Signal propagation in the

brain
HUL261
Introduction to Psychology, Semester II, 2022-23
Module II
Lecture 5
January 19, 2023
 Outline of today’s lecture
• Recap of previous lecture
• Synapses
• Synaptic transmission
• Key structures in the brain
• Functions of different parts of the brain
• Conclusion

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 Recap of previous lecture
• The nervous system has two main divisions – CNS and PNS
• The nervous system has two types of cells, neurons and glia
• Neurons are the basic signaling unit while glia play a more
supporting role
• Neurons receive inputs at dendrites and send outputs via axons
• The resting membrane potential results from the unequal distribution
of ions, and the selective permeability of the membrane
• Action potential is generated when the threshold potential is reached
and requires voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels

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 Synapses
• Synapses are specialized structures where two
neurons come into close contact where signals
can pass from one cell to the next
• A synapse has a presynaptic and a postsynaptic
component
• Signals typically flow from the presynaptic to
postsynaptic component. Most neurons have https://w7.pngwing.com/pngs/51/936/png-transparent-electrical-synapse-neuron-
chemical-synapse-gap-junction-chemical-synapse-text-branch-chemical.png

both components
• A typical neuron in the cerebral cortex can have
1000-5000 synapses, and neurons in the
cerebellum can have up to 2,00,000 synapses
• Synapses are either electrical or chemical

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 Synapses
• Current flow at electrical synapses
• Occurs via a structure called gap junction where
membranes of the two neurons are just 4 nm apart
• A gap-junction channel consists of a pair of connexons,
one in the presynaptic and the other in the postsynaptic
cell membrane
• Current flow is extremely rapid (<0.1 ms) and can flow in
both directions
• Current flow at chemical synapses
• Occurs via neurotransmitters that are released from the
presynaptic neuron that bind to receptors in the
postsynaptic neuron
• The gap between the two neurons is 20-40 nm and is
called synaptic cleft
• Current flow is relatively slower and flows in one direction
only
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 Transmission at chemical synapses
Steps of transmission at chemical synapses:
1. Synaptic transmission is initiated when an action
potential reaches the axon terminal of the presynaptic
neuron
2. The change in membrane potential leads to the
opening of voltage-gated calcium channels in the
presynaptic membrane
3. This causes a rapid influx of Ca2+ into the presynaptic
terminal, along its concentration gradient
4. This allows synaptic vesicles to fuse with the
membrane of the presynaptic neuron and release its
contents into the synaptic cleft

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 Transmission at chemical synapses
Steps of transmission at chemical synapses:
5. The released neurotransmitter molecules diffuse
across the synaptic cleft and bind to specific
receptors on the membrane of the postsynaptic
neuron
6. This causes channels in the postsynaptic membrane
to open (or sometimes to close), thus altering the
membrane potential of the postsynaptic neuron
7. Postsynaptic potentials can summate and lead to an
action potential in the postsynaptic neuron
8. Subsequently the neurotransmitter is removed from
the synaptic cleft, by uptake into glial cells or by
enzymatic degradation, terminates the action of the
neurotransmitter
http://schoolbag.info/biology/mcat/mcat.files/image053.jpg

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uiXcAbrO8kU
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 Neurotransmitters and its receptors
• Neurons usually communicate with one another
by releasing chemical messengers called
neurotransmitters
• These neurotransmitters may excite or inhibit the
postsynaptic neuron by binding to and activating
neurotransmitter receptors
• The main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
is the amino acid glutamate
• The main inhibitory neurotransmitter is γ- https://w w w .com poundchem .com /w p-content/uploads/2015/07/C hem ical-Structures-of-N eurotransm itters-2015-1024x724.png

aminobutyric acid (GABA)

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 Neurotransmitters and its receptors
• In the synapse, neurotransmitter molecules are held
in subcellular organelles called synaptic vesicles
• These vesicles fuse with the presynaptic membrane
to eject their transmitter substance into the synaptic
cleft
• Receptors are membrane spanning proteins. They
have an external domain to which neurotransmitter
from the presynaptic cell can bind
• This binding leads to changes in the postsynaptic
cell typically via ions moving in or out of the cell

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0DyrwwGQnlI
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ecGEcj1tBBI 33
 In million
years ago
3400 Bacteria began to develop ion channels
~2000 Eukaryotic cells begin generating electrical
signals
~600 First neural networks in sponges & jelly fishes
550 Flatworms develop primitive nerve cords; fishes
develop complex brains
~350 Amphibians develop complex forebrains
~200 Mammals have more evolved forebrains
0.2 Humans evolve with complex brains

https://www.scientificamerican.com/sciam/cache/file/6A8850F1-3735-40CE-9F446B3C859DED7A_source.jpg 34
 Why do we need such a large brain?

