English for Academic

Purposes

Mini-Dictionary
Entries taken from: Longman Dictioary of Contemporary English (2003), Harlow (UK): Pearson Education

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A
abnormality (noun) [countable, uncountable]  
an abnormal feature, especially something that is wrong with part of someone’s body 
tests that can detect genetic abnormalities in the foetus

academic (adjective)  
1 [usually before noun] relating to education, especially at college or university level opp non-
academic 
He possessed no academic qualifications. 
2 [usually before noun] concerned with studying from books, as opposed to practical work the study of
art as an academic discipline
3 good at studying opp unacademic He’s not very academic.
academically (adverb)
academician (noun/person)

access (noun) [uncountable]

1 the right to enter a place, use something, see someone etc:
access to: Access to the papers is restricted to senior management.
Cats should always have access to fresh, clean water.
2 the way you use to enter a building or reach a place:
Access is by means of a small door on the right.
access to: Access to the restrooms is through the foyer.
3 gain/get access (to something) to succeed in entering a place or in seeing someone or something:
The police managed to gain access through an upstairs window.
SYNONYM: entrance
accessible (adjective)
1 easy to obtain or use:
accessible to: the need for a health service that is accessible to all
easily/readily accessible: Computers should be made readily accessible to teachers and pupils.
2 someone who is accessible is easy to meet and talk to, even if they are very important or powerful:
I think that you'll find she's very accessible.
3 a book, poem, painting etc that is accessible is easy to understand and enjoy:
accessible to: He wants his music to be accessible to everyone.
accessibly (adverb)
accessibility (noun) [uncountable]

accurate (adjective)
1 correct and true in every detail [≠ inaccurate]
The brochure tries to give a fair and accurate description of each hotel.
Police believe Derek gave a reasonably accurate account of what happened.
2 measured or calculated correctly [≠ inaccurate]
It is difficult to get accurate figures on population numbers.
3 a machine that is accurate is able to do something in an exact way without making a mistake
The cutter is accurate to within ½ a millimetre.
accurately (adverb)
It's impossible to predict the weather accurately.
accuracy (noun) [uncountable]
1 the ability to do something in an exact way without making a mistake:
He passes the ball with unerring accuracy.
2 the quality of being correct or true [≠ inaccuracy]
accuracy of: worries about the accuracy of government statistics

achieve (verb)
1 [transitive] to successfully complete something or get a good result, especially by working hard

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Frances achieved very good exam results.
Wilson has achieved considerable success as an artist.
She eventually achieved her goal of becoming a professor.
2 [intransitive] to be successful in a particular kind of job or activity.
We want all our students to achieve within their chosen profession.
achievable (adj)
Before you set your targets, make sure that they are achievable.
achievement (noun) [≠ failure]
1 [countable] something important that you succeed in doing by your own efforts
We try to celebrate the achievements of our students.
2 [uncountable] when you achieve something or when people achieve something
Roberts is researching the effect of social class on educational achievement.
SYNONYM: success, accomplishment

acknowledge (verb) [transitive]

1 admit
to admit or accept that something is true or that a situation exists
The government has acknowledged the need for change.
2 recognize something’s importance
[usually passive] if people acknowledge something, they recognize how good or important it is
acknowledge something as something
The film festival is acknowledged as an event of international importance.
Accept somebody’s authority
3 to accept that someone or something has authority over people
Both defendants refused to acknowledge the authority of the court.
SYNONYMS: accept, admit, agree
acknowledgement (noun)
1 [uncountable and countable] the act of admitting or accepting that something is true
The reduction in their grant is an acknowledgement that they have been paid too much.
SYNONYMS: acceptance, agreement

adjust ( verb)
2 [transitive] to change or move something slightly to improve it or make it more suitable for a
particular purpose
If your employment status changes, your tax code will be adjusted accordingly.
adjustable (adjective)
An adjustable desk lamp
adjustment( noun)
1 a small change made to a machine, system, or calculation
adjustment for
Once we make the adjustments for inflation, the fall in interest rates is quite small.
adjustment to
a slight adjustment to the mechanism
2 a change in the way that someone behaves or thinks
a period of adjustment
adjustment to her new role
SYNONYMS: alteration, adaption, modification

advocate (verb) [transitive]

to publicly say that something should be done
Extremists were openly advocating violence.
Some people still advocate genetic engineering of plants and animals as the greatest single technology
that will feed the world.
SYNONYMS: defend, propose, support

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advocate (noun) [countable]
1 someone who publicly supports someone or something
advocate of
She's a passionate advocate of natural childbirth.
advocate for
an advocate for the disabled
2 a lawyer who speaks in a court of law, especially in Scotland
SYNONYMS: defender, proponent, supporter
advocacy (noun) [uncountable]
She is well-known for her advocacy of human rights.

affect (verb) [transitive]

1 to do something that produces an effect or change in something or in someone's situation:
the areas affected by the hurricane
a disease that affects the central nervous system
decisions which affect our lives
Trading has been adversely affected by the downturn in consumer spending.
2 [usually passive] to make someone feel strong emotions
We were all deeply affected by her death.
3 formal: to pretend to have a particular feeling, way of speaking etc
As usual, Simon affected complete boredom. He used to affect a foreign accent.
SYNONYMS: influence, concern, change

alter (verb) [transitive and intransitive]

1 [intransitive and transitive] to change, or to make someone or something change:
Her face hadn't altered much over the years.
The city centre has altered beyond recognition (=changed very much).
Nothing can alter the fact that the refugees are our responsibility.
2 [transitive] to make a piece of clothing longer, wider etc so that it fits:
have/get something altered: She had the dress altered for the wedding.
SYNONYMS: change, modify, revise
alteration (noun)
[uncountable and countable]
a small change that makes someone or something slightly different, or the process of this change
If you make alterations to the Windows setup, save the new settings before closing.

alternative (adjective)
1 [only before noun] an alternative idea, plan etc is different from the one you have and can be used
instead:
alternative ways/approach/methods etc: alternative approaches to learning
Have you any alternative suggestions?
An alternative route is along the M5.
2 deliberately different from what is usual, expected, or traditional:
sources of alternative energy (=energy produced by the sun, wind etc rather than by gas, coal etc)
Acupuncture is widely used by practitioners of alternative medicine.
SYNONYMS: choice, option, selection
alternatively (adverb)
alternative (noun) [countable]
something you can choose to do or use instead of something else:
alternative to
Is there an alternative to the present system?
He quickly assessed what alternatives were open to him.

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amend (verb) [transitive]
to make small changes to a law or a document, for example to improve it, to make it more accurate, or
to take account of new conditions
a controversial plan to amend the Constitution
amendment (noun) [countable, uncountable]
The Securities Subcommittee is considering amendments to the proposal.

analyse (verb) [transitive]

1 to examine or think about something carefully, in order to understand it:
She still needs to analyse the data.
You need to sit down and analyse why you feel so upset.
Joe had never tried to analyze their relationship.
2 to examine a substance to see what it is made of:
The cell samples are analyzed by a lab.
3 to examine someone's mental or emotional problems by using psychoanalysis
SYNONYMS: study, do research, carry out research
analysis (noun) plural analyses
1 [uncountable and countable] a) a careful examination of something in order to understand it better
analysis of: a detailed analysis of the week's news
Further analysis of the data is needed.
do/carry out/conduct an analysis: They were doing some type of statistical analysis.
b) the way in which someone describes a situation or problem, and says what causes it to happen
analysis of: Do you agree with Marx's analysis of the failure of free-market capitalism?
2 [uncountable and countable] a careful examination of a substance to see what it is made of
analysis of: analysis of genetic material
for analysis: Blood samples were sent for analysis.
You'll get the results when the analysis is complete.
3 [uncountable] a process in which a doctor makes someone talk about their past experiences,
relationships etc in order to help them with mental or emotional problems [= psychoanalysis]
She's been in analysis for three years.
SYNONYMS: examination, check, study
analyst (noun) [countable]
1 someone whose job is to think about something carefully in order to understand it, and often to
advise other people about it
Political analysts expect the Social Democrats to win.
A systems analyst is someone whose job is to look after a company’s computer and software needs.
2 a doctor who helps people who have mental or emotional problems by making them talk about their
experiences and relationships
analytical (adverb)
Some students have a more analytical approach to learning.

annual (adjective)  
1 happening once a year
SYNONYMS: yearly 
The school trip has become an annual event.
annual report/meeting/conference
2 based on or calculated over a period of one year
SYNONYMS: yearly
annual budget/income/cost etc a household with an annual income of $60,000
biannual (adjective) happening twice a year

approach (verb)
1 [intransitive and transitive] to move towards or nearer to someone or something
As I approached the house, I noticed a light on upstairs. She heard footsteps approaching.

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2 [transitive] to ask someone for something, or ask them to do something, especially when you are
asking them for the first time or when you are not sure if they will do it
Students should be able to approach teachers for advice.
approach (noun) [countable]
1 method [countable] a method of doing something or dealing with a problem:
approach to: a new approach to teaching languages
He decided to adopt a different approach and teach the Bible through story-telling.
This book takes an unorthodox approach to art criticism.
organizations which take a positive approach to creative thinking
2 ask [countable] a request from someone, asking you to do something for them:
They made a direct approach to the minister of education.
3 the approach of something: the approach of a particular time or event is the fact that it is getting
closer:
the approach of autumn
It's a sign of the approach of middle age.
SYNONYMS: way, method, strategy
approachable (adjective)

appropriate (adjective) [≠ inappropriate]

Correct or suitable for a particular time, situation, or purpose
Each member is given a special exercise routine that is appropriate for his or her needs.
SYNONYMS: suitable, correct, right
appropriately(adverb)
appropriately dressed for the occasion

assemble (verb)
1 [intransitive and transitive] if you assemble a large number of people or things, or if they assemble,
they are gathered together in one place, often for a particular purpose
A large crowd had assembled outside the American embassy.
She had assembled a collection of her favourite songs.
2 [transitive] to put all the parts of something together
The aircraft will continue to be assembled in France.
SYNONYMS: collect, construct, manufacture

assert (verb) [transitive]  

1 to state firmly that something is true 
French cooking, she asserted, is the best in the world.
He asserted that nuclear power was a safe and non-polluting energy source.

assess (verb) [transitive]

1 to make a judgment about a person or situation after thinking carefully about it [= judge]
assess the impact/extent/effectiveness etc of something: a report to assess the impact of advertising on
children
assess what/how etc: The technique is being tried in classrooms to assess what effects it may have.
be assessed as something: Many of the adults were assessed as having learning difficulties.
2 to calculate the value or cost of something
be assessed at something: The value of the business was assessed at £1.25 million.
SYNONYMS: estimate, judge, evaluate
assessment (noun) [uncountable and countable]
1 a process in which you make a judgment about a person or situation, or the judgment you make
What's Michael's assessment of the situation?
Assessment is by means of a written exam at the end of the course.
a reading assessment test
2 a calculation about the cost or value of something
a tax assessment

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attitude( noun)
1 [uncountable and countable] the opinions and feelings that you usually have about something
attitude to/towards
Pete's attitude towards women really scares me.
with a positive attitude to life
2 [uncountable and countable] the way that you behave towards someone or in a particular situation,
especially when this shows how you feel
an aggressive attitude
As soon as they found out I was a doctor their whole attitude changed.

automate (verb) [transitive]

to start using computers and machines to do a job, rather than people:
Cash machines automate two basic functions of a bank - deposits and withdrawals.
SYNONYMS: computerize, mechanize
automated (adjective)
automatic (adjective)
1 an automatic machine is designed to work without needing someone to operate it for each part of a
process:
an automatic weapon
an automatic gearbox
My camera is fully automatic.
automation (noun) [uncountable]
the use of computers and machines instead of people to do a job

available (adjective) [≠ unavailable]

