Journal of Water Process Engineering 49 (2022) 103129

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Journal of Water Process Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jwpe

Zero liquid discharge technology for recovery, reuse, and reclamation of

wastewater: A critical review
Manali Date a, Vandana Patyal a, Dipika Jaspal b, *, Arti Malviya c, Kanchan Khare a
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT), Symbiosis International (Deemed University) (SIU), Lavale, Pune, Maharashtra, India
b
Department of Applied Science, Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT), Symbiosis International (Deemed University) Lavale, Pune, Maharashtra, India
c
Lakshmi Narain College of Technology, Bhopal 462021, Madhya Pradesh, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Disposal of treated effluents in water bodies or centralized effluent treatment plants may serve an immediate
Zero liquid discharge (ZLD) purpose of wastewater remediation, but this does not curtail the fate of contaminant build-up over a long period.
Recovery The existing methods of treatment of different wastewaters should be modified in such a way that the wastewater
Reuse
is suitable for recovery, reuse, and reclamation. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the methodol­
Reclamation
Wastewater
ogies used globally in zero liquid discharge (ZLD) along with its applicability in various sectors. The amal­
gamation of new technologies with the conventional techniques makes ZLD systems economical, and efficient,
with a cutback in energy consumption. Membrane-based processes are emerging methods for the expansion of
the applicability of ZLD systems. They can be used for feed wastewater having salinity >100,000 mg/L and
compared to thermal processes consume less energy and also have lower membrane fouling problems. As for the
execution of ZLD in industrial, domestic, and agricultural sectors, the industrial sector is found to be the most
productive in terms of ZLD utilization. Particularly, the textile and desalination industries can achieve an almost
full recovery and reuse of wastewater using reverse osmosis (RO) and other membrane techniques put together.

1. Introduction to zero liquid discharge (ZLD)
Ever-increasing population, industrialization, and urbanization have
taken a colossal toll on the availability of water, energy, plants, and
other natural resources. One of the biggest challenges faced by the globe
today is the diminishing gap between the demand and availability of
these precious resources [1]. We have already reached the brink of
eradicating resources that are available to us. Taking these aspects into
consideration, commencing with the efforts to preserve and nurture the
resources available to us, becomes a matter of utmost importance.
Further, the rising scarcity of water puts forth a challenge. To
conserve water, its recovery, reuse, and reclamation ought to be
emphasized. Water recovery aims at the application of the best possible
technologies at hand to bring the wastewater to the state where it is no
longer harmful and can be safely disposed of the freshwater or
groundwater reservoirs. However, it needs to be treated further using
additional resources and techniques in the form of advanced treatment
methodologies to reuse this water for different purposes and reclaim the
best possible nutrients and resources from this treated and purified
wastewater. Though the difference between recovery, reuse, and recla­
mation of treated wastewater overlaps, these all consider the different
levels at which the treated wastewater can be dealt with, from the
viewpoint of disposal or actual utilization.
Zero liquid discharge (ZLD) is one such mechanism that enables us to
achieve the goal of conservation. ZLD refers to the complete utilization
of the liquid (here, specifically water) without any losses being dis­
charged out of the premises. ZLD technology opens a path for all arenas
relying on the reuse of wastewater and the treatment of pollutants. It is
the process of recycling water and reusing the valuable nutrients from
treated wastewater [2]. An effort has been made through this paper to
provide a layered insight into the reuse, recovery, and reclamation ef­
ficiencies of tangible resources and water obtained through a plethora of
researched and executed methods in different sectors.
There is a conceptual difference between ZLD and typical water reuse
which has been clearly expounded here. ZLD implies that no wastewater
will leave the set up. The quantity and percentage of treated wastewater
from the actual wastewater depends upon the methodology applied in
the treatment of wastewater. Efforts are in the direction of treatment of

