a u s t r a l i a n

s
a o c i e t y

f o r
s m u s i c

e d u c a
m
t i o n

i n c o r p o r a t e d
e

Australian Journal of
Music Education

2010, No. 2
 AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION

The Oicial Journal of the Australian Society for Music Education Incorporated

Editor: .......................................................................................................................................... Assoc. Prof. David Forrest

Research Editor: ....................................................................................................................Assoc. Prof. Robin Stevens

Editorial Board:
Professor Margaret Barrett, The University of Queensland
Associate Professor Dawn Bennett, Curtin University
Dr Lorraine Connell, Charles Darwin University
Dr Eugene Dairianathan, NIE, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Dr Kay Hartwig, School of Vocational Technology and Arts Education, Griith University
Dr Neryl Jeanneret, The University of Melbourne
Dr Dawn Joseph, Deakin University
Associate Professor Chi Cheung Leung, Hong Kong Institute of Education
Dr David Lines, University of Auckland
Dr Anne Power, University of Western Sydney
Dr Jane Southcott, Monash University
Professor Nita Temmerman, University of Southern Queensland
Dr Amanda Watson, Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, Victoria

Deadline for Copy for the 2011 No. 1: 1 May 2011

Published by the Australian Society for Music Education

PO Box 5
Parkville, Victoria 3052
Tel: (03) 9925 7807
Email: publications@asme.edu.au

© Australian Society for Music Education Incorporated 2010

ISSN 0004-9484

All rights reserved. This publication is copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of
private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under the copyright Act 1968, no part of this
publication may be reproduced, by any process, without the written permission of the publisher. Nor
may any part of this publication be stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means electronic,
mechanical, photocopying or otherwise.

The publication has been prepared for the members of the Australian Society for Music Education Inc.
The opinions expressed in the publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily relect the
view of the Australian Society for Music Education or the Editor.

While reasonable checks have been made to ensure the accuracy of statements and advice, no
responsibility can be accepted for errors and omissions, however caused. No responsibility for any loss
occasioned to any person acting on or refraining from action as a result of material in this publication
is accepted by the authors, the Australian Society for Music Education Inc or the Editor.

ASME National Website: http://www.asme.edu.au

 a u s t r a l i a n

s
a o c i e t y

f o r
s m u s i c

e d u c a
m
t i o n

Australian Journal of i n c o r p o r a t e d
e

Music Education

Contents
Volume 2010 , 2

Contributed papers Page

Editorial ...............................................................................................................................................................................3
– David Forrest

Young children and music: Adults constructing meaning through

a performance for children ..........................................................................................................................................5
– Berenice Nyland, Jill Ferris and Jan Deans

A music collaboration with early childhood teachers .....................................................................................17

– Lucy Bainger

Middle years teachers’ past experiences of the arts: Implications

for teacher education ..................................................................................................................................................28
– Susie Garvis and Donna Pendergast

In their voice: Lower secondary school students’ beliefs about playing musical
instruments, and the impact of the instrument lesson upon those beliefs .............................................41
– Geofrey Lowe

The perilous path from proposal to practice:

A qualitative program evaluation of a regional music program ..................................................................52
– Helen Grimmett, Nikki S. Rickard, Anneliese Gill and Fintan Murphy

Experiences and understandings:

Student teachers’ beliefs about multicultural practice in music education ............................................66
– Dawn Joseph and Jane Southcott

A ten year follow-up investigation of preservice generalist primary

teachers’ background and conidence in teaching music ..............................................................................76
– Deirdre Russell-Bowie

Cassie: A gifted musician. Socio-cultural and educational perspectives

related to the development of musical understanding in gifted adolescents .......................................87
– Michelle M. Tomlinson
Gesture as a tool of communication in the teaching of singing ............................................................... 103
– Julia Naisi

Trauma-related dissociation as a factor afecting musicians’

memory for music: Some possible solutions ................................................................................................... 117
– Inette Swart, Caroline van Niekerk and Woltemade Hartman

Dalcroze Eurhythmics: Interaction in Australia in the 1920s ...................................................................... 135

– Joan Pope

Musical Futures in Victoria ...................................................................................................................................... 148

– Neryl Jeanneret

Music Education Research In Australia – 2009-2010 ..................................................................................... 165

– Robin Stevens

Reviews
Houlahan, M. & Tacka, P. (2008). Kodály Today ................................................................................................. 178
– Deborah Smith

Anna Goldsworthy (2009). Piano Lessons................................................................................................ 180

– David Forrest

Editorial
David Forrest, Publications Editor
I am delighted to introduce this issue of the
Australian Journal of Music Education. For the
past two years there has been a special focused
e-edition of the second journal for the year. The
irst of these was on music in early childhood
education (edited by Berenice Nyland and
Jill Ferris), and the second on music in special
education (edited by Helen Farrell). The focused
issue will continue in 2011 with attention to
issues around music and indigenous education
(with Peter Dunbar-Hall and Elizabeth Mackinlay
as guest editors).
This issue is the largest journal ever produced
in the more than 40 years of the Australian Journal
of Music Education. This has been possible as it has
been produced as an e-issue. The research articles
cross the diverse ields of music education in
early childhood education, middle years teaching,
lower secondary school education, teacher
education, studio teaching, music medicine,
Australian Journal of Music Education
Editorial
multicultural education, gifted education and
music practices and approaches. In 2009 Joan
Pope was presented with the Callaway Award for
a Doctoral Thesis at the ASME XVII Conference in
Launceston. Her paper draws on aspects of her
PhD thesis Dalcroze Eurhythmics in Australasia: The
irst generation from 1918.
In addition to the research articles, the annual
research report prepared by Robin Stevens is
included. This provides an ongoing account of the
range of research being undertaken in Australia
along with the recently completed higher degree
research in music education.
ASME welcomes your contribution to
the ongoing work of the Society and music
education. Details about how to submit an article
for consideration are included at the end of this
journal.
3
4 2010, No. 2
 a u s t r a l i a n

s
a o c i e t y

f o r
s m u s i c

m
Young children and music: Adults
e d u c a t i o n

i n c o r p o r a t e d
e

constructing meaning through a

performance for children
Berenice Nyland and Jill Ferris

RMIT University

Jan Deans

The University of Melbourne

Abstract
The research described in this paper was carried out in an Australian early learning centre providing pre-school
programs for children aged three years to six. The centre has specialist programs embedded and one of these is a
music program led by a musician. A recent project, consisting of a staf singing group, was aimed at integrating the
specialist music program with music initiatives occurring in the separate classrooms within the centre. The study
culminated in a staf performance for the children.

Participant observation was the main method of data collection for this qualitative study and observations were
recorded as ield notes, photographs, interviews and recordings of music practice sessions. The singing group, formed
by the staf, was viewed as a collaborative activity and in this paper, the performance, which became a focus of the
singing group project, has been used to interpret the shared musical experiences of the staf and the children.

Key words: early childhood, music, staf singing group, performance

Australian Journal of Music Education 2010:2, 5-16

Background and introduction to general practitioners as other art forms such

This paper reports on research carried out in
an early learning centre for pre-school children
where arts programs, delivered by specialist
teachers, are included in the centre’s program for
all children. In this research the children’s music
sessions were the main focus. The status of music
in the early childhood curriculum has become
increasingly problematic so in this introduction
we discuss music in the early childhood setting to
give context to the present study.
Music has a unique position in the suite of arts
introduced in the early childhood curriculum in
that it does not seem to be as easily accessible
as the visual arts and literature (deVries, 2006;
McMahon, 1967; Suthers, 2004). In Australian
early childhood programs it has been common
practice to use generalist staf for all areas of the
curriculum. Play, music, visual arts, language and
literature have, in the past, featured as curriculum
content in most under-graduate training and
education programs for early childhood staf.
There has been, however, a diminishing emphasis
on music skills in under-graduate studies in
recent years (Nyland & Ferris, 2007). This has
had the efect of undermining the conidence of
generalist teachers in the provision of musical
experiences, with a resulting disappearance of

Australian Journal of Music Education 5

Nyland et al.
musical activities in many centres other than
the use of pre-recorded music and songs. To try
to alleviate this situation some researchers (e.g.,
deVries, 2006), have even focused on how staf
who lack conidence (Suthers, 2004), or musical
knowledge (Wiggins & Wiggins, 2008) may use
CDs and DVDs to enhance their presentation of
music experiences. Pre-service teachers have also
researched their own experiences. In one study
pre-service teachers reported on being taught
about the ‘arts’ and found the education to be
both enabling and constraining (Miller, Nicholas
& Lambeth, 2008). Miller et al., (2008) found that
their university course did not allow for what they
brought with them from their own experience.
These pre-service teachers also commented that
space for critical relection of the arts and its place
in education was haphazard. Their undergraduate
program contained a generic arts subject and
they did not mention music as one of the ‘arts’
covered in their course.
This situation has led to a rise in the number of
centres organising specialist music programs for
children (e.g., Mini Maestro classes) or employing
teachers with expertise in music, as was the
case for the early learning centre (ELC) where
this investigation took place. The phenomena
being explored in this study was a staf singing
group that had been established with the aim
of integrating the specialist music activities
with incidental music being undertaken by
generalist teachers in the children’s classrooms.
The singing group project was designed as
practitioner research and the study culminated in
a performance by the staf for the children. This
performance raised strong emotions from the
staf, who recorded their experiences and feelings
in interviews after the concert. The children also
reacted strongly to the teachers sharing of their
music experience through the performance. The
children were not used to being identiied as the
audience in the ELC context. To be informed that
this was an adult performance and they were the
audience was an unusual situation.
6 2010, No. 2
This use of performance was designed to be
the end point of the singing project. The main
objective of the collaborative singing was to
examine the role and impact of the specialist
programs within the centre (there were a number
consisting of music, sculpture, painting, drama,
literature and Italian) and to use the project to
focus on the music program. The music program
was one where there had been much discussion
and there seemed to be less cohesion with events
occurring in the everyday. Music sessions took
place in a special designated space and therefore
were physically separated from the children’s
other areas of activity. There was a sense that
the teachers perceived the music specialist as
an expert and were shy, or unwilling, to actively
participate in music sessions and so took the role
of bystander. Timetabling of the music sessions
made it problematic for the music teacher and
the early childhood teachers to share their plans
and experiences. The music teacher commented
on lack of time to visit the rooms. Given this
situation two subsidiary aims were to explore the
role of the specialist music teacher and to study
the impact of the singing group as a means to
develop a more collaborative music program
across the centre, involving both generalist and
specialist staf.
The performance became a focal point of the
singing group initiative and the efect of the
actual performance on performers and audience
had not been envisaged. In this paper we
therefore describe the event of the performance
using the response of both the teachers and the
children to discuss the use of this strategy and
the unintentional consequences. In a paper on
the arts and education Eisner (2004:6) discusses
Dewey’s concept of “lexible purposing”. The
aftermath of the performance suggests that
this was a moment when unexpected results
emerged and relationships were in a state of lux.
This was a moment that held potential, or could
be lost. In this paper we describe the research and
the data surrounding the performance. Literature