1 something that is available is able to be used or can easily be bought or found:
Tickets are available from the box office.
available to: Not enough data is available to scientists.
available to do something: Funds are available to assist teachers who want to attend the conference.
available for: No figures are available for the number of goods sold.
Meetings were held to update employees as soon as new information became available.
Further building can continue when money is made available.
2 [not before noun] someone who is available is not busy and has enough time to talk to you:
Mr Collins was not available for comment on Thursday night.
3 someone who is available does not have a wife, boyfriend etc, and therefore may want to start a new
romantic relationship with someone else
SYNONYMS: free, spare usable
availability (noun) [uncountable]
Unemployment rates are high because the availability of jobs is limited.

aware (adj) [not before noun] [≠ unaware]

1 if you are aware that a situation exists, you realize or know that it exists
The children are aware of the danger of taking drugs.
Were you aware that Joe had this problem with his knee?
2 if you are aware of something, you notice it, especially because you can see, hear, feel or smell it
She was aware of a tall dark figure watching her.
Bill became aware that he was still holding his glass.
SYNONYMS: informed, conscious of
awareness (noun) [uncountable]
1 knowledge or understanding of a particular subject or situation
Health officials have tried to raise awareness (=improve people's knowledge) about AIDS.
2 the ability to notice something using your senses
an artist's awareness of light and color

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B
C
cite (verb) [transitive] formal
1 to mention something as an example, especially one that supports, proves, or explains an idea or
situation:
The judge cited a 1956 Supreme Court ruling in her decision.
Several factors have been cited as the cause of the problem.
2 to give the exact words of something that has been written, especially in order to support an opinion
or prove an idea [= quote]:
The passage cited above is from a Robert Frost poem.
3 to order someone to appear before a court of law
cite somebody for something
Two managers had been cited for similar infractions.
SYNONYMS: give as an example, mention, quote
citation (noun) [countable]
1 (American English) a formal statement or piece of writing publicly praising someone's actions or
achievements
a citation for bravery
2 an official order for someone to appear in court or pay a fine for doing something illegal
Turner was issued a traffic citation for careless driving.
3 a line taken from a book, speech etc
The essay begins with a citation from 'Hamlet'.
SYNONYM: quotation, mention

claim (verb)
1 truth [transitive] to state that something is true, even though it has not been proved
The product claims that it can make you thin without dieting.
No responsible therapist will claim to cure your insomnia.
I don’t claim to be a feminist, but I’d like to see more women in top jobs.
The girls claim to have seen the fairies.
claim responsibility/credit (for something) (=say officially that you are responsible for something that
has happened) 
The group claimed responsibility for the bombings. 
Opposition leaders will claim victory if the turnout is lower than 50%.
claim somebody/something as something 
A letter appeared in ‘The Times’ claiming Fleming as the discoverer of penicillin.
Grammar: In more formal English, you say it is claimed that something is true
It has been claimed that he was difficult to work with.
2 money [intransitive, transitive] to officially demand or receive money from an organization because
you have a right to it
claim something back
He should be able to claim the price of the ticket back.

clarify (verb) past tense and past participle clarified present participle clarifying third person
singular clarifies [transitive]
1 formal to make something clearer or easier to understand
Could you clarify one or two points for me?
Reporters asked him to clarify his position (=say exactly what his beliefs are) on health reform.
The report aims to clarify how these conclusions were reached.
2 to make something cleaner or purer by heating it
clarified butter
SYNONYM: make clear

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clarification (noun) [uncountable and countable] (formal)
the act of making something clearer or easier to understand, or an explanation that makes something
clearer
There have been a number of official changes and clarifications.
Email us if you require further clarification on how to order.

comment (verb) [countable, uncountable]

an opinion that you express about someone or something
SYNONYMS: remark
comment on/about his comments about asylum seekers 
He was fined for making abusive comments to the referee.no comment (=used by people in public life
when they do not want to answer questions)
2 [uncountable] criticism or discussion of something someone has said or done 
The speech received much comment in the press.

commit (verb) past tense and past participle committed present participle committing
1 [transitive]to do something wrong or illegal
Women commit fewer crimes than men.
Brady committed a series of brutal murders.
2 [intransitive and transitive] to say that someone will definitely do something or must do something
He has clearly committed his government to continuing with economic reform.
The banks have committed themselves to increasing profits by reducing costs.
committed (adj)
willing to work very hard at something
The party has a core of committed supporters.
The company looks for highly committed people, who are willing to study for further professional
qualifications in their own time.
commitment (noun)
1 [countable] a promise to do something or to behave in a particular way
Are you ready to make a long-term commitment?
Our company has a commitment to quality and customer service.
2 [uncountable] the hard work and loyalty that someone gives to an organization, activity etc
I was impressed by the energy and commitment shown by the players.
Her commitment to work is beyond question.

community (noun) plural communities

1 [C, also + plural verb British English] the people who live in the same area, town etc:
The new arts centre will serve the whole community.
We meet once a month to discuss community problems.
2 [countable] a group of people who have the same interests, religion, race etc:
different ethnic communities
the business/academic/scientific etc community
3 the community: society and the people in it:
The trend is towards reintegrating mentally ill people into the community.
the international community (=all the countries of the world): The President appealed to the
international community for aid for the flood victims.
SYNONYMS: population, the people

component (noun) [countable]

one of several parts that together make up a whole machine, system etc [= constituent]:
companies that make electronic components for computer products
component of: each component of their work
key/major/important etc component: Exercise is one of the key components of a healthy lifestyle.
SYNONYMS: part, bit, piece

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conduct (verb) [transitive]
1 carry out [transitive] to carry out a particular activity or process, especially in order to get
information or prove facts:
conduct a survey/investigation/review etc: We are conducting a survey of consumer attitudes towards
organic food.
conduct an experiment/a test: Is it really necessary to conduct experiments on animals?
It was the first time that I had conducted business in Brazil.
2 behave,
conduct yourself: formal: to behave in a particular way, especially in a situation where people judge
you by the way you behave:
The players conducted themselves well, both on and off the field.
3 show somebody something [transitive always + adverb/preposition] formal, to take or lead someone
somewhere:
conduct somebody to something: On arrival, I was conducted to the commandant's office.
conducted tour (of something) (=a tour of a building, city, or area with someone who tells you about
that place):
a conducted tour of Berlin
SYNONYMS: behave, act, perform,
conduct (noun) [uncountable]
1 the way someone behaves, especially in public, in their job etc [=behaviour]
The Senator's conduct is being investigated by the Ethics Committee.
an inquiry into the conduct of the police
ethical/professional etc conduct: the Law Society's Code of Professional Conduct
2 conduct of something: the way in which an activity is organized and carried out:
complaints about the conduct of the elections

confirm (verb) [transitive]

1 to show that something is definitely true, especially by providing more proof
New evidence has confirmed the first witness’s story. 
To confirm my diagnosis I need to do some tests.
Research has confirmed that the risk is higher for women.
The new results confirm what most of us knew already.
Grammar: In more formal English, you say it is confirmed that something is true:
It was confirmed that the bone was broken.
2 to say that something is definitely true
The president refused to confirm the rumor. 
Managers have so far refused to confirm or deny reports that up to 200 jobs are to go.
3 to tell someone that a possible arrangement, date, or situation is now definite or official 
Could you confirm the dates we discussed? 
Smith was confirmed as the club’s new manager yesterday.
I am writing to confirm a booking for a single room for the night of 6 June.

consequence (noun) [countable]

1 [countable] something that happens as a result of a particular action or set of conditions:
Many believe that poverty is a direct consequence of overpopulation.
Our findings have far-reaching consequences for researchers.
Errors in forecasting can have serious consequences.
2 as a consequence (of something)/in consequence (of something) formal as a result of something:
Animals have died as a consequence of coming into contact with this chemical.
She was over the age limit and, in consequence, her application was rejected.
3 of little/no/any etc consequence - formal - not very important or valuable:
of little/no/any etc consequence to: Your opinion is of little consequence to me.
I don't suppose it is of any consequence now.
SYNONYMS: result, effect, implication

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consequent (adjective)
[usually before noun] formal
happening as a result of a particular event or situation
the rise in inflation and consequent fall in demand
consequently (adverb)
[sentence adverb]
as a result
Most computer users have never received any formal keyboard training. Consequently, their keyboard
skills are inefficient.

construct (verb) [transitive]

1 to build something such as a house, bridge, road etc:
There are plans to construct a new road bridge across the river.
construct something from/of/in something: skyscrapers constructed entirely of concrete and glass
2 to form something such as a sentence, argument, or system by joining words, ideas etc together:
Boyce has constructed a new theory of management.
3 technical: to draw a mathematical shape:
Construct a square with sides of 5cm.
SYNONYMS: build, put up, make
construction (noun)
1 building something [uncountable] the process of building things such as houses, bridges, roads etc
construction of: the construction of a new airport
a road construction project
2 making something from many parts [uncountable] the process of making something using many
parts:
Work out the exact design before you start construction.
3 way something is made [uncountable] the materials used to build or make something, or its design
and structure:
The houses were partly timber in construction.
4 a building/structure [countable]formal: something that has been built:
a modern construction
SYNONYM: building
constructive (adj) [≠ destructive, unhelpful]
useful and helpful, or likely to produce good results
The meeting was very constructive.
We welcome any constructive criticism.
SYNONYM: helpful
constructively (adv)

consume (verb) [transitive]

1 to use time, energy, goods etc
Only 27% of the paper we consume is recycled.
A smaller vehicle will consume less fuel.
2 (formal) to eat or drink something
Alcohol may not be consumed on the premises.
consumer (noun) [countable]
someone who buys and uses products and services
Consumers will soon be paying higher airfares.
Consumer demand led to higher imports of manufactured goods.
Consumer spending was down by 0.1% last month.
SYNONYMS: buyer, end user, user
consumption (noun) [uncountable]
1 the amount of energy, oil, electricity etc that is used
energy/fuel etc consumption 2
a) formal the act of eating or drinking

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consumption of
The consumption of alcohol on the premises is forbidden.
The meat was declared unfit for human consumption.
b) the amount of a substance that people eat, drink, smoke etc
alcohol/tobacco/caffeine etc consumption
The Government wants to reduce tobacco consumption by 40%.
3 the act of buying and using products

contact (noun) [uncountable]

communication with a person, organization, country etc.
staff who have direct contact with the patient
contact (verb) [transitive]
to write to or telephone someone
Give the names of two people who can be contacted in an emergency.
Please do not hesitate to contact me if you have any questions.
contactable (adjective) [not before noun]
A mobile phone makes you contactable wherever you are.

contemporary (adjective)
1 belonging to the present time
SYNONYMS: modern
contemporary music/art/dance etc an exhibition of contemporary Japanese prints life in contemporary
Britain

contribute (verb)
1 [intransitive and transitive]: to give money, help, ideas etc to something that a lot of other people are
also involved in
City employees cannot contribute to political campaigns.
The volunteers contribute their own time to the project.
2 [intransitive] to help to make something happen:
Stress is a contributing factor in many illnesses.
Alcohol contributes to 100,000 deaths a year in the US.
3 [intransitive and transitive] to write articles, stories, poems etc for a newspaper or magazine
one of several authors contributing to the book
SYNONYMS: make a contribution, pay/give towards
contribution (noun)
1 [countable]something that you give or do in order to help something be successful
Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for his contribution to Quantum Theory.
The school sees its job as preparing students to make a contribution to society.
2 [countable] an amount of money that you give in order to help pay for something
A contribution of £25 will buy 15 books.
You can make annual contributions of up to $1000 in education savings accounts.
3 [countable] a regular payment that you make to your employer or to the government to pay for
things that you will receive when you are no longer working, for example health care, a pension etc
Have you been making regular contributions to a pension plan?
contributor (noun) [countable]
1 someone who gives money, help, ideas etc to something that a lot of other people are also involved
in
Dr Win was a major contributor to the research.
2 someone who writes a story, song, speech etc that forms part of a larger work such as a newspaper,
book, etc
a regular contributor to Time magazine
3 (formal) someone or something that helps to cause something to happen
Cars are still one of the principal contributors to air pollution.