* Corresponding author at: Department of Applied Science, Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT), Symbiosis International (Deemed University) (SIU) Gram:
Lavale, Tal: Mulshi, Pune, Maharashtra, India.
E-mail address: dipikaj@sitpune.edu.in (D. Jaspal).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2022.103129
Received 21 June 2022; Received in revised form 18 August 2022; Accepted 4 September 2022
Available online 12 September 2022
2214-7144/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Date et al.
wastewater to be reused in the maximum possible quantum.100 %
wastewater should be reused for manufacturing as per ZLD. If 70 % of
water is obtained for reuse, remaining can be used for basic uses like car
washing, floor cleaning, flushing so that no wastewater escapes the
campus. Typical water reuse talks about those applications like car
washing, floor cleaning, flushing etc., which do not require high treat­
ment standards., whereas ZLD refers to usage in production or
manufacturing operations of industry thereby eliminating or reducing
the amount of fresh water consumption. Majority of applications given
in paper are based upon ZLD.
1.1. Deciphering the concept of ZLD
ZLD is a closed-loop cycle leaving no discharge [3]. It deals with the
integration of several existent methodologies with the novel state-of-the-
art techniques for wastewater reclamation. Fig. 1 below gives the
process-flow diagram of how the technologies can be shaped and
structured to obtain viable resources. The concept of ZLD technology is
specific to the location of treatment of wastewater and the purpose
behind the application. The possibility of recovery of wastewater from
industrial processes is now a matter of prime concern for many in­
dustries, as these require huge quanta of water for manufacturing pro­
cesses [4]. Its applicability to the agricultural, domestic and commercial
sectors is still in the naïve stage and hence needs to be stressed. The
methodology of ZLD is to be put into execution to minimize the finally
produced liquid waste and solid wastes. Recycling treated wastewater
selectively works as an alternate option to minimize the use of fresh­
water [5].
ZLD is becoming the need of the hour as stringent regulations
regarding the treated wastewater parameters are being put up by the
regulatory bodies. Hence, the economic pursuit for the different sectors
that are utilizing freshwater for their activities, and releasing contami­
nated wastewater, is to treat their wastewater to such an extent that it
becomes reusable and reclaimed, recovered, and recyclable [6]. Life
cycle assessment of ZLD strives towards a decrease in ill effects on the
environment in terms of decreased global warming, reduced freshwater
ecotoxicity, and dependence on the surface and groundwater sources for
freshwater consumption [7].
1.2. Approach for achieving ZLD
Research on the concept of ZLD and its future prospects was
Fig. 1. Process-flow of treatment of wastewater
2
Journal of Water Process Engineering 49 (2022) 103129
performed by Lux Research [8] which stated that there is going to be a
boost to the upcoming market of ZLD due to continuous advancement
and upgradation in technology. An annual increase rate of 12 %,
reaching a $2.7 billion market value by 2030 is expected to occur in ZLD
systems as per the [8]. Day-by-day, the environmental regulations are
getting more stringent and water is becoming an expensive commodity,
all this has paved ways for increasing research on water treatment and
reuse methodologies; attributing to advanced research on ZLD. The
fundamental principle of a ZLD system is that it prevents any wastewater
discharge from industries or powerplants thereby aiding water
conservation.
ZLD is an exemplification of strategic wastewater management to
tackle water scarcity and understand whether water economics and
environmental regulations have been managed well [3]. There are two
major approaches involved in the achievement of ZLD [9] which are the
elimination of liquid waste effluent stream to extract and recover the
useful solids, and the treatment of the wastewater and removal of solids
to reclaim wastewater. If both approaches are aimed at, then it leads to
maximized ZLD output. This can be attained by several methodologies
and techniques. The innovative aspect of the discussed lies in the fact
that these methods are stable, less labor intensive, and ensure high ef­
ficiency and removal. These have been developed keeping in mind their
application potential in the long run. These methods ought to be green
or environment friendly, safe, cost-effective, reliable at a large scale and
should not be too resource extensive. There are some practical diffi­
culties in their implementation, which have also been discussed.
Methods include evaporation, crystallization, reverse osmosis (RO),
electrodialysis (ED), membrane techniques of microfiltration (MF),
nanofiltration (NF), ultrafiltration (UF), electrocoagulation (EC), con­
structed wetlands (CW), advanced oxidation processes (AOP), photo­
catalysis (PC), electrocatalysis (EC), ultraviolet treatment (UV), novel
biological processes and other tertiary/advanced techniques. Technol­
ogies appropriate for incorporation in ZLD systems have been discussed
in the subsequent sections.
2. ZLD technologies for recovery, reuse, and reclamation of
wastewater
To address the issue of rapidly depleting water resources and wide­
spread water pollution issues, ZLD systems are getting a lot of attention
for wastewater treatment and water management for complex industrial
processes [10]. ZLD systems have to be customized as per the production
M. Date et al.
setup by adopting appropriate techniques with the goal of recycling and
reusing treated effluent within the industry and also improving the
reclamation of valuable solids, salts, and chemicals. An example of the
recovery using ZLD is the recovery of 100 % freshwater from brine
wastewater. High capital involvement with high energy demand [11,12]
however are some limitations associated with the mentioned use.
The typical components of ZLD systems are pretreatment, concen­
trators, and crystallization [13]. In pretreatment, the traditional physi­
cochemical methods are used to condition the influent wastewater for
the next step in the treatment. It consists of a clarifier or reactor to
remove hardness, metals, certain toxins, silica and bulk suspended solids
by addition of chemicals for precipitation and coagulation. At times pH
adjustment is done to assist in the coagulation process. The wastewater
is then sent to the flocculation unit where the coagulated particles are
converted into settleable particles. Then the wastewater goes to a
gravity settling chamber where the flocculated particles are removed.
Based on the characteristics of wastewater, additional units might be
required for the treatment of metals and other toxins. For instance, if the
organic load is high in wastewater, a biological treatment is involved in
pretreatment. The meticulous design of the pretreatment unit is required
for the successful implementation of the ZLD system.
Next is the concentration step in which the wastewater stream is
concentrated to high salinity and a large amount of wastewater is
reclaimed for reuse. The dissolved salts are removed from the pretreated
wastewater stream by a combination of techniques such as brine
concentrator, reverse osmosis, and electrodialysis [14]. The next stage
in the ZLD system is evaporation/crystallization. High saline wastewater
stream is reduced further by phase change to solid phase for recovery of
salts and final disposal. This is achieved by the usage of thermal evap­
orators, crystallizers, and dryers which are energy intensive. To reduce
energy consumption incorporation of solar-driven operations and
innovative technologies such as vacuum evaporators and vacuum crys­
tallizers has proved to be successful [15].
Many technologies are available for the above steps and successful
implementation of the different configurations of ZLD systems.
Comprehensive knowledge of the advanced water treatment technolo­
gies which can be utilized in the ZLD systems has been presented below.
2.1. Thermal process
The conventional ZLD systems were based on thermal processes
which were energy and capital-intensive [16,17]. The conventional
system is mainly based on thermal processes consisting of evaporation of
wastewater influent in brine concentrator and subsequently treatment in
brine crystallizer or evaporation pond. The collected distillate in the
treatment process is recycled and reused as clean water. The solid waste
generated is used as a valuable by-product for the recovery of salts and
minerals. A thermal ZLD system consists of a pre-treatment unit, brine
concentrator, brine crystallizer, solid recovery unit, and/or evaporation
pond (Fig. 2).
The feed wastewater is preconditioned in the pretreatment unit by
pH adjustment, filtration, deaeration, coagulation, and antiscalant
Fig. 2. Diagramatic illustration of thermal ZLD systems.
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Journal of Water Process Engineering 49 (2022) 103129
additives to minimize the scaling potential in the subsequent units [18].
The wastewater is sent to a brine concentrator which commonly uses
mechanical vapor compression (MVC) technology for the evaporation of
water. The wastewater is first heated by the sensible heat of the distillate
produced in the concentrator and then mixed with the brine slurry
before passing through the tubes of the heat exchanger [20]. As the brine
slurry flows down the tubes of the heat exchanger it forms a thin layer on
the internal surface of the tubes which helps in improving heat exchange
and water is vaporized. The generated water vapors travel to the vapor
compression where they are transferred to the external surface of the
heat exchanger tubes, get condensed, and collected as distillate which is
used to preheat feed wastewater before reuse [21]. The brine concen­
trator can recover 90–98 % of high-quality water with total dissolved
solids (TDS) of <10 mg/L [22]. The brine concentrator is both energy
and capital-intensive. It is estimated that the energy consumption is
around 39 kWhe/m3 of feed wastewater consumed by MVC brine con­
centrators [23,24].
The concentrated brine wastewater from the brine concentrator is
fed into the brine crystallizer for further recovery of water. The working
principle is similar to that of the brine concentrator in which the
concentrated brine wastewater flows through the heat exchanger under
pressure to prohibit scaling in the tubes of the heat exchanger. The en­
ergy consumption of the brine crystallizer is three times more than the
brine concentrator due to the excessive salinity and viscosity of the
concentrated feed wastewater [25]. The treated wastewater is then used
for the recovery of valuable solids and chemicals or sent to evaporation
ponds before disposal.
Multi-stage flash distillation (MSF) and multi-effect distillation
(MEF) are lower energy-consuming alternatives based on evaporative
technologies. The major drawback of these technologies is scaling
despite pre-treatment [26,27]. A spray dryer (SD) is an alternative
crystallization technology for generating high-quality salts at reduced
treatment cost, the limitation of this technology is that the brine
wastewater should contain specific ions [28]. Another crystallization
technology eutectic freeze crystallization (EFC) for the production of
high-quality salt with no restriction on feed composition but is
extremely costly [29]. Wind-aided intensified evaporation (WAIV) is a
crystallization technology with very less energy requirements but with
no possibility of freshwater recovery like evaporative ponds [30].
2.2. Reverse osmosis (RO)
RO is a proven technology in desalination systems as there are no
losses associated with phase change for separation unlike in thermal
systems. In the desalination of seawater, up to 50 % of freshwater can be
recovered with low energy consumption of 2 kWhe/m3 [31]. Despite low
energy requirements, RO is not recommended as the principal technol­
ogy in ZLD systems due to the limited upper level of salinity in waste­
water (<7000 mg/L), membrane fouling problem, and less efficiency
(50 %) [32]. It is generally used for concentrating wastewater before
thermal treatment by a brine concentrator (Fig. 3). This helps in
reducing the treatment cost (48–67 %) and the energy consumption
M. Date et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 49 (2022) 103129