considered includes research on the role of
performance in early childhood music programs,
children as audience and the idea of “lexible
purposing”. This is a concept similar to the idea
of the ‘teachable moment’ (Katz, 2009) and Carr’s
(2001) ideas of analysing children’s learning with
an emphasis on dispositions to learning and
levels of engagement (Carr, 2001). The research is
described and the data is illustrated by a number
of example photographs. We conclude with a
discussion of the possible implications for this
singing project on the children, the staf and the
potential to enhance the music activities within
the centre by making them more integral to
everyday experiences.
The literature
Performance has always been a diicult issue for
early childhood practitioners, especially when
the children are expected to perform. This has
created tensions with music teachers who have
tended to see performance as part of the skills
being acquired while many early childhood
teachers have wanted children’s activities to be
playful and self-selected (Miller & Almon, 2009;
Welsch, 2008). Young (2006), however, points
out that practice in most early childhood centres
resembles the performance model more than
a spontaneous play construct, as music is often
done in a whole group with children learning
and practising repertoire. These are complex
issues that have been explored in the literature
which has tried to explore diferences between
the rhetoric of the importance of music in early
childhood and the reality (e.g., Sims, 1999). For
early childhood educators the concept of play,
as the desired learning medium, is an historical
stance. Play and self-expression have taken
precedence over the development of skills in
much of the literature (McMahon, 1961). Indeed
there is an early childhood discourse that has
supported the idea that, if children have quality
experiences and the opportunity to experiment,
Australian Journal of Music Education
Young children and music
skills and techniques “will naturally fall into place”
(McMahon, 1967, p. 23). That children should not
be expected to perform under adult direction is
a position that has found advocates across the
years (McMahon, 1967; Wakeield, 1962; Young,
2006). In a 1965 paper Ford, referring to Christmas
celebrations in the kindergarten, warned that:
It is important to avoid too much teacher-
direction in the presentation of Christmas music
and stories. We need to follow the same principles
observed in planning the daily program for
children in kindergarten by providing opportunity
for creative activity and spontaneous expression
though language. This is especially necessary in
relation to the dramatisation of Christmas stories.
The suggestions for any form of dramatisation
should come from the children and anything in
the way of rehearsed plays should be avoided
(p. 20).
Another side to the discussion of children as
performers has been an exploration of the child’s
role and potential learning when the children
are the audience (Robinson, 1965; Suthers, 1993;
2008; Meiners, 2005; Schiller, 2005). Increasingly
other areas of the arts, like the visual arts, where
children can be practitioners and audience, are
beginning to focus on children as audience (e.g.,
Savva & Trimis, 2005). In this research the design
of the project culminated with a performance
with the ‘teacher as performer’ (Prendergast,
2008:16). The teachers were seeking, through
performance with a particular audience with
whom they shared relational space, a way to
share space, interpret curriculum, critically
interact with and examine the existing culture
and context of music in the ELC.
In the arts domain the nature of ‘performance’
or ‘presentation’ is essential; art works need
someone to pay attention to them. Small
(1998, 1999), in a signiicant re-positioning of
performance in the relationship of the roles of
composer, performer and audience, insisted
that music is essentially about the activity of
music-making. Relecting this view, he coined
the verb ‘to music’: ‘to take part, in any capacity,
7
Nyland et al.
in a musical performance (1999, p. 12). The
musical performance includes not only what
we usually consider the performance – the inal
presentation to an audience – but all aspects of
the performance process including rehearsals,
discussions about repertoire, setting up the
performance space, and, of course, listening
to and responding to the music. This view of
‘musicking’ suggests that performance creates
the possibility of a kind of truly communal
experience of music making as a joint enterprise,
not suggested by the usual physical appearance
of a performance space, with ‘performers’
separated in stance and physical positioning,
and in their level of active involvement, from the
‘audience’. It is seen as a social enterprise and
as an active enterprise for all concerned. Small
claims that the act of musicking:
brings into existence among those present a set
of relationships, and it is in those relationships
that the meaning of the act of musicking lies.
It lies not only in the relationships between
the humanly organised sounds that are
conventionally thought of as the stuf of music,
but also in the relationships that are established
between person and person within the
performance space (1999, p. 4).
Small’s ideas would ind resonance with socio/
cultural activity theory (Carr, 2001; Vygotsky,
1978; Welch, 2007) where relationships,
reciprocity and mediated learning within a
particular cultural context are emphasised. This
is a methodology and method that frames this
research and Small’s ideas have been used to
complement this theoretical approach and give
depth to the discussion of the performance.
The research
The research project took place in an early
learning centre (ELC) characterised by the use
of specialist staf to provide separate programs
for the children. One of the specialist programs
(the music sessions) was the focus. The singing
group was an initiative by staf to explore the
8 2010, No. 2
connections between the specialist program
and separate daily programs. The singing
sessions were also used as a way of developing
relationships between staf with difering roles,
generalist and specialist teachers and to link back
to the children through performance.
The site
Both the practices and performance were held in
the music room in the ELC. The event observed
was a teacher’s singing group. Weekly practices
were held for ive weeks and the performance
took place at the end of term with children as the
target audience. The space is inviting, has suitable
ixtures for high quality sound production, as
well as being well-equipped and aesthetic. These
aspects of the space are desirable but also helped
to create the impression of music being separate
from everyday activities. Within the ELC context
there was not a strong connection between
music in this space and music in the children’s
home rooms.
The participants
The participants consisted of the centre
Director, the music specialist, other specialist
teachers, classroom educators and two external
researchers. All were volunteers and not all staf
in the centre chose to take part. There were
approximately 14 participants at each singing
practice. The time commitment was substantial
and some thought they would not ind joining
the music activities enjoyable. Some of the
non-participants commented afterwards that
they regretted this decision (Director’s post
performance interview). The external researchers
had previously been engaged in research at
the centre and were invited by the Director to
document the singing project. To encourage a
relaxed atmosphere for the observations only one
researcher attended the singing practices and
decided to participate in the singing. The post
performance interviews were semi-structured.

The music room in the ELC
Methodology and method
The research was inluenced by beliefs about
music as a cultural language and children’s
right to experience music as a language of
childhood (Vuckovic, Nyland & Ferris, 2008).
The theoretical approach was socio-cultural in
that the children’s and teachers’ understandings
that grew out of the initiative were constructed
within the project itself. Group feelings, culture,
relationships and collaborative joint action
were the phenomena being explored. In other
words the music was a cultural artefact, used to
create shared meaning amongst a speciic group
within a particular context. We have therefore
drawn on activity theory (Edwards, 2005) to
try to explain the role of the performance in
this enterprise. In her interview the Director
reported she had been inluenced by the
Choir of Hardknocks and the fact that, in New
Zealand, in early childhood centres, at educators
meetings and at conferences, singing is used
in a strongly ritualistic way to develop feelings
of connectedness and belonging. The music
Australian Journal of Music Education
Young children and music
specialist said her inspiration for the group came
from her experience in community singing. She
believed singing could bring a feeling of health
and well-being and had introduced this idea to
the staf. These inluences are consistent with
the design of the project, the data collected and
the approach taken to analysing and discussing
implications of the singing group. The initial aims
were also imbued with the concept of context
and relationships. Ethics clearance was gained
from the sponsoring institution of the ELC and
the researchers’ own institution.
Aims
• To explore the role of the specialist music
teacher and
• To study the impact the singing group, as a
joint venture, on teachers’ plans to develop a
more collaborative music program.
Description of data
The data for this paper consisted of ield notes of
singing practices, the recording of the practices
9
Nyland et al.
and the performance, interviews with the
teachers after the event and photographs of
singing group practices and the staf and children
at the performance.
The singing group
A voluntary singing group was established in
the ELC with the music specialist agreeing to
conduct practices. These were held once a week,
for one hour, from 5 until 6 o’clock. At the end
of a ive week period the group planned to sing
for the children at the end of term assembly.
Songs were largely chosen by the music specialist
though others also made suggestions. The music
specialist had a background in community
singing and this was evident in the material
presented. Repertoire included an African song,
‘Ume-lay-la’, , ‘This body lie down’ (a spiritual),
a song adapted from a cartoon by Australian
cartoonist Leunig – ‘Let it go’, as well as a poem
‘Diamond dust’, that the music specialist had
adapted for the children to sing to it in with a
10
Participants
practising
project on the Antarctic, and a folk medley of
companion songs.
The performance took place on the last day of
term. The Director clearly framed the object of
the performance and explained the difering roles
to the children. She also invited them to move
between the roles of performer and audience if
they wished.
Today … we have a special treat. We are
performing today. When a performance occurs
it means people share something they have
organised and practised. We are the performers
and you are the audience today and L. is going to
lead us. We will start with a song you know irst
so if you feel you want to join us feel free to. (From
transcript of the recording of the performance)
The day of the performance very much supported
Dewey’s idea of lexible purposing. The result
could not have been predicted. The levels of
feeling were high and performers and audience
formed a unit to share an evocative moment.
The results of the planned performance were
surprising and there were potentially many
2010, No. 2