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contributory (adj)
1 [only before noun] being one of the causes of a particular result
Smoking is a contributory factor in lung cancer.

controversial(adjective) [≠ non-controversial]
causing a lot of disagreement, because many people have strong opinions about the subject being
discussed
the controversial issue of welfare reform
a highly controversial (=very controversial) plan to flood the valley in order to build a dam.
He is a controversial figure (=person who does controversial things) in the art world.
controversially(adverb)
controversy(noun) plural controversies [uncountable and countable]
a serious argument about something that involves many people and continues for a long time
a political controversy
the controversy surrounding Skinner's theories

corporate (adj) [only before noun]

1 belonging to or relating to a corporation
The company is moving its corporate headquarters (=main offices) from New York to Houston.
2 shared by or involving all the members of a group
corporate responsibility
3 used to describe a group of organizations that form a single group
The university is a corporate body made up of several different colleges.
corporately(adv)
corporation (noun) [countable]
1 a big company, or a group of companies acting together as a single organization
He works for a large American corporation.
The most distinctive institution of capitalist economies is the privately owned corporation.
2an organization or group of organizations that work together for a particular purpose and are
officially recognized as one
The New Orleans Citywide Development Corporation
SYNONYMS: multinational, conglomerate

correspond (verb) [intransitive]

1 if two things or ideas correspond, the parts or information in one relate to the parts or information in
the other:
The two halves of the document did not correspond.
2 to be very similar to or the same as something else
The French 'baccalauréat' exam roughly corresponds to British A Levels.
3 to write letters to someone and receive letters from them
For the next three years they corresponded regularly.
SYNONYMS: agree, coincide
correspondence (noun)

credit (noun) [uncountable]

1 praise: [uncountable]approval or praise that you give to someone for something they have done
Credit for this win goes to everybody in the team.
They never give Gene any credit for all the extra work he does.
To Jamie's credit, he remained calm.
2 be a credit to somebody/something:
to behave so well or be so successful that your family, team etc are proud of you
She's a credit to her profession.
Your children really do you credit.
3 have something to your credit:
to have achieved something

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She already has two successful novels to her credit.
SYNONYMS: praise, recognition, thanks
credit (verb) [transitive not in progressive]
1 to add money to a bank account [≠ debit]
The cheque has been credited to your account.
2 credit somebody with (doing) something
to believe or admit that someone has a quality, or has done something good
Evans is credited with inventing the system.
3 be credited to somebody/something
if something is credited to someone or something, they have achieved it or are the reason for it
Much of Manchester United's success can be credited to their manager.

crucial (adjective)
something that is crucial is extremely important, because everything else depends on it:
This aid money is crucial to the government’s economic policies.
play a crucial role/part in something: The city of Mycenae played a crucial role in the history of Greece.
The conservation of tropical forests is of crucial importance.
SYNONYMS: vital, key, essential
crucially (adverb)

D
data (noun) [plural,uncountable]
1 information or facts
The research involves collecting data from two random samples.
Trade was also cautious ahead of today's economic data, notably December retail sales and producer prices.
experimental/historical/statistical etc data
2 information in a form that can be stored and used, especially on a computer
It's possible to store a lot more data on a DVD.
SYNONYMS: details, information, facts

decade (noun) [countable]

a period of 10 years

define (verb) [transitive]

1 to describe something correctly and thoroughly, and to say what standards, limits, qualities etc it has
that make it different from other things
70% of the workers can be defined as low-paid.
2 to explain exactly the meaning of a particular word or idea
I'll now try to define the term 'popular culture'.
Define precisely what you mean by ‘fine art.’
3 to show the edge or shape of something clearly
The bird has sharply defined black and rust markings.
SYNONYMS: explain, specify
definable (adj)
definition (noun) [countable]
a phrase or sentence that says exactly what a word, phrase, or idea means
a dictionary definition
There are many definitions of the word 'feminism'.

demonstrate (verb)
1 [transitive] to show or prove something clearly
This section will attempt to demonstrate how the Bank of England operates.
2 [transitive] to show or describe how to do something or how something works
They'll be demonstrating how to handle modern, high performance cars.

112
Instructors should demonstrate new movements before letting the class try them.
3 [intransitive] to protest or support something in public with a lot of other people
Supporters demonstrated outside the courtroom during the trial.
What are they demonstrating against?
SYNONYMS: show, display, exhibit
demonstration (noun) [countable]
1 an event at which a large group of people meet to protest or to support something in public
Police opened fire on a peaceful demonstration.
a demonstration against the government's educational policies
2 an act of explaining and showing how to do something or how something works
He gave a practical demonstration of the boat's military potential.

deny (verb) [transitive]

past tense and past participle denied present participle denying third person singular denies
1 to say that something is not true, or that you do not believe something:
deny (that): I've never denied that there is a housing problem.
The government denied the existence of poverty among 16- and 17-year-olds.
2 to refuse to allow someone to have or do something: landowners who deny access to the countryside
deny somebody something: She could deny her son nothing.
deny something to somebody: This is the only country in Europe to deny cancer screening to its
citizens.
3 there's no denying (that/something):
spoken used to say that it is very clear that something is true
There's no denying that this is an important event.
SYNONYMS: contradict, refute, reject
denial (noun)
1 [uncountable and countable] a statement saying that something is not t
The government issued an official denial of the rumour.
denials that border security had not been strict enough
2 [uncountable] when someone refuses to allow someone else to have or to do something
protests against the denial of human rights

depression (noun)  [countable, uncountable]

1a) a medical condition that makes you very unhappy and anxious and often prevents you from living
a normal life 
women who suffer from post-natal depression (=that sometimes happens after the birth of a baby)
b) a feeling of sadness that makes you think there is no hope for the future 
Lucy’s mood was one of deep depression.

design (verb) [transitive]

1 to make a drawing or plan of something that will be made or built:
The tower was designed by Gilbert Scott.
She designed a new logo for the company.
2 [usually passive]: to plan or develop something for a specific purpose
The course is designed for beginners.
design (noun)
1 process of planning [uncountable] the art or process of making a drawing of something to show how
you will make it or what it will look like:
The new plane is in its final design stage.
a course in graphic design
2 arrangement of parts [uncountable and countable]: the way that something has been planned and
made, including its appearance, how it works etc:
The car's design has been greatly improved.
3 pattern [countable] a pattern for decorating something:
Vinyl flooring is available in a wide range of designs.

113
4 drawing [countable]: a drawing that shows how something will be made or what it will look like
the design for the new sports centre
SYNONYMS: pattern, markings, motif
designer (noun)
A person who imagines how things could be made and draws plans or invents, creates or plans new
things or concepts

detect (verb) [transitive]

to notice or discover something, especially something that is not easy to see, hear etc:
Many forms of cancer can be cured if detected early.
difficult/impossible/easy/possible etc to detect
detect a change/difference: : Dan detected a change in her mood.
SYNONYMS: notice, note, observe
detectable (adj)
The drug is detectable in the patient’s body for up to three months after it has been taken.
detection (noun) [uncountable]
when something is found that is not easy to see, hear etc, or the process of looking for it
detection of
Early detection of the disease is vital.

deviate (verb) [intransitive]  

to change what you are doing so that you are not following an expected plan, idea, or type of
behaviour
deviate from 
The plane had to deviate from its normal flight path.

device (noun) [countable]

1 a machine or tool that does a special job [= gadget]:
a device for separating metal from garbage
The company makes devices to detect carbon monoxide.
2 a special way of doing something that makes it easier to do
Testing yourself with information on cards is a useful device for studying.
SYNONYMS: appliance, tool, instrument, gadget

differentiate (verb) [intransitive and transitive]

to recognize or express the difference between things or people
It's important to differentiate between fact and opinion.
It's sometimes hard to differentiate one sample from another.
SYNONYMS: distinguish, separate

dispute (verb)  
1 [transitive] to say that something such as a fact or idea is not correct or true 
The main facts of the book have never been disputed.
2 [intransitive, transitive] formal to argue or disagree with someone
Hazlitt, though much younger, was soon disputing with Wordsworth on equal terms. 
What happened next is hotly disputed.
3 [transitive] to try to get control of something or win something 
Soviet forces disputed every inch of ground.
dispute (noun) [countable, uncountable]  
1 a serious argument or disagreement
The firm is involved in a legal dispute with a rival company.
He got into a dispute over a taxi fare.
The bitter border dispute between the countries

114
document (noun) [countable]
1 a piece of paper that has official information on it
2 a piece of written work that is stored on a computer
SYNONYMS: record, report
document (verb) [transitive]
1 to write about something, film it, or take photographs of it, in order to record information about it
His research will document how the debt crisis occurred.
2 to support an opinion, argument etc with recorded facts
It is well documented that men die younger than women.
SYNONYMS: record, report

E
edit (verb)
1 [intransitive and transitive] to prepare a book, piece of film etc for printing or broadcasting by
removing mistakes or parts that are not acceptable
The newspaper edits letters before printing them.
2 [transitive] to prepare a book or article for printing by deciding what to include and in what order
a collection of essays edited by John Gay
3 [transitive] to be responsible for the information that is included in a newspaper, magazine etc
She used to edit the Observer.
edition (noun)
editor (noun) [countable]
1 the person who is in charge of a newspaper or magazine, or part of a newspaper or magazine, and
decides what should be included in it
the editor of the Daily Telegraph
economics/sports/political etc editor
2 someone who prepares a book or article for printing by deciding what to include and checking for
any mistakes
3 someone who chooses what to include in a book on a particular subject
the editor of a book of essays on modern poetry

emphasis (noun) plural emphases [uncountable and countable]

1 special attention or importance
In Japan there is a lot of emphasis on politeness.
The course places emphasis on practical work.
2 special importance that is given to a word or phrase by saying it louder or higher, or by printing it in
a special way
The emphasis should be on the first syllable.
'And I can assure you,' she said with emphasis, 'that he is innocent.'
SYNONYMS: attention, stress, weight
emphasize (verb) also emphasise (British English) [transitive]
1 to say something in a strong way
The report emphasizes the importance of improving safety standards.
The Prime Minister emphasized that there are no plans to raise taxes.
2 to say a word or phrase louder or higher than others to give it more importance

encounter (verb) [transitive]  

1 to experience something, especially problems or opposition encounter problems/difficulties 
They encountered serious problems when two members of the expedition were injured.
2 encounter opposition/resistance 
The government has encountered strong opposition to its plans to raise income tax. 
encounter (noun)

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enforce (verb) [transitive]
1 to make people obey a rule or law:
enforce a law/ban etc: Governments make laws and the police enforce them.
Parking restrictions will be strictly enforced.
2 to make something happen or force someone to do something:
enforce something on somebody: It is unlikely that a record company would enforce its views on an
established artist.
enforced (adjective)
made to happen, especially by things you cannot control:
enforced absence/separation etc: a period of enforced isolation
enforcement (noun) [uncountable]
when people are made to obey a rule, law etc:
law enforcement

ensure (verb) especially British English: also insure=American English [transitive]

to make certain that something will happen properly [= make sure]:
facilities to ensure the safety of cyclists
ensure (that): The hospital tries to ensure that people are seen quickly.
SYNONYMS: make sure/certain, see that, see to it that

environment (noun)
1 the environment the air, water, and land on Earth, which can be harmed by man's activities :
Some of these chemicals are very damaging to the environment.
2 [uncountable and countable] the people and things that are around you in your life, for example the
buildings you use, the people you live or work with, and the general situation you are in:
Young children often feel happier in the home environment.
The company had failed to provide a safe environment for its workers.
3 [countable] the natural features of a place, for example its weather, the type of land it has, and the
type of plants that grow in it
a forest environment
SYNONYMS: situation, circumstances, conditions
environmental (adj)
1 concerning or affecting the air, land, or water on Earth
the environmental damage caused by the chemical industry
2 concerning the people and things around you in your life, for example the buildings you use, the
people you live or work with, and the general situation you are in
This will reduce the environmental risks to employees' health.
environmentally (adv)
environmentally damaging projects
environmentalist (noun) [countable]
someone who is concerned about protecting the environment

equip (verb) [transitive]