Fig. 3. Diagramatic illustration of RO-ZLD systems.

(58–75 %) in place of the brine concentrator and evaporation pond in allow counter ions to pass through and inhibit the movement of coions
the thermal system [33]. Fig. 3 is a schematic representation of the [45]. This selective movement across the ion exchange membrane re­
entire setup for ZLD systems with RO technology. sults in the generation of salt-reduced and concentrated brine streams. It
As the wastewater is made to pass through the membrane, it can can be employed for pre-treatment and brine concentration before
frequently lead to the problem of membrane fouling due to the presence evaporative crystallization in the ZLD systems. Electrodialysis reversible
of particles (solids) in the wastewater. This can be minimized by using (EDR) is a modification of ED in which the polarity of the electrodes is
vigorous pre-treatment methods but it leads to increased operating costs periodically reversed to minimize fouling and scaling.
and additional generation of solid waste in the ZLD system with RO [34]. This technique can concentrate feed water to higher salinity
New technology has been developed known as high-efficiency RO compared to RO (>100,000 mg/L) [46]. It also requires less energy for
(HERO), which utilizes the combination of various pre-treatment and pH concentrating the feed water to high salinity compared to the MCV
adjustment to achieve higher freshwater recovery and also reduced concentrator used in thermal ZLD systems [47]. The utilization of RO
membrane fouling [35]. Worldwide, HERO has been successfully along with ED/EDR overcomes the limitation of low salinity in RO and
installed at the field scale for the treatment of persistent contaminants in reduces energy consumption in comparison to the conventional system
wastewater. Incorporating ultrafiltration (UF) as pre-treatment is using a brine concentrator.
effective in curtailing membrane fouling and treating high salinity feed
wastewater in the RO-ZLD system [36]. 2.3.3. Membrane distillation
This method employs both thermal and membrane-based separation
for feedwater concentration by the partial vapor pressure gradation
2.3. Membrane
across the hydrophobic microporous membrane which transports the
water vapor [48]. In MD the feed water is subjected to a temperature
New membrane-based technologies such as ED, membrane distilla­
range of 60–90 ◦ C and the resultant temperature variation between the
tion (MD), and forward osmosis (FO) have come up for targeting higher
hot feed and the cold permeate creates a water vapor pressure gradation
recovery of freshwater and valuable solid products in ZLD systems [37].
which causes water vapor flux [49]. The separation of water vapor is
These technologies are incorporated after RO for the concentration of
carried out by different techniques such as air gap membrane distillation
brine wastewater before being treated in a brine crystallizer or evapo­
(AGMD), vacuum membrane distillation (VMD), and sweeping gas
ration pond.
membrane distillation (SGMD) [35,50].
The advantage of MD is that it can operate at low temperatures and
2.3.1. Forward osmosis (FO)
pressure, and the tendency of membrane fouling is lower [51]. However,
The principle of FO is that osmotic pressure difference across semi­
if surfactants or volatile compounds are present in the feedwater the
permeable membranes permits freshwater molecules to pass and pro­
quality of treated water deteriorates [52]. Most of the studies related to
hibits salts to pass. The freshwater molecules pass through the
MD are laboratory or small scale, more research is required on this
membrane due to higher osmotic pressure due to the presence of
technology before it can be applied at a field scale [53].
concentrated draw solution [38]. Compared to RO, FO is a cost-effective
A comparative account of the advantages and shortcomings of the
technology and can be used for treating high salinity wastewater (up to
various technologies involved in ZLD is summarised in Table 1.
200,000 mg/L). The limitation in the implementation of this technology
is membrane problems and suitable draw solution which can be used for
3. Application of ZLD in wastewater reclamation
the separation of freshwater molecules and finally the regeneration of
weak draw solution [39,40].
3.1. ZLD in the industrial sector
The development of draw solutions like NH3/CO2 has made it
possible to concentrate salinity in produced water in the range of
The industrial sector is currently the most dynamic and evolving
180,000–220,000 mg/L [24,41]. Such draw solution can be decomposed
sector. ZLD technologies could play a massive role in enabling the reuse,
at a low temperature of 60 ◦ C for regeneration by low-temperature
recycling, and recovery of water and nutrients.
distillation technique [42]. The FO has lower susceptibility to fouling
than RO which reduces the membrane maintenance cost [43]. It is viable
3.1.1. ZLD in the pharmaceutical industry
in terms of energy usage and an economical as compared to thermal
Reddy et al. [54] studied the practicability of the combination of the
desalination techniques [44].
biological techniques of the sequential batch reactor (SBR) with RO for
the complete treatment of pharmaceutical wastewater. The results ob­
2.3.2. Electrodialysis
tained were exemplary. About 98.74 % TDS, 98.96 % chemical oxygen
This method works on the principle of electric potential for the
demand (COD), and 89.51 % ammonia removal was witnessed. The
removal of dissolved ions in wastewater. The membranes selectively

