. Although, it
could be also applicable to other associated installations,
e.g. battery storage. This is because the daily loading
pattern in both cases could be similar. Hence, the effect of
this specific loading pattern on design would be similar.
transformer based on the real data collected in a solar farm
in The Netherlands. Data covers twelve days period from
June 24th to July 5th, 2019. This paper concentrates on two
main tasks. First task is to find out a suitable transformer
rating that is equal to average “dissipated” power of the
given curves. The peak generation, and consequently, peak
loading of power equipment only occurs for short time
during each day. Hence, the equipment does not have to be
designed to this maximum generation capability of the
solar panels and the inverter. The transformer power rating
could be reduced, in order to reduce the size and cost of
the equipment while keeping the performance and
reliability at the highest required level.
The second aim is to standardize transformer ratings based
on the expected loading curves and find optimal solution
for transformer design, including the most suitable
insulation system for handling the expected cyclic loading
during the day. The study analyses a couple of transformer
designs and includes comparative insulation life
calculations. The analysed insulation systems include
Kraft papers, thermally upgraded papers and the thermally
upgraded cellulose paper enhanced with aramid. That last
solution appears to be the best option for transformers
experiencing repetitive loading cycles.

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2. Optimised power rating of transformer

2.1 Typical loading curves in photovoltaic installations

Typical solar photovoltaic installation load curve is
associated with a particular shape and depends on many
parameters. These parameters affect the curve shape and
the power that can be extracted. Among these parameters
are:

• Location of solar panels

• Season of the year Fig. 2. Loading data measured over twelve days period
• Existence of tracking system (load given in kVA vs. time of measurement)
• Cloud cover

A typical load vs. time curves for solar panels are given in
Fig. 1. The typical curve is symmetric about mid axis and
resembles a half sinusoid. It is almost impossible to predict
cloud cover and location of the solar panels and therefore,
maximum loading condition will be assumed to find out a
transformer power rating. This study will also be limited to
solar panels without tracking system as the actual data
collected was for solar panels without tracking system.

Fig. 3. Data measured on fifth and sixth day

The data from the sixth day looks symmetric and fitting a
curve will yield better results towards more generalized
case. If suitable curve fitting technique and values for
average power can be found for sixth day measured data,
the procedure can be generalized and cover fifth day and
others, too. Before attempting to fit a curve, some rules are
necessary to be developed based on the observation:

• Averaging the data over 24-hour period is not

Fig. 1. Typical load vs. time curves for solar power for
different seasons
2.2 Analysis of measured loading data
Measured data for twelve days period is given in Fig. 2
(data from June 24th to July 5th, 2019). The maximum load
reaches 1100 kVA. Data per day shows scattering trend for
most of the days probably caused by cloud cover.
Therefore, instead of analysing the day with maximum
peak, it is better to analyse a day where morning and
afternoon generation curves show a similar trend. It is felt
that this approach will generate the data with maximum
average loading. Fitting a curve to this data will enable to
construct a curve fitting technique that will cover the
worst-case scenario. Once the curve is fit, equivalent aging
and hot-spot temperatures can be analysed. To be able to
analyse the curves in more depth, the fifth and sixth days
are selected and plotted separately (Fig. 3).
representative of the average load. Average load will
be calculated between the time the solar power is fed
into network and the time solar power stops generation.
• It seems like the average power is not representative as
the power dissipated at average load will be high due to
loading shape. Instead, once the average power is
calculated, a new power rating will be found so that
total dissipated power is equal to average load’s
dissipated power without overloading.
• High order splines will be used to fit a curve. Once this
curve is generated, it will be easier to calculate the
average power and losses dissipated.
• Curve looks like a half sine wave and attempt will be
made to fit a sine curve and compare it to curve that
has been generated by spline. If half sine wave
approach is successful, this will simplify the
calculations towards generalization greatly.

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2.3 Curve fitting and average load calculation sine wave still be equal to the area under the curve of
MATHCAD software was used for curve fitting and measured values.
analysing purposes. Regression analysis followed high
Measured Data, Curve Fitted & Average Load
order spline curve fitting. A simple code was generated to 1.5 10
3

refine the measured data by simply ignoring the cases Measured Data
Curve Fitted
where the feed into network is zero and load vs. time data Average Value
Half Sine Curve
was generated in two column vector form. Fig. 4 shows the

Feed-in Network (kVA)

curve fitted. It can be seen that the curve fits the measured 110
3

data very well.