1 to provide a person or place with the things that are needed for a particular kind of activity or work:
equip somebody/something with something: They spent a lot of money equipping the school with new
computers.
He equipped himself with a hammer and nails.
be equipped with something: The rooms are equipped with video cameras.
2 to give someone the information and skills that they need to do something:
equip somebody with something: We equip students with the skills they will need once they leave
college.
equip somebody for something: training that will equip you for the job
equip somebody to do something: We must equip young teachers to deal with difficult children.
SYNONYMS: prepare, train, provide

116
equipment (noun) [uncountable]
1 [uncountable] the tools, machines, clothes etc that you need to do a particular job or activity:
a shop selling camping equipment
some brand new computer equipment
piece/bit of equipment: a very useful piece of equipment
2 [singular] the process of equipping someone or something:
equipment of: A lot of money was spent on the equipment of the new hospital.
SYNONYMS: tools, apparatus, things

establish (verb) [transitive]

1 to set up or start a company, organization, system, etc that is intended to exist or continue for a long
time [= found]
The city of Boerne was established by German settlers in the 1840s.
Our goal is to establish a new research centre in the North.
2 to begin a relationship with someone or a situation that will continue
establish relations/links/contact etc (with somebody)
Hungary established diplomatic relations with Chile in 1990.
I wondered why he should bother to try and establish contact with me.
3 to find out facts that will prove that something is true:
The police must establish the facts of the case before proceeding.
SYNONYMS: determine, identify, found
establishment (noun)
1 [countable] formal an organization or institution, especially a business, shop etc
a top class training establishment
2 the establishment
the group of people in a society or profession who have a lot of power and influence and are often
opposed to any kind of change or new ideas
Young people are supposed to rebel against the Establishment.
3 [uncountable] the act of starting an organization, relationship, or system
the establishment of NATO in 1949

estimate (noun) [countable]

1 a calculation of the value, size, amount etc of something
a rough estimate (=not an exact calculation) of how much time we'll need
A conservative estimate (=a deliberately low estimate) puts annual sales at around $100 million.
We're predicting a 10% rise in oil prices and that's a conservative estimate.
2 a statement of how much it will probably cost to build or repair something
The garage said they'd send me an estimate for the work.
estimate (verb) [transitive]
to try to judge the value, size, speed, cost etc of something, without calculating it exactly
Analysts estimate the business earned about $135 million last year.
The tree is estimated to be at least 700 years old.
Organizers estimated the crowd at 50,000.

ethical (adjective) [no comparative]

1 relating to principles of what is right and wrong [= moral]
ethical issues/questions/problems: The use of animals in scientific tests raises difficult ethical
questions.
The president must have the highest ethical standards.
2 morally good or correct [≠ unethical]:
I don't think it's ethical for you to accept a job you know you can't do.
ethical investment policies (=investing only in businesses that are considered morally acceptable)
SYNONYMS: good, right
ethically (adverb)

117
evaluate (verb) [transitive]
to judge how good, useful, or successful something is
You should be able to evaluate your own work.
We need to evaluate the success of the campaign.
SYNONYMS: assess, judge
evaluation (noun)
[uncountable and countable]
a judgment about how good, useful, or successful something is
We need to carry out a proper evaluation of the new system.
They took some samples of products for evaluation.
SYNONYMS: assessment, judgement

expand (verb) [intransitive and transitive] [≠ contract]

1 [intransitive and transitive] to become larger in size, number, or amount, or to make something
become larger
Sydney's population expanded rapidly in the 1960s.
2 [intransitive and transitive] if a company, business etc expands, or if someone expands it, they open
new shops, factories etc:
The computer industry has expanded greatly over the last decade.
expand into: We have plans to expand into the U.S. market.
SYNONYMS: grow, increase

expert (noun) [countable]

someone who has a special skill or special knowledge of a subject, gained as a result of training or
experience
He's a world expert on marine mammals.
Tests should be administered by a medical expert.
SYNONYMS: specialist, authority
expertise (noun) [uncountable]
special skills or knowledge in a particular subject, that you learn by experience or training
technical/financial/medical etc expertise
What he's bringing to the company is financial expertise.
expertise in the management of hotels

exploit (verb) [transitive]

1 to treat someone unfairly by asking them to do things for you, but giving them very little in return -
used to show disapproval:
Homeworkers can easily be exploited by employers.
2 to try to get as much as you can out of a situation, sometimes unfairly:
The violence was blamed on thugs exploiting the situation.
3 to use something fully and effectively:
The new TV companies are fully exploiting the potential of satellite transmission.
SYNONYMS: profit from, use, apply
exploitation (noun) [uncountable]
1 a situation in which you treat someone unfairly by asking them to do things for you, but give them
very little in return - used to show disapproval:
exploitation of: The film industry thrives on the sexual exploitation of women.
2 the full and effective use of something
exploitation of: greater exploitation of these data
3 an attempt to get as much as you can out of a situation, sometimes unfairly
exploitation of: the exploitation of religion for political ends
SYNONYMS: profiteering, use

118
expose (verb) [transitive]
1 to show something that is usually covered or hidden:
show: He lifted his T-shirt to expose a jagged scar across his chest.
expose something to something: Potatoes turn green when exposed to light.
2 to so something dangerous: to put someone in a situation where they are not protected from
something dangerous or unpleasant
expose somebody to something: The report revealed that workers had been exposed to high levels of
radiation.
3 see/experience: to make it possible for someone to experience new ideas, ways of life etc
expose somebody to something: Some children are never exposed to classical music.
SYNONYMS: reveal, tell, disclose
exposure (noun) [countable and uncountable]
1 experience [singular, uncountable] the chance to experience new ideas, ways of life etc:
exposure to: The visit to Germany gave them exposure to the language.
her brief exposure to pop stardom
2 show [countable] the act of showing something that is usually hidden
3 business [uncountable and countable] the amount of financial risk that a company or person has

external (adjective)
1 belonging to or forming the outer surface or structure of something e.g. external walls
2 coming or derived from a source outside the subject affected
externally (adverb)

F
facilitate (verb) [transitive]
(formal) to make it easier for a process or activity to happen:
Computers can be used to facilitate language learning.
SYNONYMS: make something easier, simplify
facilitator (noun) [countable]
1 someone who helps a group of people discuss things with each other or do something effectively
2 (technical) something that helps a process to take place
facilitation (noun)

factor (noun) [countable]

one of several things that influence or cause a situation
The rise in crime is mainly due to social and economic factors.
The government program has been a major factor in the improvement of health standards.
SYNONYMS: circumstance, element, cause

finance (noun)
1 [uncountable] the management of money by governments, large organizations etc
leasing and other forms of business finance
2 finances [plural] the money that an organization or person has, and the way that they manage it
concerns about the company's finances
finance (verb) [transitive]
to provide money, especially a lot of money, to pay for something
The concerts are financed by the Arts Council.
SYNONYM: fund
financial (adj) [usually before noun]
relating to money or the management of money
financial advisor
Organic farmers should be encouraged with financial incentives.
financially (adv)

119
focus (verb) past tense and past participle focused or focussed present participle focusing or
focussing
1 [intransitive and transitive] to give special attention to one particular person or thing, or to make
people do this
He felt he needed to focus more on his career.
She tried to focus her mind on her work
2 [intransitive and transitive] to point a camera or telescope at something, and change the controls
slightly so that you can see that thing clearly
She turned the camera and focussed on Martin's face.
He focused his binoculars on the building opposite.
SYNONYM: concentrate on
focus (noun)
1 [singular] the thing, person, situation etc that people pay special attention to
The focus of recent research has been on environmental issues.
The focus of the conference shifted from population growth to the education of women.
2 [uncountable] if your focus is on something, that is the thing you are giving most attention to
Our main focus is on helping people get back into work.

format (noun) [countable]

1 the way in which something such as a television show or meeting is organized or arranged:
The courses were run to a consistent format.
2 the size, shape, design etc, in which something such as a book or magazine is produced:
a large-format book for the partially-sighted
3 used to talk about video, CD, tape etc when saying what type of equipment it can be played on
SYNONYMS: arrangement, layout, setup

G
generate (verb) [transitive]
1 to produce or cause something [= create]:
a useful technique for generating new ideas
The program would generate a lot of new jobs.
generate revenue/profits/income etc: Tourism generates income for local communities.
generate excitement/interest/support etc: The project generated enormous interest.
2 to produce heat, electricity, or another form of energy:
Wind turbines generate electricity for the local community.
SYNONYMS: cause, produce, create
generation (noun) [countable]
1 [countable also + plural verb British English]: all people of about the same age:
Like most of my generation, I had never known a war.
In my generation the divorce rate is very high.
the need to preserve the planet for future generations
2 [countable] the average period of time between the birth of a person and the birth of that person's
children:
for generations: Some families have lived here for generations.
The country's attitude toward government is harsher than it was a generation ago.
3 [countable] a group of things that were developed from something else, or from which better things
were developed:
generation of: the new generation of mobile phones
second-generation computers
SYNONYMS: age

120
grade (noun) [countable]  
1 standard a particular level of quality that a product, material etc
 The best grades of tea are expensive. 
2 rank a particular level of job 
There are lots of jobs in junior grades.
3 mark in school a mark that a student is given for their work or for an examination
Tim worked hard and got good grades.
grade (verb) [transitive]  
1 to say what level of a quality something has, or what standard it is
Pencils are graded according to softness. 
2 especially American English to give a mark to an examination paper or to a piece of school work
Ted is grading papers in his office.
SYNONYMS: mark 

guarantee (verb) [transitive]

1 a) to promise to do something or to promise that something will happen
I guarantee you'll love this film.
If you send the application form in straight away, I can guarantee you an interview.
b) to make a formal written promise to repair or replace a product if it breaks within a specific period
of time
All our products are fully guaranteed.
2 to promise that you will pay back money that someone else has borrowed, if they do not pay it back
themselves
The bank will only lend me money if my parents guarantee the loan.
3 to make it certain that something will happen
In movies, talent by no means guarantees success.
guarantee (noun) [countable]
1 a formal written promise to repair or replace a product if it breaks within a specific period of time
They offer a two-year guarantee on all their electrical goods.
a money-back guarantee
2 a formal promise that something will be done
3 a promise that you will pay back money that someone else has used or borrowed, if they do not pay
it themselves

H
highlight (verb) [transitive]  
1 to make a problem or subject easy to notice so that people pay attention to it 
Your résumé should highlight your skills and achievements.
2 to mark written words with a special coloured pen, or in a different colour on a computer 
Use the cursor to highlight the name of the document you want to print.
3 to make some parts of your hair a lighter colour than the rest
highlight (noun)  
1 [countable] the most important, interesting, or enjoyable part of something such as a holiday,
performance, or sports competition
That weekend in Venice was definitely the highlight of our trip.

hypothesis (noun)
1 [countable] an idea that is suggested as an explanation for something, but that has not yet been
proved to be true
One hypothesis is that the victim fell asleep while driving.
We hope that further research will confirm our hypothesis.
The authors reject the hypothesis about unemployment contributing to crime.
SYNONYMS: theory 

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hypothesise (verb) [intransitive, transitive]  
to suggest a possible explanation that has not yet been proved to be true
Scientists hypothesize that the dinosaurs were killed by a giant meteor.