4
M. Date et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 49 (2022) 103129

Table 1
Technologies involved in ZLD.
ZLD technology Key features Advantages Challenges References

Thermal Evaporation of wastewater influent in Solid waste recovery Energy-intensive Yaqub and Lee [17], McGinnis et al. [24]
brine concentrator
39 kWhe/m3 of feed water High-quality water recovery Capital intensive
Reverse osmosis For concentrating wastewater Technically strong Limited upper level of Elimelech and Phillip [32], Al-Karaghouli
salinity and Kazmerski [31]
2 kWhe/m3 of feed water Low energy consumption Membrane fouling
Cost-efficient
Forward osmosis Based on osmotic pressure difference Cost-effective than RO Limited field performance Shaffer et al. [43]
21 kWhe/m3 of feed water High salinity upper limit Lower water flux
Economical
Lower susceptibility to fouling
than RO
Electro-dialysis Selective movement across the ion Reduced energy consumption High energy requirement McGovern et al. [47]
exchange membrane
7–15 kWhe/m3 of feed water Low fouling for silica rich feed Cost investment
water Ineffective for neutral
contaminants
Membrane High salinity limit (>200,000 ppm) Lower membrane fouling Ineffective for surfactants or Curcio and Drioli [51]
distillation volatiles
22–60 kWhe/m3 Modular design Lower water flux

treatment combination was run successfully for 3 years. It deciphered
that this treatment solution gave long-term results, and that the reactor
could be scaled up.
3.1.2. ZLD in oil refineries
A huge amount of water is needed by oil refineries. In this regard, a
trial of three different approaches for the reclamation and recovery of oil
refinery wastewater was studied by Ronquim et al. [7] to reduce
freshwater consumption by the industry. Three different schemes of
treatment were tested for treating the conventionally treated waste­
water and are shown in Fig. 4.
As inferred from Fig. 4, the efficiency of removal was found to in­
crease from the first (59 %) to the third (96.3 %) scheme which signifies
the positive outcomes of membrane technologies for practicing ZLD.
Water consumption by shale gas production is tremendous. It is required
for the fracturing of rocks and drilling of wells, thereby producing huge
volumes of wastewater effluents. To reduce the need for freshwater,
integration of forward and reverse osmosis for flow back water and
produced wells were incorporated in a study by Salcedo-Díaz et al. [55].
3.1.3. ZLD in the textile industry
A large amount of ZLD research has been performed in the field of
textile industry wastewater. One such study was carried out by Vergili
et al. [56] for the recovery of textile dye bath wastewater using a distinct
combination of integrated membrane processes mentioned in scheme 1
of Fig. 5. It gave a high benefit-to-cost ratio proving it to be an emerging
profitable technology. In another study of textile wastewater, Rezende
Moreira et al. [57] studied another integrated membrane scheme as seen
in scheme 2 of Fig. 5. The MF-NF membrane retained 99.1 % dye and
COD removal was 92.2 % at pH 3 and UV: H2O2 ratio as 1:3. The treated
wastewater could be applied to yarn washing off and equipment
washing and cleaning. Textile wastewater was treated by Lin et al. [104]
and pure water could be reused using another hybrid technique i.e.,
scheme 3 of Fig. 5. of a loose NF-bipolar membrane electrodialysis.
About 99.93 % dye was recovered and also there was the reuse of salt-
containing NF permeate. 100 ppm NaCl was recovered.
Bilala et al. [58] used chitosan-immobilized manganese peroxide as
the catalyst for aiding the degradation of textile-dyeing effluents.
Remediation obtained was about 90 % within a time run of 5 h which
was substantially huge.
Saravanan et al. [59] employed cadmium oxide-modified zinc oxide
nanocomposites for the treatment of textile effluent by photocatalysis
and electrocatalysis. These were inexpensive and gave high removal
efficiency for the reuse and reclamation purpose. In textile wastewater

Fig. 4. Different schemes of treatment of oil refineries' wastewater.