The teachers at the performance
lessons for future centre activities from this
event. Some of the teachers admitted to feeling
surprisingly nervous. They stood in a line to
face the children and this made some of the
performing staf feel vulnerable. One reported
she had not been able to get the beginning note
because of this formation. The body language
suggested that the singers tried to keep
themselves open to the audience by facing them
and using their hands in a manner that invited
audience participation. An adult in the audience
encouraged the children to clap with the singers.
As the concert inished, the children stood up to
join in and a number of children were clapping.
The interview
Members of the staf singing group were
interviewed after the performance and a question
relating to the performance was: “How did it feel
to sing in public at the end of the term assembly?”
Table 1 sums up the reactions of the
participants to actually performing. One of the
Australian Journal of Music Education
Young children and music
most common observations was the formation of
the group for performance. At practices staf had
stood in a circle, or number of circles if it was a
song with parts. The teachers were also surprised
by the strength of the children’s responses to the
performance.
Some quotes from staf members:
Looking at the children. In the group we sing
in circles and look at each other. Singing in a
line, kept looking to see if we were still there.
Mandalas – singing in a line. Watching the
children clapping. Standing up at the end.
Changed the word performance for me. Funny
in the morning. No warm up. Didn’t get the irst
note. No one noticed. Thought this was great.
Bit nervous. OK because everyone else was there.
Can hear when we sing together it doesn’t sound
too bad. L was there. It felt good. Like to watch
the children’s faces. Some disturbed, some joined
in.
It was all right. Mainly because I didn’t like all the
songs. But you’re part of a group and we expect
the children to do that.
11
Nyland et al.

The teachers at the performance

There was also a question in the interview about as a part of life.

the children and their role. The staf were asked
the question; “To what extent is it important for
the children to see the teachers singing?”
Staf comments on the children:
Not an ounce of idget. They were transixed.
Children don’t see adults doing enough child
oriented things.
It adds something quite special – a special part of
the culture – seeing everyone embracing singing
The teachers singing in assembly had quite a
profound efect on the children.
Findings and discussion
The drivers and designers of this project had
always intended that it would culminate in a
performance at an assembly. Initially this was
intended as a way of bringing the project to a
conclusion; the singing group would practice

Table 1. Experience of performing at assembly for children

Director and music
specialist
Perceptions of the
staf experience:
Both positive
Director particularly
positive using words
such as heart
warming, joyful,
bonding, getting to
know people at a
diferent level
12
Other specialist General classroom Children
teachers (4) teachers (7)
3 nervous 2 were conident During the
One ‘not phased’ 4 were nervous performance the
2 didn’t like the 3 didn’t like children were:
straight line performing in line Surprised
2 noticed and 2 mentioned being Very interested
enjoyed the aware of the Very attentive
children’s reactions reactions of the Group participants
One worried about children used strong emotional
treading on the words such as:
children because she disturbed, transixed,
felt it was crowded laughing, smiling,
didn’t look, hid face,
labbergasted (2)
2010, No. 2

The children watching the performance
across the term and would perform at the end of
term assembly for children and parents. This was
an acknowledgment that the enterprise was not
to be a permanent feature of staf activities. The
performance itself took on a life of its own and
became an important event.
The aims of this research project were
concerned with a specialist music program and its
relationship to general early childhood everyday
activities in an early learning centre. The Director
and the music specialist were the protagonists in
this venture and although their roles were pivotal,
the resulting performance, as a culmination of
the initiative, subsumed individuals into a highly
charged situation that included staf and children
in a surprising way. What did emerge from the
research was how seriously all involved took this
enterprise and the power of the emotions that
existed between the performers and between the
performers and their audience on the inal day of
the project.
The children were aware of the teachers
practising the songs during the term. When a
Australian Journal of Music Education
Young children and music
teacher sang to a couple of the children one
day they responded with, “we heard you in the
gallery” (i.e., the dedicated music space). The
teachers were doing something in the children’s
space that the children would usually do. This
helped create an atmosphere of expectancy.
On the day of the performance the children’s
response, as audience, was strong. The staf,
as performers, were aware of the children as a
special audience with whom they shared daily
activities, and some could not understand
their own nervousness. During interviews staf
commented that standing in a line during
performance was uncomfortable, as this cut
across the physical and musical support that was
provided in rehearsals by singing in a circle. These
uncomfortable emotional reactions were main
aspects of the experience that staf reported in
the post performance interviews. At the same
time most reported enjoying performing.
Participants joined the singing group with
a range of expectations of the experience. All
13
Nyland et al.
appeared to understand the possibilities of
useful professional outcomes for the group
as a community engaged in a collaborative
educational project. Some, with negative
memories of formal choir experience, felt some
trepidation, while others, with more positive
experiences of informal and community singing,
were enthusiastic. The data suggests that the
experience of the singing group at the centre was
unexpected; none of the various expectations
prepared participants for the level of emotional
involvement many reported. It seems reasonable
to speculate that this group, having focussed
on the business of learning repertoire and the
challenges of singing together, along with the
experience of performing for a audience in what
turned out to be a fairly formal performance
space, had stumbled on what Small calls
‘musicking’. Small (1999) claims that the act of
musicking creates a web of relationships between
performers, audience, the music itself and the
performance space (p. 4). The data indicates that
the participants experienced performance in the
broadest sense described by Small, relecting in
their interviews on those social, emotional and
aesthetic aspects of the experience rather than
the music content.
This suggestion is supported by the indings
that related to the performers’ reported
heightened awareness of the children-as-
audience response. The data shows a sensitive
relationship between the teachers performing
in the singing group and their audience, most
particularly the children. These adult performers
were in the habit of paying careful attention to
the children’s responses in their care. Similarly, for
the children, the relationship with these particular
performers was unusual by virtue of the existing
professional relationship; the children, as
members of this audience, were not in the same
relationship with these performers as they would
be with musicians on TV, CDs, or with other live
performances they may have experienced. The
photos show the range of responses from the
14
children during the performance, suggesting
amazement, fascination, embarrassment, even
amusement. In turn, the teachers’ singing group,
noting the children’s responses, themselves
experienced a range of reactions.
The intention of the project was to ind
stronger connections between the specialist
music program in the centre and the work of the
music specialist, and the general program in the
centre and the teachers’ day-to-day work with the
children. The data does not indicate any strong
indings that this has occurred in the immediate
aftermath of the singing group but this is not
to say that, in the long run, there has not been
a potential developed. To an extent the data
appears has been subsumed by the unexpected
responses to the experience of the performance.
In this paper we have therefore chosen to report
on the data as was originally designed and a
further round of interviews, some time later,
will be instigated to provide insight into the
long-term results of the singing group project in
regards music and the role of the music specialist
in the centre’s overall program.
At this time many of the participants felt the
experience of relating to their colleagues in this
event was powerful; this was not unanimously a
positive response, but it is reasonable to see the
testing and stretching of relationships among the
group members as being important and generally
a positive result. The Director relected that
perhaps those who had chosen not to participate
in the group may have regretted it, and further,
that the project may in fact have inadvertently
been divisive for this reason
Part of the complexity of the performance
experience may lie in the disjunction that
occurred, apparently inadvertently, between
the style of the rehearsals and that of the
performance. In rehearsal the group habitually
worked in a circle, with a great deal of laughter
and chat. The music specialist’s leadership style
was skilled both musically and pedagogically,
and while it was authoritative it was in no
2010, No. 2

way authoritarian. This was a sensitive and
informal way of working with colleagues likely
to be conducive of positive musical and social
relationships. On the other hand, when the
group sang for their audience, more by accident
than by intent, they stood in a line, so close to
the children that they needed to be careful not
to tread on anyone. This marked disjunction
between the physical and emotional relationships
that the group had become accustomed to in
rehearsal and the way it was in performance
caused discomfort for some group members,
and may have served to create a sense of a
formal ‘performance’ not necessarily intended.
The audience, accustomed to a diferent kind of
relationship with their teachers, perhaps were
therefore more challenged than was intended.
Certainly, for whatever the reasons, this was not
a neutral experience, and the children, in spite of
the way the performance space was conigured,
or perhaps because of it, were active participants,
their response eliciting a reciprocal response from
the performers.
Eisner (2004) remarks that, in arts matters, the
form and the content are inextricably mixed; how
you go about undertaking a musical activity is as
signiicant as the music itself. Like Small, he does
not see the arts content as isolated from those
involved in it. The data from this project supports
this notion. Indeed, the participants’ relections
show that the experience itself was more
immediately important for them than the skills
developed in singing or than the song repertoire
itself. Music is an art form that is seen as ‘doing’
(Eisner, 2004; McMahon, 1967). It is ephemeral,
sound in time, but also an intensely social activity
because if it is done privately and not shared
its very existence is questionable. Perhaps this
is one reason why the singing group was taken
so seriously and the performance gave it shape.
The teachers shared an intuitive understanding
of the importance of music in the program and
were prepared to pursue a challenging and
unusual project. The moment of the performance
was powerful enough for the early childhood
Australian Journal of Music Education
Young children and music
educators to unpack this concept when exploring
ideas of music in the program in interview.
In this paper we have seen the ‘teacher
as performer’ and the ‘child as audience’ in a
combination that could not have been planned;
what Katz (2009) would call the unreturnable
moment. To be able to seize and record the
moment was a valuable experience that could
have the potential to enhance the musical
culture within the centre. We conclude with
Small’s concept of ‘musicking’ introduced earlier.
Small (1999) asks: “[w]hat does it mean when
this performance takes place at this time, in this
place with these people taking part?’ (p. 13).
The response to that question has relevance
to the ways in which educators – both early
childhood educators and those who specialize
in music education in early childhood centres
– might think about the role of performance
of any kind in the centre’s program. This would
apply to children’s performances such as those
traditionally undertaken at this centre’s end-of-
term assemblies, performances by the teachers
in the context of their day-to-day work with the
children in their groups, or by visiting musicians
presenting a speciic performance for the centre.
Given this discussion by Small it is worth
considering the nature and signiicance of
performance. Were these teachers ‘articulating’
a human relationship (p. 20) and if so it was
certainly not neutral but ‘infused in a rich texture
of meanings’ (1999, p. 15). The teachers, certainly
the Director and music specialist who were
designers of the project, had not thought about
the performance as musicking but perhaps this
was the dominant element in the exercise.
References
Carr, M. (2001). Assessment in early childhood settings.
UK: Sage.
Department of Education, Science and Training (DEST).
(2005). National review of school music: Augmenting the
diminished. DEST: Australian Government.
De Vries, P. (2006). Being there: creating music-making
opportunities in a childcare centre. International
Journal of Music Education, 24(3), 255-270.
15
Nyland et al.