I
identification (noun) [uncountable]
1 ID official papers or cards, such as your passport, that prove who you are
Do you have any identification?
2 when someone says officially that they know who someone else is, especially a criminal or a dead
person
His body was taken to Brighton for identification.
3 when you recognize something or discover exactly what it is
the identification of children who need professional help
identify( verb)
1 to recognize and correctly name someone or something
He was too far away to be able to identify faces.
if a particular thing identifies someone or something, it makes them easy to recognize
2 to recognize something or discover exactly what it is, what its nature or origin is etc
Scientists have identified the gene that causes abnormal growth.
SYNONYMS: recognize, determine
identity (noun) plural identities
1 [uncountable and countable] someone's identity is their name or who they are
The identity of the killer is still unknown.
Journalists often need to produce proof of identity .
2 [uncountable]the qualities and attitudes that a person or group of people have, that make them
different from other people
My father experienced an identity crisis in middle age.

illustrate (verb) [transitive]

1 to make the meaning of something clearer by giving examples
Let me give an example to illustrate the point.
She illustrated her presentation with diagrams.
2 to be an example which shows that something is true or that a fact exists
This dispute illustrates that the regime is deeply divided.
The following examples illustrate how the system operates in practice.
3 to put pictures in a book, article etc
Over a hundred diagrams, tables and pictures illustrate the book.
The company brochure is beautifully laid out and illustrated.
illustration (noun)
1 [countable] a picture in a book, article etc, especially one that helps you to understand it
The book contains 62 pages of illustrations.
2 [uncountable and countable] a story, event, action etc that shows the truth or existence of something
very clearly
For the purposes of illustration, some of the more important features are listed below.
3 [uncountable] the act or process of illustrating something
SYNONYMS: example, picture

incentive(noun) [uncountable and countable]

something that encourages you to work harder, start a new activity etc
As an added incentive, there's a prize for the best team.
Awards provide an incentive for young people to improve their skills.
SYNONYMS: motivation, stimulus

122
indicate (verb)
1 [transitive] to show that a particular situation exists, or that something is likely to be true
Research indicates that over 81% of teachers are dissatisfied with their salary.
The study indicates a strong connection between poverty and crime.
2 [transitive] to say or do something to make your wishes, intentions etc clear
The Russians have already indicated their willingness to cooperate.
Professor Johnson has indicated his intention to retire at the end of next year.
Please indicate your preference on the booking form.
3 [transitive] to direct someone's attention to something or someone, for example by pointing
'That's her,' said Toby, indicating a girl on the other side of the room.
4 [transitive] to represent something
Sales targets are indicated on the graph by a vertical dotted line.
SYNONYMS: display, show, signal
indication (noun)
[uncountable and countable]
a sign, remark, event etc that shows what is happening, what someone is thinking or feeling, or what is true
He gave no indication of his own feelings at all.
Could you give me some indication as to when I am likely to receive a reply?
Indications are that the situation hasn't improved much.
SYNONYMS: display, show, signal
indicative (adj)
1 be indicative of something
to be a clear sign that a particular situation exists or that something is likely to be true
This behaviour is indicative of her whole attitude, I'm afraid.
2 (technical) an indicative verb form is used for making statements
SYNONYM: typical

individual (noun) [countable]

1 a person, considered separately from the rest of the group or society that they live in:
the rights of the individual
Each individual receives two genes, one inherited from each parent.
2 a person of a particular kind, especially one who is unusual in some way:
a strange-looking individual
SYNONYMS: unique, distinctive, person
individually (adv)
separately, not together in a group
The guest speaker thanked them all individually.
individually wrapped portions of cheese
individuality (noun) [uncountable]
It’s not a bad essay, but it doesn’t demonstrate enough individuality.

inevitable (adjective)
1 certain to happen and impossible to avoid:
A further escalation of the crisis now seems inevitable.
it is inevitable (that): It's inevitable that doctors will make the occasional mistake.
inevitable consequence/result: Disease was an inevitable consequence of poor living conditions.
2 the inevitable: a situation that is certain to happen:
One day the inevitable happened and I got a speeding ticket.
SYNONYM: certain
inevitably (adverb)
used for saying that something is certain to happen and cannot be avoided
The decision will inevitably lead to political tensions.
[sentence adverb] Inevitably, the situation did not please everyone.
SYNONYMS: unavoidably, necessarily, surely
inevitability (nouın)
[singular, uncountable]
the fact that something is certain to happen, or something that is certain to happen

123
inevitability of
the inevitability of death
SYNONYM: certainty

initiative (noun)
1 [uncountable] the ability to make decisions and take action without waiting for someone to tell you
what to do
Don't keep asking me for advice. Use your initiative.
2 [countable] an important new plan or process to achieve a particular aim or to solve a particular
problem
a government initiative to help exporters

injure (verb) [transitive]  

1 to hurt yourself or someone else, for example in an accident or an attack → wound 
Angus injured his leg playing rugby.
Two people have been critically injured in an accident
injury (noun)
1 [countable, uncountable] a wound or damage to part of your body caused by an accident or attack 
She was taken to hospital with serious head injuries.
The driver of the truck suffered injuries to his legs and arms. 
Beckham has missed several games through injury (=because of injury). 
2 [uncountable] law damage to someone’s reputation, career, or feelings
He says that the allegations caused serious injury to his reputation.

inspect (verb) [transitive]

1 to examine something carefully in order to find out more about it or to find out what is wrong with it
I got out of the car to inspect the damage.
Police inspected the scene and interviewed all the staff.
2 to make an official visit to a building, organization etc to check that everything is satisfactory and
that rules are being obeyed
The building is regularly inspected by the fire-safety officer.
SYNONYMS: examine, check
inspection (noun)
[uncountable and countable]
1 an official visit to a building or organization to check that everything is satisfactory and that rules are
being obeyed
regular inspections of the prison
An inspection was carried out at the school.
2 a careful examination of something to find out more about it or to check for anything wrong
However, on closer inspection, a number of problems emerged.
Close inspection of the surface of the vase revealed several small defects.
inspector (noun) [countable]
1 an official whose job is to check that something is satisfactory and that rules are being obeyed
ticket inspectors
a Health and Safety inspector

institution (noun)
1 [countable] a large organization that has a particular kind of work or purpose
financial/educational/research etc institution 
2 [countable] an important system of organization in society that has existed for a long time, social
institutions such as the family and religion the institution of marriage/monarchy etc 
The scandal threatened to undermine the institution of the presidency.
institutional (adjective)
institutionalise (verb)

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integrity (noun) [uncountable]  
1 the quality of being honest and strong about what you believe to be right
personal/professional/political etc integrity 
a man of great moral integrity
2 formal the state of being united as one complete thing the territorial integrity of the country

interact (verb) [intransitive]

1 if people interact with each other, they talk to each other, work together etc
Lucy interacts well with other children in the class.
2 if one thing interacts with another, or if they interact, they affect each other
The immune system interacts with both the nervous system and the hormones.
SYNONYMS: connect, contact, cooperate
interaction (noun) [uncountable and countable]
1 a process by which two or more things affect each other
Price is determined through the interaction of demand and supply.
the complex interaction between mind and body
2 the activity of talking to other people, working together with them etc
interaction with/between: the degree of interaction between teacher and student
SYNONYMS: connection, contact, cooperation
interactive (adj)
1 an interactive computer program, television system etc allows you to communicate directly with it,
and does things in reaction to your actions
interactive computer systems
the museum's interactive exhibits
2 involving talking and working together
interactive teaching methods such as role playing
interactively (adv)

interpret (verb)
1 [intransitive and transitive] to translate spoken words from one language into another:
They spoke good Spanish, and promised to interpret for me.
2 [transitive] to believe that something someone does or something that happens has a particular
meaning
interpret something as something: His refusal to work late was interpreted as a lack of commitment to
the company.
3 [transitive] to explain the meaning of something:
Freud's attempts to interpret the meaning of dreams
SYNONYMS: infer, translate, understand by
interpretation (noun) [uncountable and countable]
the way in which someone explains or understands an event, information, someone's actions etc:
One possible interpretation is that they want you to resign.
It's difficult to put an accurate interpretation on (=explain) the survey results.
What exactly the author meant by that statement is open to interpretation (=able to be understood or
explained in different ways).
SYNONYMS: understanding, reading

investigate (verb) [intransitive and transitive]

1 [intransitive and transitive] to try to find out the truth about or the cause of something such as a
crime, accident, or scientific problem
The state police are investigating the incident.
The study investigates the impact of violent TV programming on children.
2 [transitive] to try to find out more about someone's character, actions etc, because you think they
may have been involved in a crime
Penney was already being investigated by the police on suspicion of murder.
SYNONYMS: examine, explore, inspect

125
investigation (noun)
1 [countable] an official attempt to find out the truth about or the causes of something such as a crime,
accident, or scientific problem:
The investigation continued for nearly three years.
investigation into: The authorities are planning to launch a full-scale investigation into the crash.
investigation of: Baker demanded an investigation of the district attorney's office.
a criminal investigation
A private detective was hired to conduct the investigation.
2 [uncountable] the act of investigating something
investigation of: the investigation of computer fraud
under investigation (=being investigated): The whole issue is still under investigation.
SYNONYMS: inquiry, inquest, autopsy
investigative (adjective)
investigative journalism/report/work
work or activities that involve investigating something

isolate (verb) [transitive]

1 to separate one person, group, or thing from other people or things
The town was isolated by the floods.
The US has sought to isolate Cuba both economically and politically.
Presley's early success isolated him from his friends.
New-born babies must be isolated from possible contamination.
2 if you isolate an idea, problem etc, you consider it separately from other things that are connected
with it
It is impossible to isolate political responsibility from moral responsibility.
3 (technical) to separate a substance, disease etc from other substances so that it can be studied
The hepatitis B virus has been isolated from breast milk.
isolation (noun)

item (noun)
1 [countable] a single thing, especially one thing in a list, group, or set of things:
He opened the cardboard box and took out each item.
The store is having a sale on furniture and household items.
2 [countable] a single, usually short, piece of news in a newspaper or magazine, or on television:
I also saw that news item in the Sunday Times.
SYNONYMS: story, thing, object, article
itemize (verb) also itemise (British English) [transitive]
to make a list and give details about each thing on the list
an itemized bill
SYNONYMS: catalogue, list, record

J
justify (verb) past tense and past participle justified, present participle justifying, third person
singular justifies [transitive]
1 to give an acceptable explanation for something that other people think is unreasonable:
Ministers must appear before parliament and justify their actions.
How can we justify spending so much money on arms?
I don't have to justify myself to you or anyone else.
2 to be a good and acceptable reason for something:
Nothing justifies murdering another human being.
3 technical: to arrange lines of words on a page or computer screen so that they form a straight edge on
both the right and left sides
SYNONYMS: explain, account for

126
justifiable (adjective)
actions, reactions, decisions etc that are justifiable are acceptable because they are done for good
reasons
Are these experiments morally justifiable?
justifiably (adverb)

K
L
locate (verb)
1 [transitive] to find the exact position of something:
We couldn't locate the source of the radio signal.
2 be located in/near etc something to be in a particular position or place [= be situated]:
The business is located right in the center of town.
3 [transitive] to put or build something in a particular place:
Large retail chains are usually only prepared to locate stores in areas of high population density.
SYNONYMS: be, stand, be based
location (noun)
1 [countable] a particular place, especially in relation to other areas, buildings etc:
His apartment is in a really good location.
its isolated geographical location
2 [countable] the position of something
location of: The map shows the precise location of the crash.
3 [uncountable] the act of finding the position of something:
The main problem for engineers was the location of underground rivers in the area.
SYNONYMS: place, spot, site

M
maintain (verb) [transitive]
1 to make something continue in the same way or at the same standard as before:
Careers Officers maintain contact with young people when they have left school.
The hotel prides itself on maintaining high standards.
How can we maintain control of spending?
2 level/rate: to make a level or rate of activity, movement etc stay the same:
It is important to maintain a constant temperature inside the greenhouse.
This is the most efficient way to build up and maintain a reasonable level of physical fitness.
3 say: to strongly express your belief that something is true [= claim]
maintain (that) - Critics maintain that these reforms will lead to a decline in educational standards.
4 look after something: to keep a machine, building etc in good condition by checking and repairing it
regularly:
The report found that safety equipment had been very poorly maintained.
The company is responsible for maintaining public telephone boxes.
SYNONYMS: continue, keep up, preserve, claim
maintenance (noun) [uncountable]
1 the repairs, painting etc that are necessary to keep something in good condition
the cost of repairs and maintenance
maintenance of
The caretaker is responsible for the maintenance of the school buildings.
Sales of large-scale data storage devices also increased strongly, while earnings from computer
maintenance services hardly changed.