5
M. Date et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 49 (2022) 103129

Scheme 1 Scheme 2 Scheme 3

Loose
Ultrafiltration Microfiltration
nanofiltration

Bipolar
Loose
Ultrafiltration membrane
nanofiltration 1
electrodialysis

Photo fenton
Tight (ultraviolet/
nanofiltration 2 hydrogen
peroxide)

Reverse
osmosis

Fig. 5. Different types of integrated membrane treatment of textile wastewater.

pre-treated by biological methods, tertiary treatment can be provided in
form of electrooxidation (EO). Work was performed using Titanium
anode and Stainless-steel cathode by Ramesh et al. [60] to formulate the
ZLD concept for textile wastewater and concluded with COD removal
and color removal of 64 % and 90 % respectively in a very small-time
interval of 3 min. It was found to increase the RO membrane life
downstream and gave a payback period of 1.90 years.
3.1.4. ZLD in the flue gas desulfurization industry
Another industrial wastewater in which large research is performed
is flue gas desulfurization wastewater. The desalination of the waste­
water was effectively experimented with by Xin et al. [61] using a two-
stage desalination mechanism, wherein the chloride precipitates as
Friedel's salt at an optimum molar ratio of calcium to aluminium as 1:3.
The integrated process of Ca (OH)2 precipitation and air stripping gave a
very high rate of removal of COD, TDS, SO2− 4 and remaining anions in
flue gas desulphurization wastewater [62,64].
Liu et al. [2] considered the use of the Wurster fluidized bed as a
novel drying technology for the treatment and drying of wet limestone/
gypsum flue gas desulfurization wastewater to recycle water content and
reuse salts. The high gas-liquid heat transfer occurs by inert particles as
heat carriers. A 10-day pilot run was carried out and it was inferred that
with the increase in particle size evaporation effect increases first and
then decreases thereby increasing the power consumption.
3.1.5. ZLD in desalination of industrial wastewater
Research has also been carried out in the field of desalination of
industrial wastewater. Treatment of rejected brine for highly saline
shale gas wastewater was perceived using a multistage direct contact
thermal membrane distillation assembly by Carrero-Parreño et al. [65]
using low-cost steam by utilization of waste heat from shale gas opera­
tions. A similar type of direct contact membrane distillation was used for
treating rejected brine from a full-scale RO desalination plant by Man­
sour et al. [66]. The novelty of this study was the composition of the
membrane which was made from graphene nanoplatelets coated on the
polyethylene membrane which aided in the alleviation of long-term
fouling. Viader et al. [67] studied different technologies for the man­
agement of in-land desalination brackish brine. It was concluded that
membrane distillation efficiently reduced the volume of brine. The
transport of water in this method occurs thermally and is a beneficial
methodology in presence of a residual source of heat.
Medium scale desalination ZLD system in Kuwait with solar powered
MSF has produced 100 m3/day [68]. In Switzerland, solar powered
Atlantis autoflash multistage stage desalination unit based on the MSF
concept was operated successfully for desalination [69]. Compared to
MD the MEF have better stability and energy efficiency for brine treat­
ment. A ZLD system with MEF and an evaporative crystallizer was more
cost effective ($4.17 per m3 of brine). The overall cost can be further
reduced by increasing the number of MEF stages for reduction in heat
consumption and scaling of system [62,63]. A novel MEF unit embedded
in Lithium Bromide absorption-desorption system was researched for
desalination of high salinity water. The thermal performance evaluation
showed that the overall gained output ratio of the proposed system was
almost double of the thermal evaporation based system and the energy
consumption also significantly reduced [70]. A model was developed
based on a ZLD pilot MEF plant located at Plataforma Solar de Almería,
Spain which could be utilized for optimization of MEF plants [71].
There has been a major shift in dealing with desalination and the
rejected brines by employing membrane distillation processes rather
than using multi-stage flash distillation. This is because membrane-
based processes enable inexpensive recovery and reuse of water. Islam
et al. [72] stated that the cost for desalination of seawater is around 1 US
$/m3 and for brackish water is around 0.2–0.7 US$/m3. Moreover,
Viader et al. [67] mentioned that the small and medium-scale membrane
distillation processes can be successfully applied using renewable
sources of energy over multi-stage distillation and multi-effect distilla­
tion specifically in rural and remote areas. It was also inferred that
integrating membrane distillation with the crystallization process