Eisner, E. (2004). What can education learn from the arts
about the practice of education? International Journal
of Education & the Arts, 5(4), 12 pages.
Ford, M. (1965). Christmas and children in the
kindergarten. Australian Pre-school Quarterly, 6(2), 18-20.
Katz, L. (2009). Intellectual emergencies: Some relections
on mothering and teaching. New York: Kaplan Press.
McMahon, O. (1961). Exploring music with children.
Australian Pre-school Quarterly, 2(2). 5-9
McMahon, O. (1967). Exploring music with children.
Australian Pre-school Quarterly, 8(2), 23-27.
Meiners, J. (2005). In the beginning: young children and
arts education. International Journal of Early Childhood,
37(2), 37-45.
Miller, E. & Almon, J. (2009). Crisis in the kindergarten:
why children need to play in school. Alliance for
Childhood. Retrieved 3.12.10 from http://www.
allianceforchildhood.org
Miller, M., Nicholas, E. & Lambeth, M. (2008). Pre-service
teachers’ critical relection of arts and education
discourse: reconstructions of experiences in early
childhood and higher education. Contemporary Issues
in Early Childhood, 9(4), 354-363.
Nyland, B. & Ferris, J. (2007). Early childhood music: an
Australian experience. Smithrim, K. & Uptitis, R. (Eds.)
Listen to their voices: Research and practice in early
childhood music education. Vol. 3 Canadian Music
Educator’s Association Biennial series “Research to
practice”. Pp. 182 – 195.
Prendergast, M. (2008). Teacher as performer: unpacking
a metaphor in performance theory and critical
performative pedagogy. International Journal of
Education & the Arts, 9(2), 19 pages.
Robinson, J. (1965). An orchestral concert for children.
Australian Pre-school Quarterly. Pp. 15-20.
Savva, A. & Trimis, E. (2005). Responses of young children
to contemporary art exhibits: the role of artistic
experiences. International Journal of Education & the
Arts, 6(13), 22 pages.
Sims, M. (1999). What we believe is what we do.
Australian Journal of Early Childhood, 24(2), 1-5.
Schiller, W. (2005). Childrens’ perception of live arts
performances: a longitudinal study. Early Child
Development and Care, 175(6), 543-552.
Small, C. (1999). Musicking – the meanings of performing
and listening. A lecture. Music Education Research, 1(1),
9-22.
Small, C. (1998). Musicking: The meanings of performing
and listening. London: Wesleyan University Press.
Suthers, L. (1993). Introducing young children to live
orchestral performance. Early Child development and
Care, 90(1), 55-64.
Suthers, L. (2004). Music experiences for toddlers in day
care centres. Australian Journal of Early Childhood,
29(4), 45-49.
Suthers, L. (2008). Concerts for young children. Australian
Journal of Early Childhood, 33(1), 50-54.
Temmerman, N. (1998). Arts and young children: A survey
of childhood music education programmes in Australia.
Early Childhood Education Journal, 26(1), 29-34.
Vuckovic, A., Nyland, B. & Ferris, J. (2008). Playing with
diversity: young children and music in an Australian
child care centre. 8th International Society for Music
Education World Conference – Proceedings. International
Society for Music Education. Rome, July.
Wakeield, C. (1962). Presenting music. Australian Pre-
school Quarterly, 2(4), 17-23.
Welch, G. (2007). Addressing the multifaceted nature of
music education: an activity theory research perspective.
Research Studies in Music Education, 28, 23-37.
Welsch, J. (2008). Playing within and beyond the story:
encouraging book-related pretend play. The Reading
Teacher, 62(2), 138-148.
Wiggins, R. & Wiggins, J. (2008). Primary music education
in the absence of specialists. International Journal of
Education & the Arts, 12(9), 27 pages.
Young, S. (2006). Seen but not heard: Young children,
improvised singing and educational practice.
Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 7(3),270-280.

Berenice Nyland is a senior lecturer in early childhood at RMIT University. Much of her research has focussed on early
languages and literacies. Young children and music are a long time interest.

Jill Ferris is an associate researcher in the Centre for Research in Education, Sustainability and Social Inclusion at RMIT
University. Jill is a music specialist who has extensive experience working in the area of young children and their music
both in schools and at university.

Jan Deans is the Director of the Melbourne University Early Learning Centre (ELC). She directs the educational
program of the centre, organises research projects and lectures into the university’s early childhood courses. The arts
are a particular focus of her work.

16 2010, No. 2
 a u s t r a l i a n

s
a o c i e t y

f o r
s m u s i c

m
A music collaboration with early
e d u c a t i o n

i n c o r p o r a t e d
e

childhood teachers
Lucy Bainger

Monash University

Abstract
It has long been known that generalist primary and early childhood teachers struggle with teaching music, due to
a lack conidence and skills. This paper discusses some early indings of a phenomenological study which follows
a twelve-month collaboration between a music specialist (the researcher) and a small group of early childhood
educators in diferent pre-school settings. The multiple case study looks at this particular model of professional
development through the eyes of the participant teachers, analysing their perceptions to identify how their
general lack of music skills and conidence can be most efectively addressed. Through the data collected from the
participants it can be shown that the general lack of conidence needs to be understood as a group of speciic issues,
referred to by the researcher as the ‘group of conidence’. The diferent issues that make up this group of conidences
can be successfully addressed through a mentoring collaboration that ofers long-term and consistent practical and
moral support. In addition, the implications of the collaboration on both the participants and the researcher have
become an important aspect of the study.

Key words: early childhood education, music, teachers, conidence, collaboration.

Australian Journal of Music Education 2010:2, 17-27

Introduction the community. The latest National Review of

School Music Education (NRSME) done in 2004/5
This paper discusses some early indings of a
received the highest number of submissions ever
research project involving a collaboration with a
(over 6,000) indicating that 90% of Australian
small group of early childhood teachers in a rural
parents regard music as an important part of
area of New South Wales (NSW). The participants
every child’s education (Callaghan, 2007).
had identiied themselves as lacking conidence
The NRSME also found that music in our
and skills in music and wanting to improve their
primary schools is poor – both in quantity and
ability to provide meaningful music experiences
quality, with the abilities of existing generalist
for the children in their care.
teachers to meet the music needs of young
A large body of research consistently shows
children being patchy at best (Department of
that music activities and free music play have
Education, Science and Training, 2005). These
signiicant beneits for the young child, and
indings apply equally to music provision in the
should be part of their general education
early childhood sector, where there are still no
(Forrai, 1990; Feierabend, 1990; Jeanneret, 1997;
national or state guidelines for music education
Temmerman, 1997; Burton et al., 1999; Suthers,
(Southcott & de Vries, 2006). Generalist teachers
2004; Persellin, 2007; Temmerman, 2006; de
in both the pre-school and primary areas of
Vries, 2006). This research relects the views of

Australian Journal of Music Education 17

Bainger
education report that they can feel intimidated
by having to ofer music activities, often to such
a degree that they avoid it all together (Mills,
1989; Harris, 1996; Bodkin, 1999;; Anderson, 2002;
Russell-Bowie, 2002; Suthers, 2004; Temmerman,
2006; Nardo et al., 2006).
While none of the research literature disagrees
with the claims made for music’s value, and
teachers attest to the importance of music as
an essential part of early childhood education,
the provision of music in many preschools and
day-care centres still consists merely putting on
a CD for the children to dance to, and singing a
few traditional nursery rhymes. Teachers attribute
their lack of competence in music primarily to
the lack of focus on music in their training, with
just six to twelve hours of contact time given to
music in undergraduate teacher training courses
(Temmerman, 2006).
The most critical factor in the quality of a child’s
education is an efective, skilled and conident
teacher (Gharavi, 1993; Chen & Chang, 2006;
Temmerman, 2006). A quality music experience
for the young child can be summarized briely
as opportunities for free play and structured
musical play in group times, involving the child
in activities that facilitate a playful discovery of
all the fundamentals of music. Chen and Chang’s
work suggests this can only be achieved with a
teacher who has skills and feels conident in her
own musical understanding and skills (2006).
As a participant in this study put it:
I guess it’s just a diferent area from anything else
you do, like mathematical concepts or literacy
– music is very diferent. You have to have a lot
of knowledge and when you don’t have that
knowledge it’s diicult … we’re trained in literacy
and numeracy as teachers, but not necessarily
music. That’s where we are struggling and trying
to work out what to do. (Interview, Feb 09)
The director of one of the participating pre-
schools echoed this particular aspect of music
experience, saying that while everyone goes
through a training in literacy and numeracy
automatically by attending any school, a much
18
smaller proportion of the population, and
therefore early childhood teachers, have had
any long-term experiences of music making on
which to draw upon in their own teaching (in
conversation with director, 09). Today’s teachers
are a product of their own arts-poor education
system. Having not been the recipients of good
music experiences in their own education,
teachers do not have background skills or
understandings of their own about music to draw
upon, as they do in other learning areas. This also
reinforces their low levels of conidence.
The participants
Of the small group of teachers who responded
to the researcher’s invitation to take part in the
study, three participants were chosen on three
criteria; that they were within a thirty minute
drive from the researcher’s home, that they
were able to commit to the time and access
requirements of the study for a twelve-month
period, and that the pre-schools they worked
in represented the varied socio-economic
demographic of the area.
Two of the participants work in community
based pre-schools; one in a large town and the
other in a small village, while the third worked
in a private pre-school attached to a private
school. The teachers are referred to by a letter
pseudonym to protect their privacy. All three
participants are experienced and qualiied
teachers; one with a university degree, another
with a Technical and Further Education (TAFE)
Advanced Diploma while the third participant
was trained as an infant and primary teacher, but
three years ago took over the directorship of a
pre-school.
The participants do not know each other, but
had previously attended a workshop presented
by the researcher in the local area that took place
a year before the research began. Two of the
participants had also taken part in an informal,
fortnightly teachers singing circle organised
over a three-month period by the researcher
2010, No. 2
 Music collaboration with early childhood teachers