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2 the act of making a state or situation continue
maintenance of
The purpose of the UN is the maintenance of international peace and security.
SYNONYMS: care, preservation, upkeep

major (adj) [≠ minor]

1 [usually before noun] having very serious or worrying results
The loss of their goalkeeper through injury was a major setback for the team.
2 [usually before noun]very large or important, when compared to other things or people of a similar
kind
Smoking is one of the major causes of cancer.

manipulate (verb) [transitive]  

1 to make someone think and behave exactly as you want them to, by skilfully deceiving or
influencing them 
He was one of those men who manipulated people. 
You have the constant feeling you are being manipulated.
2 to work skilfully with information, systems etc to achieve the result that you want software designed
to store and manipulate data 
You can integrate text with graphics and manipulate graphic images.
manipulation (noun) [countable, uncountable]
when someone makes someone or something behave in the way they want, using skilful and often
dishonest methods
manipulator (noun/person)
manipulative (adjective)

manual (adjective)
1. involving or using human effort, skill, power, energy, etc.; physical: manual labor
2. of or relating to the hand or hands: manual deformities.

medical (adjective)
relating to medicine and the treatment of disease or injury 
medical research,  medical staff,  a medical student,  a patient’s medical history, medical, medical
attention / treatment /care 
The injury required urgent medical attention.
medically (adverb)

mental (adverb)
1 [only before noun] relating to the health or state of someone's mind
The centre provides help for people suffering from mental illness. Stress has an effect on both your
physical and mental health.
2 [only before noun] relating to the mind and thinking, or happening only in the mind
a child's mental development
mentality (noun) plural mentalities [countable]
a particular attitude or way of thinking, especially one that you think is wrong or stupid
I can't understand the mentality of the people who support this kind of violence.
mentally (adverb)
method (noun)
1 [countable] a planned way of doing something, especially one that a lot of people know about and
use 
traditional teaching methods 
I think we should try again using a different method.
methodical (adjective)
methodically (adverb)

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minimize (verb) also minimise (British English) [transitive] [≠ maximize]
1 to reduce something that is difficult, dangerous, or unpleasant to the smallest possible amount or
degree
Every effort is being made to minimize losses.
The rail company is bringing in more trains in an effort to minimize disruption to travellers.
2 to make something seem less serious or important than it really is
We must not minimize the problem of racial discrimination.
3 to make a document or program on your computer very small when you are not using it but still want
to keep it open
Click on the top of the window to minimize it.
SYNONYMS: reduce, play down
minimization (noun) [uncountable]

modify (verb) past tense and past participle modified, present participle modifying, third person
singular modifies [transitive]
to make small changes to something in order to improve it and make it more suitable or effective [=
adapt]:
The feedback will be used to modify the course for next year.
The regulations can only be modified by a special committee.
SYNONYMS: adapt, convert, customise
modification (noun)
1 [countable] a small change made in something such as a design, plan, or system
We've made one or two modifications to the original design.
They have used the same process for almost 50 years with only minor modifications .
2 [uncountable and countable] the act of modifying something, or the process of being modified
The review resulted in the modification of our security procedures.
SYNONYMS: adaption, adjustment, change

N
O
objective (adjective) [≠ subjective]
1 based on facts, or making a decision that is based on facts rather than on your feelings or beliefs
It's hard to give an objective opinion about your own children.
Scientists need to be objective when doing research.
objectively (adverb)
if you consider something objectively, you try to think about the facts, and not be influenced by your
own feelings or opinions
Look at your skills objectively when deciding on a career change.
objectivity (noun) [uncountable]

obvious (adjective)
1 easy to notice or understand:
The obvious way of reducing pollution is to use cars less.
The most obvious example of an information source is a dictionary.
The obvious question is - does his invention work?
2 the/an obvious choice the person or thing that you would expect everyone to choose:
Teaching is an obvious choice of career if you like working with children.
3 the obvious thing (to do): what clearly seems the best thing to do:
The obvious thing is to speak to her before you make a decision.
SYNONYMS: clear, easy to see, noticeable
obviously (adverb)

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used to mean that a fact can easily be noticed or understood:
We're obviously going to need more help.
Your research has obviously been very thorough.
SYNONYM: clearly

P
panel (noun)
1 a small group of people selected to give advice or make a decision e.g. panel of experts
2 a flat piece of wood, metal or cloth that fits into something larger e.g. a door with wooden panels
3 a board or surface that has controls on it for operating a machine e.g. computer panel/control panel
participate (verb) [intransitive]
(formal )to take part in an activity or event
Some members refused to participate.
Everyone in the class is expected to participate actively in these discussions.
participation (noun) [uncountable]
the act of taking part in an activity or event
Thank you for your participation.
participatory (adj) [usually before noun] formal
a participatory way of organizing something, making decisions etc is one that involves everyone who
will be affected
a participatory democracy

perceive (verb) [transitive not in progressive]

1 to understand or think of something or someone in a particular way
Even as a young woman she had been perceived as a future leading designer.
Children who do badly in school tests often perceive themselves to be failures.
2 (formal) to notice, see, or recognize something
Cats are not able to perceive colour.
SYNONYMS: notice, sense, recognize
perception (noun)
1 [uncountable and countable] the way you think about something and your idea of what it is like
children's perceptions of the world
the public perception of the government's performance
2 [uncountable] the way that you notice things with your senses of sight, hearing etc
visual perception
3 [uncountable] the natural ability to understand or notice things quickly
Ross shows unusual perception for a boy of his age.
perceptive (adjective)
someone who is perceptive notices things quickly and understands situations, people's feelings etc well - used to
show approval
highly perceptive comments
perceptively (adverb)

perspective (noun)
1 [countable] a way of thinking about something, especially one which is influenced by the type of
person you are or by your experiences [↪ viewpoint]
His father's death gave him a whole new perspective on life.
The novel is written from a child's perspective.
2 [uncountable] a sensible way of judging and comparing situations so that you do not imagine that
something is more serious than it really is:
The figures have to be put into perspective.
3 [uncountable] a method of drawing a picture that makes objects look solid and shows distance and
depth, or the effect this method produces in a picture:
Giotto's use of perspective
SYNONYMS: point of view, viewpoint, angle

130
physical (adjective)
related to someone's body rather than their mind or emotions
She was in constant physical pain.
He was obsessed with physical fitness .
physically (adv)
in relation to your body rather than your mind or emotions
She is young and physically fit.

policy (noun)
1 [countable, uncountable] a way of doing something that has been officially agreed and chosen by a
political party, a business, or another organization
foreign/economic/public etc policy a foreign policy adviser 
The company has adopted a strict no-smoking policy.
2 [countable] a contract with an insurance company, or an official written statement giving all the
details of such a contract an insurance policy 
Does the policy cover theft and fire? 
3 [countable] a particular principle that you believe in and that influences the way you behave
It’s always been my policy not to gossip.

potential (noun) [uncountable]

1 the possibility that something will develop in a particular way, or have a particular effect
The company certainly has the potential for growth.
the potential of the Internet to create jobs
2 if people or things have potential, they have a natural ability or quality that could develop to make
them very good
She has the potential to become a champion.
a young player with great potential
SYNONYMS: ability, capability, capacity
potentially (adv) [+adjective/adverb]
something that is potentially dangerous, useful etc is not dangerous etc now, but may become so in the
future
a potentially dangerous situation

predict (verb) [transitive]

to say that something will happen, before it happens
Sales were five percent lower than predicted.
It is difficult to predict what the long-term effects of the accident will be.
Unemployment is predicted to increase to 700,000 by the end of the year.
SYNONYMS: anticipate, forecast, guess
predictable (adj) [≠ unpredictable]
if something or someone is predictable, you know what will happen or what they will do - sometimes
used to show disapproval
The snow had a predictable effect on traffic.
an entertaining but predictable film
prediction (noun) [uncountable and countable]
a statement about what you think is going to happen, or the act of making this statement
The data can be used to make useful economic predictions.

presume (verb) [transitive]
to think that something is true, although you are not certain
SYNONYMS: assume 
Each of you will make a speech, I presume? 
‘Are his parents still alive?’ 'I presume so.’
presume that I presume we’ll be there by six o'clock.

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presume somebody/something to be somebody/something From the way he talked, I presumed him to
be your boss.
be presumed to do something The temple is presumed to date from the first century BC.

primarily (adverb)
mainly: The advertisement is aimed primarily at children.
SYNONYMS: mainly, largely, chiefly
primary (adjective)
1 [usually before noun] most important [= main]
Our primary concern is to provide the refugees with food and healthcare.
Many of the villagers rely on fishing as their primary source of income.
Personal safety is of primary importance.
2 happening or developing before other things:
Counselling was given as a primary therapy for depression.
a primary colour is one of the three colours red, yellow or blue that can be mixed together in different
ways to make other colours
SYNONYMS: main, chief, principal
prime (adj) [only before noun]
1 most important [= main]:
Smoking is the prime cause of lung disease.
Our prime concern is providing jobs for all young school leavers.
Good management is of prime importance in business.
2 of the very best quality or kind:
prime agricultural land
The hotel is in a prime location overlooking the valley.
3 prime example: a very typical example of something:
Blakey Hall is a prime example of a 19th century building.
SYNONYMS: main, chief, key

principle (noun)
1 [uncountable and countable]a moral rule or belief about what is right and wrong, that influences how
you behave
Schools try to teach children a set of principles.
He refused to give me any more money as a matter of principle.
It's against my principles to accept gifts from clients.
2 [countable]the basic idea that a plan or system is based on
The general principle is that education should be available to all children up to the age of 16.
principled (adjective)

protocol (noun)
1 [uncountable] a system of rules about the correct way to behave on an official occasion 
a breach of diplomatic protocol
2 [countable] formal -an international agreement between two or more countries
the Montreal Protocol on the protection of the ozone layer
3 [countable] technical an established method for connecting computers so that they can exchange
information
4 [countable] technical a set of rules that are followed when doing a scientific experiment or giving
someone medical treatment

publish (verb)
1 [transitive] to arrange for a book, magazine etc to be written, printed, and sold
The first edition was published in 1765.
They are publishing the dictionary on CD-ROM.
2 [transitive] if a newspaper or magazine publishes a letter, article etc, it prints it for people to read
We love reading your letters and we try to publish as many as possible.

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3 [transitive usually passive] to make official information such as a report available for everyone to
read
The latest unemployment figures will be published tomorrow.
publishing (noun) [uncountable]
the business of producing books and magazines
Tony wants to get a job in publishing.

purchase (verb) [transitive]

formal: to buy something:
You can purchase insurance on-line.
the growing demand to purchase goods on credit
Where did you purchase the car?
SYNONYMS: buy, get, acquire
purchase (noun)
1 [uncountable and countable] formal: something you buy, or the act of buying it
I enclose my receipt as proof of purchase.