6
M. Date et al.
reduced the overall cost of the treatment. This occurs due to the reduced
amount of influent in the crystallization unit due to the membrane
distillation process preceding it.
Duong et al. [73] suggested that newer methodologies for desalina­
tion based on membrane distillation should be developed by integrating
several membrane configuration processes. This leads to saving in cost
and increased overall energy efficiency. Several upcoming projects using
such techniques are aimed at the recovery and reuse of water along with
the reclamation of several metals like lithium, Uranium, Boron Germa­
nium, etc., in the form of precipitates [74,75].
3.1.6. Recovery and reuse of materials in the industry
Recovery of metals, non-metals, and other valuable raw materials
along with water reclamation by industries is also a point of consider­
ation in the ZLD concept. Given this, the semiconductor industry has
shown optimism in terms of the recovery of precious and heavy metals.
Out of the several metals, copper which is present in chemical-
mechanical polishing wastes, and phosphates present in acid-cleaning
wastes have been treated using ZLD technology. Bayon et al. [76]
used fluidized-bed homogeneous crystallization for remediation of semi-
conductor industry wastewater and obtained copper phosphate gran­
ules. The efficiency of copper extraction was 99 % at pH 6–6.05 in 22.5
min.
Hence, in this approach of ZLD i.e., the fluidized homogeneous
granulation (homogeneous crystallization) was explored by Bayon et al.
[77] using a fluidized bed reactor to fully recover cobalt and copper.
Petit et al. [78] reported the desalination of mining industry wastewater
gave rejected brine, whose disposal was practiced by solar micro gas
turbines (SMGT). It gave the recovery of water as condensed steam and
valuable solids were recovered. The ratio between exhaust gases and
brine flow rates is necessary to be optimized for efficient quantification
and harvesting of heat from SMGT.
Coal gasification brine was obtained from the concentrate of RO
produced due to the ZLD treatment of coal gasification wastewater in a
coal chemical industry. This was treated by Zheng et al. [79] to capture
heavy metals like arsenic, copper, and nickel. Enhanced coagulation
combined with heavy metal capturing technology by using different
chelating agents was implemented. The recovery of copper and nickel
was above 90 %. Different types of chelating agents were used for heavy
metals. The coagulants used were poly aluminium chloride (PAC), iron
chloride (FeCl3), ferric sulfate (FeSO4), and poly ferric sulfate (PFS).
Damtie et al. [80] found that fluoride removal for industrial wastewater
was obtained by a novel method by combining RO and NF membrane
process along with low pressure (30 bar) crystallization. For a coal
chemical plant, pre-treated wastewater (by coagulation and filtration by
V and D type filter) and RO, multi-effect distillation, and crystallization
gave recovery of the valuable salts. Moreover, the steam could be
condensed to obtain water [81].
3.1.7. Other industries
In another study work reported by Ali et al. [82] for a leather
chemical industry wastewater, the treated wastewater quality was such
that it could be used in all non-processing activities since the COD
removal was high but the TDS, TSS, and conductivity removal were low.
The treatment module was formed by a lab-scale electrocoagulation
process and horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands which was
further taken at a pilot scale. Lissaneddine et al. [83] promulgated the
recovery of phenol from olive mill wastewater using the SA-AC adsor­
bent. This was formed by encapsulation of sodium alginate in beads by
cross-linking on pomace olive packed bed and activated carbon. It was a
two-stage mechanism. Desorption by ethanol was nearly 40 % and
adsorbent was reusable several times. It followed pseudo-second-order
kinetics and the Langmuir monolayer adsorption principle. The
adsorption capacity was calculated as 68 mg/g for 4000 mg/L phenolic
compounds.
Advanced biological methods have also been studied time and again
7
Journal of Water Process Engineering 49 (2022) 103129
in the ZLD approach. One such work was reported by Chakrabarty and
Sarkar [84] which involved the treatment of concentrate waste from RO
or NF and was targeted for achieving maximum recovery of salts using
an inexpensive and eco-friendly methodology of algae evaporation
ponds and solar evaporation. A pilot-scale plant set-up of 48 KL was
implemented by Tata Steel Hooghly Met Coke Division for the recovery
of chloride salt from the chloride-rich membrane reject.
3.2. ZLD in the domestic/commercial sector
The application of ZLD is still vague and limited to only a few sub-
areas in the domestic and commercial sectors. It needs huge support
and backing from the government and the common public for its suc­
cessful implementation.
3.2.1. ZLD in domestic sector
Oarga-Mulec et al. [85] developed a ZLD mechanism for blackwater
treatment at remote tourist facilities by collecting feces, urine, and toilet
paper in a peat filter. The obtained liquid fraction and solid fraction of
the waste were treated further in a biofilter and evaporated by a slow but
efficient process, thereby removing the pathogens and reclaiming the
useful nutrients. Reuse of pre-treated car wash wastewater after its
advanced treatment by ceramic UF membrane was suggested by Wills
et al. [86]. No fouling of the membrane was observed, and it was suc­
cessful in the complete removal of TDS.
In a study reported by Cingolani et al. [87] reverse osmosis was
tested to treat the pre-treated leachate from a landfill along with liquid
waste from urban origin. Removal of 95 % was obtained which made it
suitable for reclamation. Frédette et al. [88] developed a leachate
treatment method using the concept of constructed wetlands in the form
of evapotranspiration willow beds. This was a green technology for pre-
treated leachate having low operation and maintenance costs, and low
energy costs. Valorization of nitrates and phosphates occurs through
biomass products.
Desalination of seawater where the concept of ZLD can be used to a
large extent to simultaneously obtain desalted water and electrical en­
ergy and reuse the salt was studied by Tufa et al. [1]. It is a step towards
a near-zero liquid discharge paradigm. Martinez and Pozuelo [89]
showed the treatment of saline water by evaporation-crystallization.
Simulated seawater was treated by a novel electrodialysis method
using the assembly of monovalent selective anion-exchange membranes
into a bipolar membrane electrodialysis stack [90]. The valorization of
mixed salts gave relatively high purity (93.9 to 96.1 %) monoprotic and
diprotic acids in one step.
3.2.2. ZLD in commercial sector
3.2.2.1. ZLD: general applications. A study by Li et al. [91] suggested the
use of cooling water effluent from thermal power plants as a precipitant
to recover phosphorus which is a non-renewable and indispensable
element from urine. About 50–100 mg of phosphorus was estimated to
be obtained per liter. Additionally, calcium and magnesium were ob­
tained by this method which was an added advantage. To make the
technique cost-free, cooling water was used for flushing so it got mixed
with urine and it could additionally save tap water/freshwater
requirements.
Basalt aquifers generally underlying the bitumen-saturated sands. To