for any interested local pre-school teachers. The IPA explores how the participant makes sense
researcher had a passing acquaintance with the of their own experiences through their own
other participant as she had worked at the same act of self-relection; perceptions, views and
school for a period, over ive years previously. understandings (Brocki & Wearden, 2006). IPA
recognises that research is a dynamic process,
Methodology and acknowledges that the personal world
of both the participant and the researcher
This is a qualitative, phenomenological, multiple-
inluence the collection and analysis of data. It
case study which aims to gain an understanding
is also recognises that the quality of the data is
of the inner experience of three teacher
reliant on the participant’s ability to describe
participants from three diferent pre-schools in
and communicate their thoughts, feelings and
a rural area of NSW throughout a twelve-month
experiences clearly to the researcher, and the
collaboration with a music consultant (the
researchers ability initially to facilitate these
researcher). Phenomenology aims to understand
communications, and to then relect and analyse
the lived experience of participants and to
the resulting data (Brocki & Wearden, 2006).
“capture, as closely as possible, the way in which
Four research strategies put forward
the phenomena is experienced within the context
by Bresler and Stake (1992) to undertake
in which the experience takes place” (Giorgi &
qualitative research were used to formulate a
Giorgi, 2008, p. 28). The emphasis is always on
phenomenological framework for this study. The
the meaning of the participant’s lived experience
irst strategy: non-interventionist observation
(White, 2003).
in a natural setting, was achieved by weekly or
Throughout the collaboration, a variety of
fortnightly observations of the participants, as
data gathering tools are being used; including
they led group music times with the children
semi-structured, periodic interviews, relective
as part of their regular working day. Non-
journals, and weekly or fortnightly observations
intervention has been deined by Wiersma and
of music sessions, which are always followed by
Jurs (2009) as being without any manipulation or
a private discussion between participant and
external imposition. In the study, the researcher
researcher. All participants are referred to with a
took the ‘ly on the wall’ approach by sitting out of
single letter pseudonym to protect their identity.
the sight line of the teacher, and out of the way of
At the time of writing the ield work was about to
the children’s play area.
be completed with another round of interviews,
The second, an emphasis on interpretation of
and a inal interview scheduled in six months
issues concerning both the participants (emic)
time to gather data on longer term impacts of the
and the researcher (etic), is a hallmark of the
collaboration.
phenomenological study. Giving equal status to
As the focus is on the perceptions of the
both the etic and emic perspectives emphasises
participants, Interpretative Phenomenological
the subjective nature of the behaviour being
Analysis (IPA) is used to analyse the data. IPA
studied (Yardley, 2008). The researcher attempts
makes a detailed exploration of the participant’s
to understand what the observed behaviour
accounts of how they experience and self-relect
means to the participant, rather than presuming
on the process they are going through (Brocki &
to know what things mean to the participants
Wearden, 2006).
IPA is a suitable approach when one is trying being observed (Wiersma & Jurs, 2009). The
to ind out how individuals are perceiving the presence of both the participant’s inner
particular situations they are facing, how they are perspective and the researcher’s own perspective
making sense of their personal and social world. based on the collected data creates a double
(Smith, J. A. & Osborn, M., 2008, p. 55)

Australian Journal of Music Education 19

Bainger
hermeneutic as the study progresses. Shared
communications through the discussions that
followed the weekly/fortnightly observations
continually informed both perspectives and, as a
result, the process of the collaboration.
The third strategy recommended by Bresler
and Stake is a highly contextual description of
people and events. This is understood to be
essential background to understanding the
sub-text of the participant’s communication.
Therefore, before observations began, the
participants took part in a one-to-one semi-
structured interview which focused on the
past and current music experiences in all
areas of the participant’s life. This served to
provide a personal and historical context to the
participant’s perspective, in her own words, as
referred to in studies by Crawford (2008) and
Brocki and Wearden (2006). Periodic interviews
and regular private discussions provided an inner
and on-going context to the way the teacher
was working, from week to week, while regular
observations provided the researcher with a
detailed context of each participant’s work place.
The fourth and last strategy is the use
of triangulation to validate information.
Rather than trying to reduce data to a single,
consistent account, triangulation seeks to enrich
understanding of a phenomenon by valuing
diferent perspectives equally (Yardley, 2008).
The researcher’s observations of the participants’
teaching practice were triangulated with the
data collected from the participants, where they
shared their own perspectives on their work and
what they were thinking and feeling at the time.
The multiple case study provided a triple layer
of triangulation: 1) a variety of data collection
tools, 2) the equal status given to emic and etic
perspectives, and 3) the comparison of data from
three diferent case studies.
The collaboration methodology used in this
study was based on Chen and Chang’s (2006)
‘whole teacher’ approach where the supporting
‘expert’ must gain an understanding of the
20
context, the attitudes and beliefs, the existing
skill level, and the speciic needs of each teacher,
before the researcher ofered support, feed
back and guidance in a tailor made fashion
after each observation. Analysis of the data as
it was collected, created a triangulation loop;
where the participants own experience and
perspective, combined with the researcher’s
observations of their practice continually gave
rise to insights that inluenced the collaboration
as it progressed. There was also the lateral
inluence that resulted from the study being a
multiple case one; where one participant brought
the researcher’s attention to a particular aspect
of the collaboration, or raised a previously
unacknowledged but relevant matter, this
would then inluence the collaboration with the
other participants. In this way, each participant
inluenced the collaboration, with the researcher
acting as the conduit.
Discussion of data
The irst step of the research was an interview
that focused on establishing context by asking
the participants to talk about past music
experiences in all areas of life, and current
beliefs around the value of music to children,
the participant’s own musicality, and how they
felt about doing music with children. Some of
these issues were also raised in journal entries.
Negative past experiences igured prominently
for two of the participants. Each participant
voiced strong beliefs about the value of music for
young children, and all identiied a lack of skills
and conidence in general. Speciic diiculties
were also identiied, such as not knowing how to
make efective use of existing resources. It was
not until the collaboration had been underway
for about six months that more speciic issues
came to be identiied by the participants, in the
second interview.
At the same time, through the data gained
from observations and the following discussions,
2010, No. 2