Q
R
range (noun)
1 variety of things/people [countable usually singular]: a number of people or things that are all
different, but are all of the same general type
range of : a range of services
The drug is effective against a range of bacteria.
2 limits [countable]: the limits within which amounts, quantities, ages etc vary
age/price/temperature etc range: toys suitable for children in the pre-school age range
a temperature range of 72-85º
3 products [countable]: a set of similar products made by a particular company or available in a
particular shop
range of : a new range of kitchenware
The watches in this range are priced at £24.50.
We have a very large product range.
Sansui planned to improve its product range to include DVD equipment.
SYNONYMS: collection, selection, variety
range (verb)
1 include [intransitive always + adverb/preposition]
a) to include a variety of different things or people in addition to those mentioned
range from something to something: The show had a massive audience, ranging from children to
grandparents.
b) if prices, levels, temperatures etc range from one amount to another, they include both those
amounts and anything in between

react (verb) [intransitive]

1 to behave in a particular way or show a particular emotion because of something that has happened
or been said
You have to react quickly to circumstances.
2 (technical) if a chemical substance reacts, it changes when it is mixed with another chemical
substance
react with
The calcium reacts with sulphur in the atmosphere.

133
3 if prices or financial markets react to something that happens, they increase or decrease in value
because of it
Oil prices reacted sharply (=reacted a lot) to news of the crisis in the Middle East
SYNONYMS: answer, reply, respond
reaction (noun)
1 [uncountable and countable] something that you feel or do because of something that has happened
or been said
Can you tell us about your first reactions to this news?
2 reactions [plural] your ability to move quickly when something dangerous happens suddenly
a skilled driver with very quick reactions
3 [countable] if you have a reaction to a drug or to something you have eaten, it makes you ill
She had a severe allergic reaction to the drug.

refine (verb) [transitive]

1 to improve a method, plan, system etc by gradually making slight changes to it
Car makers are constantly refining their designs.
2 to make a substance purer using an industrial process
oil refining
refined (adj) [≠ unrefined]
1 [usually before noun] a substance that is refined has been made pure by an industrial process
refined sugar/oil/petroleum

register (verb)
1 on a list [intransitive and transitive]: to put someone's or something's name on an official list:
The tanker is registered in Rotterdam.
How many students have registered for English classes?
2 state your opinion [transitive] formal: to officially state your opinion about something so that
everyone knows what you think or feel:
The delegation registered a formal protest with US embassy officials Wednesday.
3 realize [intransitive usually in negatives, transitive]: if something registers, or if you register it, you
realize or notice it, and then remember it:
She had told me her name before, but I guess it didn't register.
I'd been standing there for several minutes before he registered my presence.
4 measurement [intransitive and transitive]: if an instrument registers an amount or if something
registers on it, the instrument shows that amount:
The thermometer registered 98.6°.
The earthquake registered 7.2 on the Richter scale.
SYNONYMS: record show, display
registered (adj)
officially listed and accepted
registration (noun)
1 [uncountable] the act of recording names and details on an official list
the registration of motor vehicles
Student registration (=for a course of study) starts the first week in September.
2 [countable] (American English) an official piece of paper containing details about a motor vehicle
and the name of its owner
May I see your license and registration, ma'am?
register (noun)
1 [countable]an official list of names of people, companies etc, or a book that has this list
Have you signed the hotel register?
Police want a national register of DNA samples.
2 [uncountable and countable] (technical) the words, style, and grammar used by speakers and writers
in a particular situation or in a particular type of writing
formal/informal register
letters written in a formal register

134
regulate (verb) [transitive]
1 to control an activity or process, especially by rules:
strict rules regulating the use of chemicals in food
2 to make a machine or your body work at a particular speed, temperature etc:
People sweat to regulate their body heat.
SYNONYM: control
regulation (noun)
1 [countable]an official rule or order
There seem to be so many rules and regulations these days.
The local authority is introducing new planning regulations.
2 [uncountable] control over something, especially by rules
the regulation of public spending
regulatory (adjective)

rely (verb) past tense and past participle relied present participle relying third person singular relies
rely on/upon somebody/something (phrasal verb)
1 to trust or depend on someone or something to do what you need or expect them to do
I knew I could rely on him.
Many working women rely on relatives to help take care of their children.
Many people now rely on the Internet for news.
2 to depend on something in order to continue to live or exist
For its income, the company relies heavily on only a few contracts.
They have to rely on the river for their water.
SYNONYM: depend on
reliable (adj)
someone or something that is reliable can be trusted or depended on
Miller was a quiet and reliable man.
SYNONYM: dependable
reliably(adv)
reliability(noun) [uncountable]
reliance (noun) [singular, uncountable]
when someone or something is dependent on someone or something else
the country's reliance on imported oil
SYNONYM: dependence
reliant (adj)
dependent on someone or something
Most companies are now reliant on computer technology.
The government is reliant on indirect taxation for most of its income.
SYNONYM: dependent

require (verb) [transitive not in progressive]

1 to need something:
Campbell's broken leg will probably require surgery.
What's required is a complete reorganization of the system.
Most house plants require regular watering.
2 if you are required to do or have something, a law or rule says you must do it or have it
You are required by law to wear a seat belt.
Regulations require that students attend at least 75% of the classes.
SYNONYMS: need, must
requirement (noun) [countable usually plural]
1 something that someone needs or asks for:
The refugees' main requirements are food and shelter.
The new computer system will meet all our requirements.
2 something that must be done because of a law or rule:
If you are installing a new bathroom, it has to meet the requirements of the Building Regulations.

135
Two measures have been introduced as legal requirements.
3 something, especially good examination results, that a college, employer etc says you must have in
order to do something
To find out about entry requirements for students, write to the college admissions board.
The minimum requirement for the post was a degree in engineering.
SYNONYMS: need, necessity, condition, term

research (noun) [uncountable] also plural researches (formal)

1 serious study of a subject, in order to discover new facts or test new ideas
I'm still doing research for my thesis.
2 the activity of finding information about something that you are interested in or need to know about
It's a good idea to do some research before you buy a house.
SYNONYMS: study, analysis
research (verb) [intransitive and transitive]
1 to study a subject in detail, especially in order to discover new facts or test new ideas [↪
investigate]:
He's been researching material for a documentary.
2 to get all the necessary facts and information for something:
This book has been very well researched.
SYNONYMS: study, analyse

respond (verb)
1 [intransitive]to do something as a reaction to something that has been said or done
respond to
Responding to the news, Mr Watt appealed for calm.
respond by doing something
The US responded by sending troops into Laos.
2 [intransitive and transitive] to say or write something as a reply
respond that
He responded that he didn't want to see anyone.
3 [intransitive] to improve as a result of a particular kind of treatment
respond to
She has responded well to treatment. Colds do not respond to antibiotics.
SYNONYM: reaction
response (noun)
1 [uncountable and countable]something that is done as a reaction to something that has happened or
been said
response to
the public's response to our appeal for help
The exhibition has received a positive response from visitors
2 [countable] something that is said or written as a reply
response to
'Sure, why not?' was his response to all of Billie's suggestions.
Carl made no response , and carried on with his meal.
responsive (adj) [≠ unresponsive]
1 reacting quickly, in a positive way
a car with highly responsive steering
2 eager to communicate with people, and to react to them in a positive way
I tried to get him talking, but he wasn't very responsive.
responsively (adv)

reveal (verb) [transitive] [≠ conceal, hide, cover]

1 to make known something that was previously secret or unknown
He may be prosecuted for revealing secrets about the security agency. reveal (that)
He revealed that he had been in prison twice before.

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2 to show something that was previously hidden
The curtain opened to reveal the grand prize.

S
schedule (noun) [countable]
1 a plan of what someone is going to do and when they are going to do it
on schedule (=at the planned time)
The majority of holiday flights depart and arrive on schedule.
2 (American English) a list that shows the times that buses, trains etc leave or arrive at a particular
place
British Equivalent: timetable
schedule (verb) [transitive usually passive]
to plan that something will happen at a particular time
The elections are scheduled for mid-June.
Meetings are scheduled to take place all over the country.
SYNONYMS: arrange, plan

secure (verb) [transitive]

1 get/achieve: to get or achieve something that will be permanent, especially after a lot of effort:
secure a deal/contract: The company secured a $20 million contract.
Redgrave won his third Olympic gold medal, and secured his place in history.
2 safe from harm: to make something safe from being attacked, harmed, or lost:
Troops were sent to secure the border.
3 tie firmly: to fasten or tie something firmly in a particular position
secure something to something: John secured the boat firmly to the jetty.
SYNONYMS: get, get hold of, make safe
securely (adv)
1 tied, fastened etc tightly, especially in order to make something safe
securely locked/fastened/attached/held etc
All weapons should be kept securely locked in a cabinet.
2 in a way that protects something from being stolen or lost
Customers can now buy products securely over the internet.
3 in a way that is likely to continue successfully and not change
By that time, democracy had become securely established in Spain.
security (noun)
1 [uncountable] things that are done to keep a person, building, or country safe from danger or crime
The trial was held under tight security.
We have been asked not to say anything for security reasons.
The thief was caught on a security camera.
2 [uncountable] protection from bad things that could happen to you
Workers want greater job security (=not being in danger of losing your job).
This insurance plan offers your family financial security in the event of your death.

seek (verb) past tense and past participle sought [transitive]

1 formal to try to achieve or get something
Do you think the President will seek re-election?
Thousands of people crossed the border, seeking refuge from the war.
2 seek (somebody's) advice/help/assistance etc
formal to ask someone for advice or help
If the symptoms persist, seek medical advice.
3 written to look for someone or something
new graduates seeking employment
SYNONYMS: look for, pursue, search for

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shift (verb)
a) [intransitive and transitive] to move from one place or position to another, or make something do
this
Joe listened, shifting uncomfortably from one foot to another.
She shifted her gaze from me to Bobby.
b) [transitive] British English informal to move something, especially by picking it up and carrying it
Give me a hand to shift these chairs.
2 [transitive]to change a situation, discussion etc by giving special attention to one idea or subject
instead of to a previous one
The White House hopes to shift the media's attention away from foreign policy issues.
shift gear American English (=change what you are doing)
It's hard to shift gear when you come home after a busy day at work.
3 [intransitive and transitive] if someone's opinions, beliefs etc shift, they change
Public opinion was beginning to shift to the right (=become more right-wing).
shift (noun) [countable]
1 a change in the way people think about something, in the way something is done etc:
the shift from one type of economic system to another
an important shift in policy
2 a) if workers in a factory, hospital etc work shifts, they work for a particular period of time during
the day or night, and are then replaced by others, so that there are always people working:
Dave had to work a 12-hour shift yesterday.
I'm on the early shift tomorrow.
b) the workers who work during one of these periods
night/day/early/late shift: before the early shift goes off duty
SYNONYMS: transition, trend, move

significant (adj) [≠ insignificant]

1 having an important effect or influence, especially on what will happen in the future
Please inform us if there are any significant changes in your plans.
2 large enough to be noticeable or have noticeable effects
A significant number of drivers fail to keep to speed limits.
A significant part of Japan's wealth is invested in the West.
The rise in temperature is not statistically significant.
3 a significant look, smile etc has a special meaning that is not known to everyone
He gave me a significant look.
SYNONYMS: important, serious
significantly (adv)
1 in an important way or to an important degree
Health problems can be significantly reduced by careful diet.
Methods used by younger teachers differ significantly from those used by older ones.
2 [sentence adverb] used to say that something is very important
The Democrats, significantly, finished well behind the Green Party.
3 in a way that seems to have a special meaning
George paused, and glanced significantly in my direction.

signify (verb) past tense and past participle signified present participle signifying third person
singular signifies [not in progressive]
1 [transitive] to represent, mean, or be a sign of something
Some tribes use special facial markings to signify status.
The image of the lion signified power and strength.
signify (that)
The symbol used signifies that the frequency is measured in kHz.
2 [transitive] (formal) if you signify a feeling, opinion etc, you do something that acts as a sign so that
other people know your feeling or opinion
signify that

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Hamilton waved his hand to signify that he didn't mind what they decided.
3 [intransitive] to be important enough to have an effect on something
These figures don't really signify in the overall results.