successfully treat the basalt aquifer wastewater, minimize the brine
discharges, and reuse the water, Loganathan et al. [46] produced a
technique of merging chemical oxidation, polymeric UF, RO, evapora­
tion, and crystallization. The treated wastewater could be reused to
produce synthetic oil. However, softening of feed water was necessary as
the water was highly hard and could cause scaling.
3.2.2.2. Commercial desalination wastewater: recovery and reuse.
M. Date et al.
Research by Almasri et al. [92] was performed for reclaiming the
rejected brine from inland desalination in two stages by NF. The process
was quick i.e., in 2 h, and involved the conversion of the majority of the
calcium chloride to calcium sulfate in the first stage and the remaining
calcium chloride to calcium sulfoaluminate in the second stage by use of
lime and aluminium. Another method for treatment of RO reject brine
through integrated membrane distillation and crystallization was
promulgated by Al Obaidani et al. [93]. Heat recovery becomes essential
in such types of techniques as the cost of steam contributes as high as
11.4 %.
In a study by Liu et al. [94] water recovery of 83 % for high salinity
water treated by integrated adsorption and the membrane-based system
was observed. A combination of macroporous resin, adsorption, and
desorption by bipolar membrane electrodialysis was a part of the sys­
tem. Recycling of NaOH was carried out. A two-stage expansion for
brine treatment in supercritical water desalination was investigated by
Wyk et al. [95]. The hydrothermal brine obtained after the separation of
upper critical water was expanded in the 1st (flash) stage and dried by
the means of a flash evaporator in the second stage. All the recovered
salts could be sold and the steam produced could be maximized and
condensed to obtain water.
3.3. ZLD in agricultural sector
This sector is witnessing a huge advancement in the development of
emerging methods and novel techniques for achieving ZLD. Ahmad et al.
[96] obtained a solution for recovering the water and essential nutrients
from the effluent of palm oil mill which is a huge agro-based industry.
The methodology involved the pre-treatment of the effluent, coagula­
tion, and flocculation using Moringa seeds, and the integrated mem­
brane processes of UF and RO. About 78 % of water was recovered and
sludge produced by coagulation-flocculation could be used as a fertil­
izer. Carotenes from the oil were recovered by adsorption using silica
gel.
The use of algal technology for wastewater treatment gives
astounding results. The valorization of algal cells enables the recovery of
biomass and bioenergy from wastewater. The xenobiotic pollution could
be removed through phytodegradation, bioaccumulation, and biodeg­
radation. Algal biomass harvesting should be encouraged as it enables
the recovery of bioenergy, biogas, biodiesel, biohydrogen, etc.
To obtain ZLD from dewatering liquor and its recovery and reuse for
agriculture, electrodialysis was performed by Malíková et al. [97]. The
simultaneous recovery of struvite (as fertilizer) and irrigation water was
obtained. The concentrate in the ED process precipitated to obtain 94 %–
97 % struvite and 3 %–6 % hazenite. The diluate could be used for
agricultural water purposes provided it meets the criteria. TDS removal
of 93 % was obtained and it was found to be fit for agricultural use
water.
Rashid et al. [98] methodized a concept for the treatment of textile
effluent and used it for irrigation purposes. A bioreactor was designed
and used for the treatment. It was able to remove the pollutants such
that it was applicable for irrigation use. The reclamation and reuse of
treated wastewater were successful for irrigation purposes. Suhardi et al.
[99] studied that the cultivation of cocoa increased the runoff by about
389 % compared to forest land. ZLD module was attempted thereby
increasing the groundwater recharge by zero runoff methodology to
improve the watershed performance. It was observed that with the in­
crease in dimensions, the velocity at which the water recharges into the
ground decreases, and this leads to increase in the groundwater recharge
debt.
4. Optimization of ZLD technology
Each type of wastewater possesses its characteristics and composi­
tion. Hence, the treatment required in reclamation is different [9]. At
present, the existing systems of ZLD are costly and consume high power.
8
Journal of Water Process Engineering 49 (2022) 103129
Improvisations into current systems of ZLD should be persuaded by
encouraging research in this regard.
The techno-economic balance needs to be maintained while deciding
the approach for obtaining ZLD [9]. Techno-economic analysis and
optimization of expenses along with the expansion and substantiation of
a suitable model are key issues to this. The necessity is to equilibrate the
benefits of improved performance and the drawbacks of elevated
resource demand [1].
The efficiency of ZLD can be improved using mechanized means
compared to manual methods of regulation. Hence, research is also
being carried out to strengthen the control and regulatory systems,
mechanizations, and software used for operating the machines of
manufacturing plants.
For the optimization of the chemical injection technology and to
bring about a minimized chemical mixing in paper mills, PARETO
mixing technique was devised by Pareto [100]. It consisted of a pro­
prietary approach of the addition of chemicals at high pressure through
the PARETO optimizer. One of the key parameters for determining the
machine output was the clarity of the filtrate.
A case study was carried out on oil refinery wastewater by Suevir­
iyapan et al. [5]. Using a generic model-based design framework
involving hydrogen sulfide (H2S) oxidation, bio-treaters, and floccula­
tion floatation units. Poornapushpakala et al. [101] tested the use of
image processing tools to study the evaluation parameters like pH,
alkalinity, and turbidity for targeting the reuse and recycling of biodiesel
wash water which was produced in a biodiesel production plant.
5. Global status of ZLD for recovery, reuse, and reclamation
The implementation of ZLD in any country depends upon the
geographical parameters of that particular country, its location, avail­
ability, and dearth of resources, its standard of living, investment po­
tential and returns fruitfulness, and socio-economic status. The global
scenario of recovery, reuse, and reclamation of water and other valuable
resources from treated wastewater is as follows.
5.1. USA
USA is a developed nation having the greatest number of ZLD sys­
tems in the world [17]. The most prominent use of ZLD in the USA is in
the field of power generation and cooling tower blowdown. As per
Mickley [105] there are about 60 out of 82 ZLDs in the field of power
generation. The other ZLDs' are in the industrial sectors of fertilizers,
chemical industries, mining, etc. It is a known fact that brine manage­
ment is very important for inland desalination in regions where water
scarcity is there. Approximately 70 % to 90 % of the recovery of
wastewater has been made possible by the several ZLD systems in the
USA.
5.2. India
Indian Government has set stringent norms and regulations, partic­
ularly for those industries which consume an enormous amount of water
like textile, paper and pulp, breweries, distilleries, etc. As per the pol­
icies of the Indian Government, it is compulsory to set up ZLDs at all