the researcher had identiied the commonality
of these speciic issues. It was interesting to note
that more than one participant would identify a
particular issue at some stage – either by directly
identifying it, or asking for speciic help that
pointed to that issue. As a clear pattern of shared
issues emerged through the analysis of the
diferent participant’s data, the researcher created
the term ‘group of conidences’ to collectively
refer to these issues. Quotations from the
participants are included to illustrate these issues
in this discussion. To illustrate the process the
participants went through as the collaboration
progressed, three of these issues are discussed
here – musicality, control and lexibility.
Musicality
The irst interview indicated that the participants
equated musicality with demonstrable music
performance skills. Because none of the
participants were luent, active instrumental
players or singers, this assumption resulted in
the belief that they were not musical. This core
belief undermined their individual musical
conidence. Even past instrumental study did
not change this belief in one case. D plays the
piano to an intermediate level but has not yet
had the conidence to play the piano at the pre-
school for the children, or include it in their group
music sessions. In answer to the question; “How
would you describe your own musicality?” she
responded,
I can’t sing …. I’m not musical. (Interview 1)
Another participant responded,
I’m not a musical person myself …I struggled
with music at school. (Interview 1)
Negative music experiences at diferent levels
of education had had a real impact on these
inner beliefs. Two of the participants described
being negatively assessed on performance of
musical skills, remembered with much detail and
strong feeling. Here the participants describe
experiences of music at primary school:
Australian Journal of Music Education
Music collaboration with early childhood teachers
As a child I sufered a bit with “Oh you can’t sing”
and that sort of thing. (Interview 1)
We had to sing to this teacher – we were all lined
up and there were two boys in front of me and
my girlfriend, and we were all being marked out
of 10 and the teacher marked these boys with a
‘T/D’ – turns out that meant tone deaf – it was
horriic. That was it – I never made a sound after
that. (Interview 1)
For this participant, music experiences in her
teacher training did not improve,
It was awful … a Kodaly teacher … got us doing
all these hand things and I had no idea what was
going on, and then she made each person sing.
I must have had this look on my face because
she never asked me to do it – I would have just
died…I’m a terrible singer. (Interview 1)
The third participant did not report negative
experiences, but throughout the year of
observations she repeatedly mentioned how
nervous she felt at being ‘watched by an expert’,
and how diicult she found music.
This personal sense of lack of musicality was at
odds with each participant’s understanding of the
children’s natural musicality,
They just love music and gain so much from
musical experiences. (Interview 1)
They really enjoy it...they just love the
instruments…they quite naturally have an ear
for music. (Interview 1)
As the collaboration progressed, the tension
between two conlicting beliefs – the natural
musicality the participants could all see in their
children, and the self-perceived lack of musicality
they felt in themselves, seemed to ease when the
participants became more comfortable singing
with the children. Reassuring the participants that
they could sing, and that it was of great beneit
to the children when they did sing, especially free
of a CD, was particularly important in bringing
about a positive change in the participant’s self-
beliefs around singing. One participant, who had
had problems with ear infections as a child, and
today has great trouble holding a tune, took up
the ofer of speciic support through one-to-one
21
Bainger
singing sessions, after school hours, as part of the
collaboration.
As the collaboration progressed, the
participants’ self-perceptions of their own
musicality began to change. All the participants
were singing a lot more in their music sessions, as
well as singing directions and instructions to the
children throughout the day. Six-months into the
collaboration, in the second round of interviews,
a noticeable change in self beliefs around their
own musicality was relected in the participants
comments.
I’m much more interested in music, learning
songs and really hearing what’s in music ...I’ve
started to realise that I can sing, that I don’t
have to feel I’m not good at music … that’s been
incredibly wonderful to me. ( Interview 2)
I’m suddenly singing – and that surprises me! I
feel supported. (Interview 2)
I deinitely feel diferent! … improvement in
singing is the big thing…it’s helping me to
develop their skills and mine …. I was talking
earlier about the children recognising that they
are a musical person – the musical person isn’t
just on the CD – well I think I needed to change
my perception of that too. (Interview 2)
The collaboration also caused re-appraisals in
the one participant. Initially describing herself
as musical, this participant had said in the irst
interview that she believed she was providing
plenty of music in her work. This was not evident
to the researcher in the observations. Six
months into the collaboration, the participants
had become more relective, reaching a more
accurate awareness of her practice in hindsight.
I guess I was more dependent on music from
the CD’s, but now I’m having to think a lot more
about music now … I realise my own lack of
musicality. (Interview 2)
At the same time she was personally engaging
with music diferently:
I’ve got more of an appreciation now of listening
to music at home, enjoying music on a personal
level. (Interview 2)
The participants have been encouraged to
use regular repetitions of musical games with
22
extensions each time; to strengthen their
repertoire, and develop both their own and the
children’s musical conidence.
When the participants were asked to relect on
this aspect of the collaborations – the afect of
their changing practice on the children’s music
learning – it was interesting to notice how the
participants learning is mirrored in the children’s
learning. The participants were inadvertently
describing their own process in the collaboration:
The kids love to feel familiar with things …
then you can add new things and they still feel
safe. I thought they might get a bit bored (with
repeating things) … but they are actually getting
more engaged …this seems to be cementing
things for them. (Interview 2)
I’m feeling more conident with my presentation,
so the children are getting more from it.
(Interview 2)
The link between conidence and control
Another issue that came up in early interviews
and discussions was the realistic fear of losing
control of the children while doing active
and noisy music activities, especially when
instruments or chasing games were involved.
We played with drums and tapping sticks… slow,
then fast – you could see the kids’ delight; “Let’s
do it fast!”. That was enough – I packed it up.
(Interview 1)
Playing instruments is the trickiest … I’m afraid
I’ll maybe lose control of the group. (Interview 1)
I’ll know to keep it very calm because ... it will be
very exciting and they’ll get so het up. ..(I want)....
to keep them settled. ( Interview 1)
The assumption that a quiet atmosphere is the
hallmark of a ‘good’ teacher is at odds with the
realities of best practice in music play. A good
music session ideally involves an element of
noisy fun, and free play needs to accommodate
the child’s un-structured exploration of sound
(Wright, 2003). This can take some getting used
to for the teacher who is used to exercising a
lot of control to maintain a quiet and restrained
atmosphere. Through observations it was clear
that while the participants found unexpected
2010, No. 2

enjoyment in the children’s excitement and noisy
participation in some of the games, they were
uneasy about being able to bring the children
back to a manageable level. To encourage the
participants to facilitate more active games and
allow the children more freedom and movement,
the participants were given simple strategies
that help to manage the children’s excitement
and control the noise levels. In addition, it was
recommended that breaking the large group
of twenty or more children into a smaller group
of around ten children was more conducive
to group music play, and where possible, this
suggestion was taken up, with excellent results.
Mastering and using these strategies has resulted
in a marked increase in the use of instruments
and more active musical games.
When asked to put ive known beneits for
doing music into an order of importance, the
participants nominated social development
as either top or second. Social development
can be supported in music through engaging
children in games that highlight the beneits
of co-operation; sharing and taking turns. The
participants were encouraged to facilitate music
games that focussed speciically on developing
the children’s listening skills. The participants
recognised the link between these types of
games and an increase in the children’s overall
ability to comprehend and co-operate, making
general management easier.
Music helps with routine and discipline in a fun
way. (Interview 1)
If you start of developing their listening skills
then ... they can see that they can have fun and
the limits are actually a good thing- if you wait
your turn great beneit will come, much more
than if you’re just running around the room and
screaming. (Interview 1)
As the collaboration comes to a close, the
participants have become noticeably more
comfortable with the playful, and occasionally
rowdy aspect of musical games. They did not
refer directly to this change in their own attitudes
around this issue – it was more in the researcher’s
observations of their practice that the changes
have been most evident.
Australian Journal of Music Education
Music collaboration with early childhood teachers
Play and the need for lexibility
When lacking conidence, a teacher tends to
rely more on an instructive approach (Kagan,
1992), and this is often seen in the way music is
approached by early childhood teachers (Wright,
2003). As has already been referred to, taking
an instructive approach puts the burden on
the teacher of being an expert. In music this is
particularly problematic, for both the teacher
who lacks conidence, and the child who wants to
learn through play. An instructive teaching style
can sabotage the success of a playful activity and
inadvertently inhibit a child’s genuine exploration
of music (Berger & Cooper, 2003). In contrast,
the teacher is ideally taking the role of co-player
in music games, acting as a leader who involves
all the children in a playful, lexible teaching
approach which greatly increases the children’s
engagement and enjoyment in musical games
(Wright, 2003).
It is a natural consequence of musical play that
children improvise on songs and games that they
are familiar with (Marsh, 1979; Wright, 2003; Lum
& Campbell, 2007). In the early months of the ield
work observations, the researcher observed that
impromptu suggestions from the children were
often passed over by the participants for various
reasons; they interrupted the plan, the teacher
thought the suggestion would not have worked,
or simply that the children’s in-put was not seen
as important.
The participants were encouraged to connect
with the children through musical play, as
opposed to putting themselves into the role of
being a music teacher. In feed-back discussions,
the participants were urged to see in-put from
the children as a very positive outcome, and in
the spirit of play. They were encouraged to act
upon suggestions from the children whenever
possible. It was suggested that the aim of many
music activities was ultimately the evolution of
the game into a child-directed activity, constantly
extended by the children’s own suggestions and
explorations. In this instance, the teacher acts
23
Bainger
as a facilitator on the children’s behalf. This was
efectively presenting a shift away from teacher-
centred leadership to child-centred leadership.
Not surprisingly, the more instructive the natural
teaching style was, the more challenging this shift
was for the participant. It did, however, have the
beneit of relieving the participants of the burden
of being expert in a ield where they lacked
conidence.
Each participant was given directions in setting
up and facilitating musical play that involved
exploring sound and developing music skills
through games and play activities. While they
were still the leader, they were now able to
explore and develop their skills alongside and
with the children. The participants were also
strongly, and repeatedly encouraged to value
and utilise the children’s ideas and suggestions as
a real resource. By including this input from the
children, they could now act as the conduit for
extending the music play and learning for all the
children. These ideas were noted down to add to
the extensions of familiar materials, for continued
and future use.
Using the voice more actively in speech also
acted as a scafold to slowly gain conidence
to sing out strongly for and with the children.
A step-by-step approach encouraged the
participants to practice modulating and
animating their voice while speaking in chants,
then introducing games that allowed both the
participant and the children to play freely with
vocalizing and extending vocal range, sometimes
through mimicking animal voices, or using the
voice to make siren sounds. The participants were
encouraged to actively take part in these games
with the children, as a way of developing their
own singing voices. In this way, the children’s
learning was mirrored in the teachers learning,
and conidence for both parties increased
correspondingly.
It has been noted earlier in this paper that
gaining some conidence in singing made
a signiicant diference in deepening the
24
participant’s personal involvement in music
play. Where the participants have become more
conident, they have become more inclusive
and playful, moving away a little from a more
instructive style of teaching, towards a more
child-centred and playful style. This was not an
issue that the participants identiied themselves.
It was an issue identiied by the researcher during
observing the participants practice. It was not
until the issue had been addressed that the
participant’s started to comment on it:
I’m learning to take some ideas from the children
more, go with their ideas more instead of having
what I think we’re going to do.
(Interview 2)
I have made a conscious decision to let the
children ‘go’ and play more.
(Discussion, Apr ‘09)
A wonderful feed-back loop has developed
– the participant responds positively to the
children’s input, the children react more and
more enthusiastically to music activities, which
serves to increase the participant’s conidence,
and the children’s input becomes richer and more
imaginative. As one participant relected:
I was really pleased today with the children’s
responses and felt conident to ‘go’ with their
ideas rather than stick with the lesson plan …
very pleased with the listening skills and most of
all by the sense of FUN! (Journal Entry, Feb ‘09)
A word on collaboration
An essential aspect of the collaboration was the
building of trust between each participant and
the researcher, based on the understanding that
the researcher was there to support the teacher,
rather than to assess their work. There was a clear
need for the researcher to continually reassure
the participants of this. The supportive and
practical feedback helped to overcome this to a
large degree.
I’m OK with that (being observed) now because
I know there’s the feedback about what I could
do better … it’s actually a very nice thing to have
you in the room (Interview 2)
2010, No. 2