500

0
3 3
400 600 800 110 1.2 10

Time (Minutes)
Fig. 5. Sine wave fitted with time interval between the start
of feed-in and the end of feed-in network time

Fig. 4. Measured data vs. fitted curve
Average load was calculated by integrating the curve
obtained by curve fitting techniques divided by the time
between the start and end of feed-in network. The average
value was found to be 620 kVA, which can be rounded up
to 630 kVA typical transformer rating. However, this
average value should not be used for sizing the
transformer. This value can be used to calculate a power
rating that will result in the same losses as average losses
without any overloading.
Calculations show that transformer rated 733 kVA
subjected to measured loading will result in in same losses
as the 630 kVA unit with uniform loading. Therefore, it
can be concluded that the transformer of 750 kVA
optimised power rating can be proposed to cope with
the measured load profile that has a maximum peak of
1100 kVA.
One way to find out the modified start and end time is to
search for the gradient. Sine wave’s gradient at the start is
unity (slope is 45º in other words). At half period, the
gradient is negative (-1). Between the 4th and 5th time
steps, the measured gradient is 1.05 and we can take
beginning of this time step as our modified beginning of
load. That corresponds to minute 405 starting from
midnight. Same calculations reveal that after 1265 minutes
from the midnight, the gradient is negative (almost -1) and
therefore, modified beginning of load is also found. The
final form of the curve is then shown in equation (1) and
the curve is shown in Fig. 6.
(1)
where:
S - load in kVA
t – time in minutes

2.4 Generalisation of loading profile

To be able to fit a sine wave, a peak amplitude, a shift in
time variable and a time interval must be known. Among
these parameters, peak amplitude is the maximum
expected peak feed in network value and time shift is the
modified beginning of load.

Fig. 5 shows the half sine wave fit with existing time
interval. This half sine wave overestimates the measured
loading curve. Therefore, it needs to be corrected in a way
that it will envelope the measured data. A new start and
end times for loading will be found and area under the half
Fig. 6. Half sine wave curve fitted
This greatly simplifies the results as the square of the area
under the curve is related to the power dissipated. Because
this is a sine wave, the transformer power rating with same