specify (verb) past tense and past participle specified present participle specifying third person
singular specifies [transitive]
to state something in an exact and detailed way
Payments will be made for a specified number of months.
It logs into a variety of electronic news sources and looks for articles with keywords specified by the
user.
specific (adj)
1 [only before noun] a specific thing, person, or group is one particular thing, person, or group
games suitable for specific age-groups a specific example of alcohol's effect on the body
2 detailed and exact
Mr Howarth gave us very specific instructions.
Research is an active and formally organised search for specific information for a specific purpose.
3 specific to something
formal limited to, or affecting only one particular thing
a disease specific to horses
SYNONYMS: definite, exact, precise
specifically (adv)
1 relating to or intended for one particular type of person or thing only
advertising that specifically targets children
2 in a detailed or exact way
I specifically asked you not to do that!
3 [sentence adverb] used when you are adding more exact information
Specifically, the department wanted answers to the following questions.
specification (noun) [countable]
1 [usually plural]a detailed instruction about how a car, building, piece of equipment etc should be
made
The airport building had been constructed to FAA specifications.
The bolts met all the engineering specifications .
2 (especially British English) a clear statement of what is needed or wanted
a specification of what role each member will play
job specification (=a detailed description of what a job involves)

straightforward (adjective) [≠ complicated]

1 simple and easy to understand
Installing the program is relatively straightforward.
This area of law is far from straightforward (=complicated).
For someone who can't read, shopping is by no means a straightforward matter.
2 honest about your feelings or opinions and not hiding anything:
Jack is tough, but always straightforward and fair.
SYNONYMS: easy, simple
straightforwardly (adverb)
straightforwardness noun [uncountable]

strategy (noun) [countable- plural strategies]

a planned series of actions for achieving something:
the government's long-term economic strategy
a company's business strategy
SYNONYMS: tactics, plan, approach
strategic (adjective) also strategical
1 done as part of a plan, especially in a military, business, or political situation
UN forces made a strategic withdrawal

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a strategic decision to move production to Hungary
2 useful or right for a particular purpose
Police cars were placed at strategic points along the president's route.
3 relating to fighting wars
Marseilles was of great strategic importance.

stress (noun)
1 [uncountable and countable] continuous feelings of worry about your work or personal life, that
prevent you from relaxing
Your headaches are due to stress.
2 [uncountable and countable] the physical force or pressure on an object
Shoes with high heels put a great deal of stress on knees and ankles.
3 [uncountable] the special attention or importance given to a particular idea, fact, or activity
The instructor put particular stress on the need for discipline.
SYNONYMS: strain, emphasis, importance
stressful (adj)
stress (verb)

structure (noun)
1 [uncountable and countable] the way in which the parts of something are connected with each other and form
a whole, or the thing that these parts make up
social/political/economic etc structure: the social structure of organizations
A new management structure has been introduced.
2 [countable] something that has been built, especially something large such as a building or a bridge:
a high wooden structure with a curved roof
3 [uncountable and countable] a situation where activities are carefully organized and planned:
These kids require a lot of structure and stability.
SYNONYMS: building, set-up, framework
structure (verb) [transitive]
to arrange the different parts of something into a pattern or system in which each part is connected to the others
The exhibition is structured around three topics.
SYNONYM: organize, shape, arrange

submit (verb) past tense and past participle submitted present participle submitting
1 [transitive] to give a plan, piece of writing etc to someone in authority for them to consider or
approve
All applications must be submitted by Monday.
2 [intransitive and transitive] formal to agree to obey a person, group, set of rules, especially when you
have no choice
Derek has agreed to submit to questioning.
SYNONYMS: give in, hand over
submission (noun)
1 [uncountable]the state of being completely controlled by a person or group, and accepting that you
have to obey them
Napoleon threatened to starve the country into submission.
2 [uncountable and countable] when you give or show something to someone in authority, for them to
consider or approve
The deadline for the submission of proposals is May 1st.

sum (noun) [countable]

1 an amount of money
He owes me a large sum of money.
Bill wants to spend a large sum on modernizing the farm.
2 the sum of something
the total produced when two or more numbers/amounts are added together e.g. the sum of 2 and 2 is 4.
SYNONYMS: amount, total

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survey (noun) [countable]
1 a set of questions that you ask a large number of people in order to find out about their opinions or
behaviour
carry out/conduct a survey (=do a survey) We conducted a survey of parents in the village.
2 an examination of an area of land in order to make a map of it
SYNONYMS: analysis, evaluation, examination
survey (verb) [transitive]
1 [usually passive] to ask a large number of people questions in order to find out their attitudes or
opinions
Of the 100 companies surveyed, 10 per cent had a turnover of £50m to £99m.
2 to look at or consider someone or something carefully, especially in order to form an opinion about
them
She turned to survey her daughter’s pale face. They got out of the car to survey the damage.
3 British English to examine the condition of a house or other building and make a report on it,
especially for people who want to buy it
SYNONYMS: evaluate, examine, research

sustain (verb) [transitive]

1 to make something continue to exist or happen for a period of time
She found it difficult to sustain the children's interest.
He was incapable of sustaining close relationships with women.
2 (formal) to suffer damage, an injury, or loss of money
Two of the fire-fighters sustained serious injuries.
Some nearby buildings sustained minor damage.
3 (formal) if food or drink sustains a person, animal, or plant, it makes them able to continue living
They gave me barely enough food to sustain me.
SYNONYM: maintain, keep
sustainable (adj) [≠ unsustainable]
1 able to continue without causing damage to the environment
The government should do more to promote sustainable agriculture.
the sustainable use of rainforest resources
2 able to continue for a long time
The party is promising low inflation and sustainable economic growth.
SYNONYM: maintainable
sustainability (noun) [uncountable]
A report on the sustainability of the world’s tropical forests states that less than 1% of them are being
managed effectively.

T
target (noun) [countable]
1 something that you are trying to achieve, such as a total, an amount, or a time
Higher degrees in English are a target for foreign students.
There is no target date for completion of the new project.
2 an object, person, or place that is deliberately chosen to be attacked
Railway stations are prime targets (=very likely targets) for terrorist bombs.
3 the person or place that is most directly affected by an action, especially a bad one
The country is a target of criticism for its human rights record.
SYNONYMS: aim, goal, objective
target (verb) [transitive]
1 to make something have an effect on a particular limited group or area
The advertisement was designed to target a mass audience.
The programme is targeted at improving the health of women of all ages.
2 to aim something at a target

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The missiles are targeted at several key military sites.
3 to choose a particular person or place to do something to, especially to attack them or criticize them
He was targeted by terrorists for a second time last night.

theme (noun) [countable]

1 the main subject or idea in a piece of writing, speech, film etc
The book's theme is the conflict between love and duty.
Most of Kurt's other pictures were variations on the same theme .
2 theme music/song/tune
music or a song that is often played during a film or musical play, or at the beginning and end of a
television or radio programme
the theme song from 'The Brady Bunch'
3 a short simple tune that is repeated and developed in a piece of music
Freia's theme in Wagner's opera

theory (noun) plural theories

1 [countable] an idea or set of ideas that is intended to explain something about life or the world,
especially an idea that has not yet been proved to be true
different theories about how the brain wor
Darwin's theory of evolution
the theory that light is made up of waves
2 [uncountable] general principles and ideas about a subject:
Freudian theory has had a great influence on psychology.
political/economic/literary etc theory: I'm taking a course on political theory.
3 in theory: something that is true in theory is supposed to be true, but might not really be true or
might not be what will really happen:
In theory, everyone will have to pay the new tax.
SYNONYMS: idea, notion, concept
theoretical (adj)
1 relating to the study of ideas, especially scientific ideas, rather than with practical uses of the ideas
or practical experience
Aristotle's theoretical model of the universe
She has theoretical knowledge of teaching, but no practical experience.
2 a theoretical situation or condition could exist but does not really exist
Equality between men and women in our society is still only theoretical.
theoretically (adv)
1 used to say what is supposed to be true in a particular situation, especially when the opposite is true
Theoretically, Damian's the boss, but I coordinate the team on a day-to-day basis.
2 according to a scientific idea that has not been proven to be true in a practical way
It is theoretically possible for computers to be programmed to think like humans.

topic (noun) [countable]

a subject that people talk or write about
The environment is a popular topic these days.
topical (adj)
a subject that is topical is interesting because it is important at the present time
a new TV comedy dealing with topical issues
topically (adverb)
topicality (noun) [uncountable]

transfer (verb) [intransitive and transitive] past tense and past participle transferred present
participle transferring
1 [intransitive and transitive] to move from one place, school, job etc to another, or to make someone
do this, especially within the same organization
You'll be transferred to the Birmingham office.

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2 [intransitive and transitive] formal to move from one place to another, or to move something from
one place to another:
The exhibition transfers to York City Art Gallery on 23rd January.
-Transferable adjective:
-Transferability noun: [uncountable]
SYNONYMS: move, relocate, transport
transferable (adjective)
transferability (noun)
transfer (noun) [uncountable and countable]
1 a) [uncountable and countable] the process by which someone or something moves or is moved from
one place, job etc to another:
Penny's applied for a transfer to head office.
electronic data transfer
b) [countable] someone or something that has been moved in this way
2 transfer of power: a process by which the control of a country is taken from one person or group and
given to another
the transfer of power to a civilian government
3 [countable] the act of changing from one bus, aircraft etc to another while travelling:
Getting there often means a couple of transfers on a bus line.

transform (verb) [transitive]

to completely change the appearance, form, or character of something or someone, especially in a way
that improves it:
Increased population has transformed the landscape.
transform somebody/something (from something) into something: The movie transformed her almost
overnight from an unknown schoolgirl into a megastar.
SYNONYMS: turn into, revolutionise
transformation (noun) [uncountable and countable]
a complete change in someone or something
In recent years, the movie industry has undergone a dramatic transformation.
transformation of
What leads to the transformation of one economic system to another?

transition (noun) [countable, uncountable]  

formal- when something changes from one form or state to another
the smooth transition from full-time work to full retirement 
Making the transition from youth to adulthood can be very painful.
a society that is in transition (=changing) the period of transition to full democracy

transport (noun)
1 [uncountable] British English a system or method for carrying passengers or goods from one place to
another
American Equivalent: transportation air/rail/road transport
Improved rail transport is essential for business.
Horses were the only means of transport.
2 [uncountable] the process or business of taking goods from one place to another
American Equivalent: transportation
Canals were used for the transport of goods.
3 [countable] a ship or aircraft for carrying soldiers or supplies
transport (verb) [transitive usually + adverb/preposition]
1 to take goods, people etc from one place to another in a vehicle
trucks used for transporting oil
The statue was transported to London.
2 be transported back to/into something
to imagine that you are in another place or time because of something that you see or hear

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One look, and I was transported back to childhood.
transportable (adj)
transportation (noun)
transporter (noun) [countable]
a long vehicle that can carry one or more other vehicles

trigger (verb) also trigger off [transitive]

1 to make something happen very quickly, especially a series of events
Certain forms of mental illness can be triggered by food allergies
2 to make something such as a bomb or electrical system start to operate
The burglars fled after triggering the alarm.

U
V
valid (adj) [≠ invalid]
1 a valid ticket, document, or agreement is legally or officially acceptable
Your return ticket is valid for three months.
2 valid reason/argument/criticism etc
a reason, argument etc that is based on what is reasonable or sensible
Police officers must have a valid reason for stopping motorists.
3 a valid password, ID etc is one that will be accepted by a computer system
validity (noun)

version (noun) [countable]

1 a copy of something that has been changed so that it is slightly different
a new version of the software
2 someone's version of an event is their description of it, when this is different from the description
given by another person
according to the official version of events
SYNONYMS: form, interpretation

via (preposition)
1 travelling through a place on the way to another place:
We flew to Athens via Paris.
2 using a particular person, machine etc to send something:
I sent a message to Kitty via her sister.
You can access our homepage via the Internet.

W
X
Y
Z

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