As this relationship grew, other issues slowly
emerged. Some months into the collaboration,
the participants had a wider understanding
of what was possible when doing music with
children, which provided opportunities to extend
existing skills while at the same time raised new
challenges.
Each participant’s lack of conidence in music
was often marked by an emotional quality that
demanded on-going sensitivity and tact from the
researcher. While not spoken of directly, there
was sometimes a palpable sense of grief when
participants talked of negative early experiences
and their perceived lack of musicality. It was
evident that the researcher needed to be
continually empathetic in understanding how,
for each participant, it is an act of professional
bravery to volunteer to put oneself in the
vulnerable position of being observed while at
work, especially teaching work in an area where
you feel wanting. Teaching is a special art, made
up of many distinctly personal aspects that
demand respect;
The life stories of teachers explain that the
practice of classroom teaching remains – forever
rooted in personality and experience and that
earning to teach requires a journey into the
deepest recesses of one’s self awareness, where
failures, fears, and hopes are hidden. Classroom
teaching seems to be a peculiar form of self-
expression in which the artist, subject and the
medium are one. (Kagan, 1992, pp. 163-164)
For the collaboration to be successful, it has
been essential for the researcher to establish a
supportive and accepting relationship with each
participant, that respects vulnerable feelings
of inadequacy and, perhaps most importantly,
accepting and airming the participants’ current
music practice, whatever it might be, as a valid
starting point. In this, the researcher has faced
two distinct challenges: irstly, taking into
account the participants inevitable unease in
being observed by someone they perceive as an
‘expert’ while working; and secondly, translating
a private critique of the participants’ practice into
Australian Journal of Music Education
Music collaboration with early childhood teachers
helpful, supportive, and conidence-building feed
back. Understanding the diferent issues that
constitute the lack of conidence felt by teachers
is essential when acting as a mentor in this
collaboration.
Summation
An early inding of this study is that the general
lack of conidence felt by teachers needs too be
understood as a generality. This general lack of
conidence is experienced by the participant
teachers as a group of speciic issues, each
of which need to be individually addressed
before the teachers can develop their skills and
conidence to the extent that they become
efective and active music makers with their
children. Some of these issues were identiied
by the participants themselves, while other
issues were identiied by the researcher through
observation, and later veriied by the participant’s
response or change in practice. Only three of
these issues have been discussed here, although
more issues have been identiied.
The indings of this study suggest that these
issues need to be addressed, and that this can be
done efectively using a long-term collaboration
model of professional development, which
involves the establishment of a supportive
relationship between ‘expert’ and teacher, where
the expert works as a mentor with each teacher in
their own practice and work place.
Coming and seeing where I’m at and assisting
me in the environment that I’m working in is
extremely helpful – it assists me with my skills
where I’m at at any particular time which I think
is the best thing about it. (Interview 2)
(NB Underlining relects vocal emphasis)
All that one-to-one is really beneicial … it’s all
about me! (Interview 2)
Consistent and open dialogue based on mutual
respect, and practical follow-up is an essential
part of this type of professional development,
resulting in a positive change in the teacher’s
practice and their perceptions of their own
25
Bainger
music skills and conidence. With further data
analysis, the group of conidences identiied so
far may well prove to be incomplete. What is clear
is that this collaborative style of professional
development is leading to positive changes in
both the participants perceptions of their own
music skills and conidence, and therefore in
their willingness to be active musically with their
children, and a marked increase in the quantity
and quality of the musical experiences and
learning of the children in their care.
On a practical level, this research posits the
value of funding the long-term development
of teachers in a collaborative, mentoring
relationship directed, in part, by the teachers
themselves. While this would inevitably require
an increase in funding, the question has to be
asked; do we continue with a status quo which
we know to be inefective, where neither children
nor teachers grow musically, or do we invest in an
increase in teachers’ professional skills, to create
a new generation of children who take their
musicality into the future? This may be a way of
ensuring that the negative generational cycle
is broken; children currently in our pre-schools
could at last have valuable musical experiences
to draw upon when they become teachers and
parents.
References
Anderson, L. (2002). Kindergarten teacher’s perspectives
on the role of music in early childhood education.
Unpublished Masters thesis, University of South
Australia, Australia.
Berger, A. A. & Cooper, S. (2003). Musical play: A case
study of preschool children and parents. Journal of
Research in Music Education, 5(2), 151-165
Bodkin, S. (1999). From the personal to the professional:
Teachers own experiences of music and how they
inluence their classroom practices. Paper given at
the International Music Education Research Symposium
(IMERS ’99) Barrett, M. S., McPherson, G. E., & Smith, S.
(Eds) (pp. 84-87).
Bresler, L. & Stake, R. E. (1992). Qualitative research
methodology in music education. In R. Colwell (Ed.)
Handbook of research on music teaching and learning: A
project of the Music Educators National Conference (pp.
75–90). New York: Schirmer Books
26
Brocki, J. M. & Wearden, A. J. (2006). A critical evaluation
of the use of interpretative phenomenological analysis
(IPA) in health psychology. Psychology & Health. 21(1),
87-108
Burton, J., Horowitz, R. & Abeles, H. (1999). Learning
in and through the arts: Curriculum Implications.
In Champions of Change: The impact of the arts on
learning. Arts Education Partnership. pp. 35–46. (Source:
UNE Arts Experience and Learning Resource Book)
Callaghan, M. (2007). Australasian Music Publishers
Association (AMPAL) AMPAL UPDATE: September 2007.
URL: Retrieved December 2008 from http://www.
apra.com.au/publications/Antenna/september07/
AMPALUpdate_Sept07.asp
Chen, J. Q. & Chang, C (2006). Testing the whole teacher
approach to professional development: A study of
enhancing early childhood teachers’ technology
proiciency. Early Childhood Research & Practice, 8(1), 1-18.
Colwell, R. (Ed.) (1992). Handbook of research on music
teaching and learning: A project of the Music Educators
National Conference. New York: Schirmer Books
Crawford, R. (2008). Finding authenticity in music
education research: Fitting strategy to subject.
Unpublished thesis; Monash University, Melbourne,
Australia.
Department of Education, Science and Training. (2005).
National Review of School Music Education (NRSME):
Augmenting the diminished. Australian Government: ACT.
de Vries, P. (2006). Being there: Creating music-making
opportunities in a childcare centre. International
Journal of Music Education, 24(3), 255–270
Feierabend, J. (1990). Music in early childhood. Design for
Arts in Education, 91(6), 15-20
Forrai, K. (1990). Music in preschool. (Trans. J. Sinor).
Budapest: Franklin Publishing House.
Gharavi, G. J. (1993). Music skills for pre-school teachers:
needs and solutions. Arts Education Policy Review, 94(3),
27-31.
Giorgi, A. & Giorgi, B. (2008). Phenomenology. In J. A.
Smith (Ed.) Qualitative Psychology: A Practical Guide to
Research Methods. (pp. 26-52) 2nd Edition. London:
Sage Publications.
Harris, C. E. (1996). Technology, rationalities, and
experience in school music policy: Underlying myths.
Arts Education Policy Review, 97(6), 23.
Jeanneret, N. (1997). Model for developing preservice
primary teachers’ conidence to teach music. Bulletin of
the Council for Research in Music Education, 37-44.
Kagan, D. M. (1992). Professional growth among
preservice and beginning teachers. Review of
Educational Research, 62(2), 129-169
Kent, A. M. (2004). Improving teacher quality through
professional development. Education, 124(3), 427-435.
Lum, C. & Campbell, P. S. (2007). The sonic surrounds
of an elementary school. Journal of Research in Music
Education, 55(1), 31-48.
2010, No. 2
 Music collaboration with early childhood teachers

Marsh, K. (1997). Variation and transmission processes in
children’s singing games in an Australian playground.
Thesis submitted Oct 1979; Department of
Music, University of Sydney. Retrieved August 4,
2009 from http://library.monash.edu.au/vwebv/
holdingsInfo?bibId=2800732
Mills, J. (1989). The generalist primary teacher of music:
A problem of conidence. British Journal of Music
Education, 6(2), 125-138
Nardo, R. L., Custodero, L. A., Persellin, D. C. & Brink Fox,
D. (2006). Looking back, looking forward: A report
on early childhood music education in accredited
American preschools. Journal of Research in Music
Education, 54, 278-292.
Persellin, D. C. (2007). Policies, practices and promises:
Challenges to early childhood music education in the
United States. Arts Education Policy Review, 109(2)54-61
Russell-Bowie, D. (2002). Where in the world are we:
how the perceptions of Australian primary teacher
education students difer from those in four other
countries in relation to their background and
conidence in music education. Australian Journal of
Music Education, 1, 33-44
Smith, J. A. & Osborne, M. (2008). Interpretative
Phenomenological Analysis in Smith, J.A. (Ed.)
Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research
methods. (2nd ed., pp. 53-79). London: Sage Publications.
Suthers, L. (2004). Music experiences for toddlers in day care
centres. Australian Journal of Early Childhood, 29(4), 45-49
Temmerman, N. (1997). Childhood music education
programs: The First Five Years. Australian Journal of
Music Education, 1, 43-57
Temmerman N. (2006). Improving school music
education: We all have a part to play. Professional
Educator, 5(1), 34-39.
White, S. (2003). Learning to be a teacher – Examining
the role of self as researcher in a phenomenological
study. In Educational research, risks and dilemmas.
NZARE/AARE Conference 29 November – 3 December
2003, Auckland New Zealand. New Zealand
Association for Research in Education, 2003.
Wright, S. (2003). The arts, young children and learning.
Boston: Allyn & Bacon
Wiersma, W. & Jurs, S. G. (2009). Research methods in
education: An introduction (9th Ed.). Boston: Pearson/
Allyn and Bacon.
Yardley, L (2008). Demonstrating validity in qualitative
psychology. In Smith, J. (Ed.) Qualitative psychology: A
practical guide to research methods (2nd ed.), (pp. 235-
251). London: SAGE Publications.

Lucy Bainger is a music educator living and working in the Southern Highlands of NSW. Having studied in South
Australia and Hungary, she is currently doing a Masters in Research in music education through Monash University.
Lucy has been a primary and early childhood music educator and trainer for more that two decades and regularly
presents music in-services. In 2007, her book ‘Music Magic’, a music resource for early childhood teachers was
published. Her current research is motivated by a desire to take part in improving the standard of music in early
childhood, by inding the most efective way to support early childhood educators in gaining musical conidence and
skills.