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 CIRED 2021 Conference
dissipation will be: Smax/√2 = 776 kVA. This simplifies
estimation for transformer power rating to be derived.
These calculations for summer period also cover the
maximum cases: both the timescale (length of a day) and
the solar irradiation are at the maximum. If a transformer
is designed to withstands these loading conditions, it can
be ensured that the transformer will be less loaded during
the rest of the year.
Power rating of transformer calculated above is different
than the one calculated in section 2.3. This is because the
time intervals for power dissipation in both calculations
are different. To be able to provide a cost-effective
approach, it is proposed to use the time interval derived in
section 2.3 for further considerations. Therefore, our
simplified formula Smax/√2 has to be corrected by a factor
related to the difference in time intervals as shown in
equation (2).
(2)
where:
k - correction factor for equivalent kVA
The equivalent power rating is then 776x0.946=735 kVA.
Again, the transformer rated 750 kVA can be assumed
to cope with the measured load profile and calculations
on both sections above agree with each other. Therefore,
we have a simple enough formula to estimate transformer
power rating for the studied solar PV application.
3 Optimising transformer design
3.1 Transformer specification, design assumptions
For the analysis, the 750 kVA transformer was used
instead of 1100 kVA unit. Specification details of the final
optimised design are listed below:
HV/LV: 21 000 / 400 V, Dyn5
Impedance @ 750 kVA (1000 kVA): 4.5% (6.0%)
No-load losses: 635 W (0% positive tolerance)
Load Losses: 7841 W (0% positive tolerance)
DC bias: 0.5%
Voltage harmonics: <5%
K-factor for current harmonics: not assumed (no data is
available)
Several assumptions and rules were introduced:
• Hot-spot factor assumed as 1.12
• Maximum ambient temperature 40°C
• Transformer to be installed in 10 K enclosure (as a
result, the 10 K temperature increase superimposed to
the ambient temperature)
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Paper 0261
• Restricted oil flow assumed in order to estimate the
worst-case scenario
• Top oil temperature calculated at the end of the 24-
hour cycle and inserted as initial condition for the cycle
start
• Mineral oil used in order to reduce the cost vs. ester
liquids
• Transformer completely filled with oil and sealed
hermetically
• Risers, internal connections, bushings and tap changer
rated for 1100 kVA loading
• Internal pressure at 1100 kVA load kept below
250 mbar
3.2 Thermal calculations and insulation aging
Thorough thermal analysis of the design including
insulation aging modelling was made for the given loading
profile. The maximum hot-spot temperature was limited to
130°C and the top oil temperature was limited to 115°C for
mineral oil. Hot spot temperature could exceed 118°C if
the cumulative ageing over 24-hour period is equal to or
less than unity.
The cumulative insulation ageing was calculated based on
the loading curves. It would be ok to exceed the
cumulative ageing rate of 1 during the 24-hour period, as
the load profile used was only for a limited time in a year,
but this decision would be left to the user. This study
limited the cumulative ageing rate to 1.
Evaluated insulation systems used:
• thermally upgraded Kraft paper (TUP), or
• thermally upgraded paper enhanced with aramid
(Nomex® 910). This new paper solution allows for
additional 10°C in winding temperature vs. regular
thermally upgraded cellulose papers. It gives additional
cost optimisation possibilities. [1-4]
First, the calculations were made for the design based on
TUP. The temperature limits for maximum temperatures
were met and the cumulative aging of the insulation was
calculated to be 1. Then, the calculations were made for
the design based on TUP enhanced with aramid. The
temperatures calculated are presented in Fig. 7. The
cumulative aging of the insulation enhanced with aramid
reduced from 1 down to 0.37. This indicated a large safety
margin on aging of the insulation system. The expected
lifetime of the transformer would be significantly
extended. Alternatively, the transformer could have an
additional loading capability.
 CIRED 2021 Conference
If that spare loading capability is not needed at the
customer, further transformer design optimisation is
possible. The temperature limits acceptable by the
insulation enhanced with aramid are higher than for
regular TUP insulation. After re-designing the transformer
to meet these higher acceptable temperature limits and still
staying within the normal insulation aging, the transformer
cost could be reduced by 8%. This is in comparison to the
transformer designed with regular thermally upgraded
paper.
Fig. 7. Temperatures and cumulative insulation aging
calculated for 24-hour period for transformer designed
with mineral oil and paper enhanced with aramid
4 Conclusions
Transformer power rating calculated in section 2 is based
on the measured loading data that represents a general
pattern for solar photovoltaic installations. The time of the
year when the data was measured (summer) was the
maximum expected solar power. As a result, it was
reasonable to use this single data to predict overall worst-
case scenario pattern. In other seasons loading will not be
as high and the time exposure will be shorter, resulting in
lower yearly average load values. However, due to lack of
data and to provide a transformer that will not dissipate
higher losses in peak seasons, this study is considered
sufficient.
For the analysed loading pattern reaching maximum
load of 1100 kVA, the optimised power rating of the
transformer was derived to be 750 kVA. This rating
reduction could result in significant transformer
investment savings. The cost of losses would also be lower
due to lower no-load losses in the smaller unit.
The time interval and max output can vary based on the
location. But this figure will not change significantly in
case of The Netherlands and the time interval values that
has been calculated can be used without affecting the
accuracy of the study for the given country/region. If the
loading curve is subject to a change as a result of solar
panels with tracking system, then separate calculations and
curves are necessary. In this case, the top part of the curve
will flatten for extended period of time. More data of
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Paper 0261
different seasons and different locations will be useful in
future to refine the calculations for further rating
optimisation.
Thorough thermal analysis of the design including
cumulative insulation aging modelling was made for the
given loading profile. The cumulative aging of the
insulation enhanced with aramid reduced from 1 down
to 0.37, as compared to the regular thermally upgraded
paper. This indicated a large safety margin on aging in
case of this insulation system. The expected lifetime of the
transformer would be significantly extended and such
transformer would have an additional loading capability.
After re-designing the transformer to meet the higher
temperature limits acceptable for aramid enhanced
paper and still staying within the normal insulation
aging, the transformer cost could be reduced by 8%.
This is in comparison to the transformer designed with
regular thermally upgraded paper. The re-designed
transformer would also be smaller and lighter. This could
be of significant advantage for application in containerised
solar solutions. More power could be available from the
system confined in a given size of the container.
The analysis was made for the specific case of solar
application. However, due to similar loading pattern, the
methodology is also applicable to battery storage
installations, for transformer power rating determination
and for transformer thermal design and insulation system
selection.
5 References
[1] Marek, R., Wicks, R., Szewczyk, R., et al.: 'New
cellulose paper enhanced with aramid - practical example
of material thermal evaluation acc. to IEEE Std C57.100-
2011', CIGRE SC D1 Colloquium, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
2015, paper ID27
[2] Szewczyk, R., Duart, J.-C., Trifigny, P.: 'Mitigation of
lock-in effect for compact substations with transformers
meeting future EU efficiency regulations', CIRED,
Madrid, Spain, 2019, paper #2089
[3] Szewczyk, R., Marek, R., Ballard, R., et al.: 'Innovative
insulation materials helping in cost reduction of modern
transformers', CIRED, Madrid, Spain, 2019, paper #2108
[4] Szewczyk, R., Duart, J.-C.: ' Improved reliability and
performance of transformers in solar installations by use of
advanced insulation materials', Matpost, Lyon, France,
2019, paper #51
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