Heldstab | Current Biology 32, R697–R708, June 20, 2022 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.04.096 35

 Audience poll
Do men have bigger brains
than females?

Please respond at menti.com and

enter code 3262 9329
OR
Scan this QR code

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 Audience poll
• Yes!!!
• From studying 94 brains in the general Danish population: The average
numbers of neocortical neurons were 19 billion in female brains and 23
billion in male brains, a 16% difference (Pakkenberg and Gundersen, 1997)
• A meta-analysis observed that men have larger overall brain dimensions
compared to women (Ruigrok et al, 2014)
• However, women brains are more folded!
• This implies an increase in surface area that may offset any size difference
(Luders et al., 2004)
• NOTE: Even among humans, the link between brain size and IQ is not well
established
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 Grey and white matter
• “When his brain died, all of the memories held in his
gray matter, along with all of the knowledge he had
acquired, would simply evaporate in a flood of chemical
reactions.” (Dan Brown, The Lost Symbol)
• Parts of the nervous system that have high
concentrations of neuronal cell bodies appear grey in
colour (grey matter)
• Parts of the nervous system that have high
concentrations of myelinated axons appear white in https://tse2.mm.bing.net/th?id=OIP.ahd-
https://cdn-
cfpnp.nitrocdn.com/CzhqckxwXkMSGajRdsdeuJeoGMEvyyqY/assets/static/optimize
d/human-memory.net/wp-

colour (white matter) VoV3O2VA1NBmcJm3dgHaLj&pid=Api content/uploads/2019/10/b5e82548c2c2ebf05fbddbe8d61c2276.Gray-Matter.jpg

• In the brain, grey matter lies on the outside and white

matter in the inside
• The brain also have groups of neurons clumped
together embedded in white matter (nuclei)
• In the spinal cord, white matter lies on the outside and
grey matter in the inside
https://t1.daumcdn.net/cfile/blog/216B524652BD782729
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=owFnH01SD-s
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 Main divisions in the brain
Required for all our cognitive functions and voluntary
actions
White matter connecting the two cerebral hemispheres
Contains the thalamus, hypothalamus (endocrine
functions)
Deals with motor control, vision and audition
Deals with sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder
control, hearing, equilibrium, taste, eye movements,
facial expressions, facial sensation, and posture
Primarily deals with motor control and posture control
Deals with involuntary functions, ranging from
respiration, heart beat, vomiting, sneezing, and sleep
wake cycle
Deals with transmission of impulses from the brain and
also controls reflexes
Kandel
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 Major divisions of the cortex
Touch,
movement
Higher-order
cognitive
functions,
movement

Vision

Hearing,
language,
memory 45
 The Ventricular System
• The brain is covered by protective layers called
meninges (external to internal) – dura mater,
arachnoid matter, and pia mater
• Cerebrospinal fluid flows between arachnoid and pia
mater
• CSF is a clear liquid that acts as a shock absorber,
provides basic immunological protection to the CNS,
and removes metabolic waste
https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/-

• CSF also flows in the ‘hollow’ spaces in the brain, i.e.

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the ventricles (the two lateral ventricles, the third, and

7867104923993-0.png

the fourth ventricle)

• Read: “Brain washed’ during sleep
https://www.bu.edu/articles/2019/cerebrospinal-fluid- https://www.sciencealert.com/images/2019-

washing-in-brain-during-sleep/ 11/brain_fluid_600.gif

https://w 7.pngw ing.com /pngs/51/936/png-transparent-electrical-synapse-neuron-chem ical-

synapse-gap-junction-chem ical-synapse-text-branch-chem ical.png

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 Conclusion
• Synapses are specialized structures where two neurons come into close
contact
• Synaptic transmission can be chemical or electrical
• Electrical synapses require structures called connexons while chemical
synapses require a sequence of events involving ion channels,
neurotransmitters, and receptors
• In the brain, grey matter lies on the outside and white matter inside. This is
reversed in the spinal cord
• There are 4 main lobe of the cerebrum – it is important for many cognitive
functions
• Cerebrospinal fluid flows between arachnoid and pia mater of the
meninges and also in the ventricles
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