textile plants which are consuming >25 m3 of water. India has majorly
textile industries, breweries, and petrochemical industries which are the
most crucial areas of ZLD. Tannery wastewater industries have been
made a compulsion to set up ZLD for ambient air evaporators [10].
5.3. Other countries
Saltworks technologies in Northern Canada have set up two saline
water treatment systems at metal mines after a rigorously run pilot set
up for 1 year. The first successful industrial wastewater treatment plant
for reuse and recovery was set up in Toshiba in Oman. Its treatment
M. Date et al.
capacity was 7500 m3/day. Among the different nations of Asia, espe­
cially in China, several ZLD initiatives have been taken and successfully
executed. Desalitech is in the process of providing pure water after ZLD
treatment at the Novelis aluminum plant in Changzhou province in place
of fulfillment of wastewater processing regulations [10].
6. Setbacks and constraints in ZLD implementation
ZLD claims to be a worthy alternative considering the present scar­
city of water resources and from the viewpoint of future sustainability.
However, achieving ZLD is an onerous task, as there is a need to over­
come several constraints and setbacks. One of the biggest challenges in
the way of ZLD as proffered by Viader et al. [67] is the cost of tech­
nologies involving ZLD which can be very high and unreasonable.
Another limitation is the environmental problem created by ZLD units
which needs to be catered to and solved to be able to apply these
techniques at a large scale in near future. The operational and man­
agement cost needs to be suitably balanced as well.
One of the major cost-consuming sections of ZLD techniques is the
thermal treatment unit which consumes about 60–70 % of the total cost
of equipment [102]. Liang et al. [18,19] stated that the capital expen­
diture to be incurred in the case of the basic units of pre-treatment op­
erations of ZLD is the same as a normal wastewater treatment plant. The
cost factor comes into the picture for the additional treatment units i.e.,
the advanced treatment methodologies. These may involve membrane
processes like UF, NF or RO, etc. The UF/RO and other single or dual or
hybrid membrane techniques are expensive as they cater to the high
efficiency of operation to optimize the water recovery to the highest
possible levels. Another significant factor considering the application of
ZLD is the high operational costs due to the use of modern and high-end
equipment. To overcome this, there is a need for developing such ap­
purtenances capable of working at low energy, using renewable sources
of energy, less cost, and less labor intensive.
The recalcitrant nature of some of the toxic organics in wastewater
gives rise to the problem of fouling membranes and other equipment
[13]. Proper treatment needs to be designed to completely remove these
from the water before recycling and reuse of such treated wastewater.
Degasification and acidification are some of the processes which create
air pollution due to the emission of carbon dioxide in the air. Such pre-
treatments should be avoided or replaced by other methods [106]. Many
other treatment processes like decarbonization, electrodialysis, etc.,
may lead to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions. Xevgenos et al.
[103] observed that emerging membrane technologies consuming lower
energy and eco-friendly means of energy need to be encouraged to
prevent greenhouse gas emissions. All these strategies can enable the
upgradation to ZLD in the future.
7. Conclusion and future perspectives
Freshwater is becoming a scarce entity due to the over-exploitation
of the presently available remote water resources. The concept of ZLD
is the most prominent aspect that should not be overlooked by any in­
dustry, domestic, commercial, and agricultural sectors if we are aiming
for sustainable development.
Research in ZLD is limited to laboratory and bench-scale due to the
restrictions of funds, space, permissions, and many other factors. These
limitations need to be overcome to shape the future spectrum of the
world and for the survival of the coming generations. There has been a
lot of research study available in the field of textile, flue gas desulfur­
ization, coal and chemical industries as well as desalination industries.
Also, the research on ZLD in the domestic sector is at a considerable
level. It needs to be exploited to a larger scale in the remaining industries
especially on the small to medium scale as there are many such in­
dustries in any location. ZLD in the agricultural sector is challenging due
to limited accessibility but it needs to be improved and persuaded by the
researchers.
9
Journal of Water Process Engineering 49 (2022) 103129
The exploitation of renewable sources of energy like solar, wind,
geothermal, etc. needs to be encouraged. Sufficient funds and manpower
need to be allocated for the same. An important horizon for the treat­
ment of saline, domestic, municipal, and industrial wastewater is the
application of solar wastewater treatment using solar turbines, and solar
stills on the conventionally treated wastewater. Solar energy along with
other renewable sources of energy needs to be encouraged.
The worthwhile takeaways regarding the approaches for the treat­
ment of wastewater for attaining ZLD in the different sectors are the
application of membranes and advanced oxidation techniques. Mem­
brane distillation (MD), Electrodialysis (ED), Reverse osmosis (RO), and
forward osmosis (FO), are excellent technologies for the separation of a
wide range and types of contaminants and recovery of valuable raw
materials. Integrating the above-mentioned technologies in the ZLD
system endeavors our goal of complete reuse, recovery, and reclamation.
The prospects that should be considered are the upscaling of these
novel technologies from laboratory scale and bench-scale to pilot scale
and actual scale. More research is required to make these new sets of
techniques with reduced CAPEX and OPEX costs making them cost-
effective. Encouraging all possible sustainable modes using renewable
sources of energy for powering these treatment techniques. More syn­
chronization is required between the sectors and makers of such ZLD
techniques while planning for such methodologies to make them more
realistic, long term and worthwhile. Research of techno-economic and
lifecycle analysis of the ZLD methods for recovery, reuse, and reclama­
tion needs to be restructured to propel the ZLD techniques for real ap­
plications directly. Recovery of salts from the final solid wastes is a
challenge that needs research. New methods for recovery of high-grade
salts that can be sold at competitive prices in the commercial market.
Striving towards the achievement of ZLD is important from the point of
view of sustainable development and environmental protection.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Manali Date: Literature review, literature interpretation, drafting;
Vandana Patyal: Literature review, literature interpretation, drafting;
Dipika Jaspal: Critical revision, Guiding, Proofreading supervision. Arti
Malviya: Critical revision, Guiding, Proofreading supervision. Kanchan
Khare: Guiding and supervision.
Declaration of competing interest
No potential competing interest was reported by the authors.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
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