Australian Journal of Music Education 27

 a u s t r a l i a n

s
a o c i e t y

f o r
s m u s i c

m
Middle years teachers’ past
e d u c a t i o n

i n c o r p o r a t e d
e

experiences of the arts: Implications

for teacher education
Susie Garvis and Donna Pendergast

Griith University

Abstract
In the middle years of schooling, spanning grades four to nine, it is common practice for generalist teachers to deliver
integrated arts education. Research conirms that teacher efectiveness with the arts is inluenced by their sense of
eicacy, which is derived from a coalition of factors including conidence, competence, subject mastery and past
experience. This paper investigates one of the factors contributing to teacher self eicacy – their past experience
of arts education, at six key life stages, culminating in their current experience as an arts educator. Two hundred
and one beginning teachers in the middle years completed a questionnaire with open-ended questions designed
to investigate past experiences as one of the factors contributing to teacher self-eicacy. Teachers were located in
Queensland, Australia. Responses were analysed and categorised with a positive or negative valence. The results
reveal that the cohort of respondents reported profoundly divergent past experiences with the arts over the life
stages selected, ranging from a predominance of positive valence experiences during childhood, to predominantly
negative valence experiences during pre-service teacher education and in the early months of teaching. The
relationship between past experiences and the formation of teacher eicacy beliefs is outlined, and implications for
teacher education shared.

Key words: middle years, teacher education, teacher efectiveness.

Australian Journal of Music Education 2010:2, 28-40

Introduction of a comprehensive education leading to the

In the 21 Century knowledge economy there
st
is an increasing demand for creative, lexible,
adaptable and innovative members of the
workforce and of the general community
(UNESCO, 2006). Concomitantly, education
systems are expected to evolve to accommodate
these new conditions. Arts education (in this
case deined as music, dance, drama, visual arts
and media in Queensland) is argued to equip
students with these capacities, enabling them
to express and critically evaluate ideas, and
allowing nations to develop the human resources
necessary to tap their valuable cultural capital
(UNESCO, 2006). Consequently, arts education is
increasingly regarded as an essential component
full development of the individual and ensuring
participation in cultural and artistic life (Australian
Ministerial Council on Education Employment,
Training and Youth Afairs (MCEEYTA, 2005). The
teaching of the arts in the middle years (in this
case deined as grades four to nine) is typically
undertaken by generalist trained teachers, yet, it
is in the main agreed that quality arts education
requires highly skilled professional teachers
with high levels of self eicacy (Andrews, 2006;
Kane, 2008; Oreck, 2001). The teaching of the
arts by generalist teachers with a wide range of
self-eicacy beliefs is reportedly problematic
around the world. Until now, the problem has
been researched from a ‘conidence’ perspective.

28 2010, No. 2

However as Bartel, Cameron, Wiggins and Wiggins
(2004) argue, ‘conidence’ alone is meaningless in
determining self-eicacy unless it is accompanied
by understandings around ‘competence’. When
both elements of conidence and competence
are investigated, then eicacy is determined. In
Australia few studies have explored generalist
teachers from the perspective of self-eicacy,
especially in Queensland where this study was
conducted.
Teacher self-eicacy
Teacher eicacy or self-belief is the “extent to
which the teacher believes he or she has the
capacity to afect student performance” (Bergman
et al., 1977, p. 137). It is constructed within the
broader understandings of self-eicacy theory,
which emphasises that people can exercise
inluence over what they do (Bandura, 2006). Self-
eicacy is deined as “beliefs in one’s capabilities
to organise and execute the courses of action
required to produce given attainments” (Bandura,
1997, p. 3). Self-eicacy theory is one of only a
few conceptualisations of human control that
describes a distinction between competence and
conidence, used as a future oriented judgment.
People use eicacy beliefs to guide their lives by
being self-organising, proactive, self-regulating
and self-relecting (Bandura, 2006). This means
that people may regulate their own behaviour
through motivation, thought processes, afective
states and actions or changing environmental
conditions based around their eicacy beliefs.
Perceived self-eicacy provides guidelines for
enabling people to exercise some inluence over
how they live their lives, leading to enhanced
conidence and competence.
Self-eicacy beliefs inluence thought
patterns and emotions that enable actions in
which people can pursue goals, rebound from
setbacks and exercise some control over events
that afect their lives (Bandura, 1986, 1993, 1996,
1997). Efective functioning requires skills as
well as the belief to use them well (Bandura,
Australian Journal of Music Education
Middle years teachers’ past experiences
1997). They afect performance both directly
and by inluencing intentions. Moreover, they
are not considered a stable character trait of
an individual, but rather an active and learned
system of beliefs in context (Bandura, 1997).
From this perspective, self-eicacy operates as
a key aspect in a generative system of human
competence. Bandura (1997) notes that people
with high self-eicacy choose to perform more
challenging tasks. They will set higher goals
and commit to them. Once an action has been
taken, highly self-eicacious people invest
more efort and persist longer than those with
low self-eicacy. High self-eicacy also allows
individuals to select challenging settings, explore
their environment and create new environments
if needed. Alternatively, low eicacy beliefs are
easily negated by disconirming experiences that
may cause anxiety, depression and helplessness
within the speciic context.
Teacher self-eicacy is dependent upon their
own beliefs about their competence, school
context, and pressures of the curriculum and
beneits of the arts for students. These beliefs
operate as a key factor in a generative system
of human competence (Bandura, 1997), leading
to the assumption that they are powerful
inluences on the overall teachers’ efectiveness
with students. Enactive mastery experiences are
considered to be the most powerful inluence
as it provides authentic evidence of one’s
performance in a given situation (Bandura,
1997), and this applies to beginning teachers
(Mulholland & Wallace, 2001). A successful
performance by a teacher may lead to increased
self-eicacy, while a failed performance creates
a decrease in self-eicacy. Eicacy feedback
however is not related to the performance
but the cognitive processing of the diagnostic
information provided by the performance
(Bandura, 1997). As such, as teachers develop
mastery experiences, they will rely on these
heavily as memories and interpretations of similar
past teaching experiences (Tschannen-Moran,
Woolfolk Hoy & Hoy, 1998). Mastery innovations
29
Garvis and Pendergast
have included forms of self-relection (Henson,
2001; Moss, 1997; Shachar & Schumuelevitz,
1997), that facilitate the use of self-regulatory
processes in interpreting enactive mastery
experiences, enhancing self-eicacy (Schunk &
Zimmerman, 1997).
Past experience is also seen as a contributor
to the development of teacher eicacy.
Russell-Bowie and Dowson’s (2005) study of
936 generalist primary teachers across ive
countries found that most “had very little formal
background in any of the art forms,” and that
“in every creative arts area, background is very
strongly, and positively, predictive of conidence
and enjoyment in teaching”, regardless of gender
(p. 7). In her study of New South Wales pre-service
teachers Kane (2008) found that although many
had studied music and played instruments at
one time, they confessed they were no longer
musically active and had forgotten much of what
they had learned. This suggests that the level and
amount of previous experience is an important
contribution to teachers’ self-eicacy in the arts.
Jeanneret et al. (2006, p. 79) observed that
“many pre-service primary teachers have had
negative prior experience with the arts and
that ‘unpacking baggage’ brought with the
students is almost as important in some cases as
acquiring knowledge and skills associated with
the discipline”. These past experiences impact
teacher self-eicacy. Afective states caused by
emotional arousal may create negative beliefs for
beginning teachers. For example, an individual
with previous personal failure may create high
emotional arousal, leading to fear provoking
thoughts that far exceed what would actually
occur if the individual attempted the feared
task (Tosun, 2000). High emotional arousal may
also be created by observing failure in a similar
situation, or from negative verbal persuasion.
Science teacher self-eicacy research has found
that beginning teachers who lacked conidence
in teaching science deemphasized or avoided
teaching science altogether for fear of failure
(Tosun, 2000). This suggests that the emotions
30
attached to certain subject domains relay fear
provoking thoughts to the cognitive processing
for self-eicacy, creating patterns of avoidance
behaviour. The problem of emotional arousal as
a negative source for eicacy in science teacher
education may also be present in arts education,
explaining patterns of avoidance behaviour.
However, without clear evidence of when or how
these afective states are created and impact
upon self-eicacy development, it is impossible
to provide suitable support structures necessary
to develop self-eicacy.
Importantly, research about the relationship
between teachers’ sense of eicacy and student
outcomes reveals a positive relationship, that is,
increased teacher self-eicacy is correlated with
improved student outcomes (Armor et al., 1976;
Ashton & Webb, 1986; Moore & Esselman, 1992;
Ross, 1992). This can be attributed in part because
teachers with high self-eicacy are more likely
to provide challenging and rigorous learning
opportunities compared to those with lower self-
eicacy (Coladarci, 1992; Allinder, 1994).
The study
There is limited research that investigates the
relationship between past experiences and the
eicacy of generalist arts teachers in Queensland,
Australia. Furthermore, in Queensland there is
no previous research focussed on beginning
generalist teachers’ eicacy in teaching the
arts, and how this self-belief is inluenced by
their past experiences. This paper focuses on
this one factor inluencing beginning teacher
eicacy and is drawn from a larger study (PhD
thesis) investigating teacher self eicacy and
arts teaching. In this study the middle years is
deined as grades four to nine. In Australia there
is not consistent deinition for middle years of
schooling.
Memory cues as life stages were used to
explore personal experiences with the arts from
childhood to the present through the use of
ordered recall. Working backwards from the
present, a successful item is primarily a function
2010, No. 2

of recency (Whitten & Leonard, 1981). Moreover,
the item recalled acts as a cue for the next item in
the ordered list (Foddy, 1993).
Seven selected past experiences were recalled
for each respondent: their childhood; as a
teenager; as a young adult; during pre-service
teacher courses; during practical experience as a
pre-service teacher, as a new teacher within the
irst months of being employed; and inally, as
a beginning teacher with less than three years
experience. The past experience associated with
the respondents as pre-service teacher were
further divided into two sections for greater
insights when reporting: the pre-service teacher
in education related courses; and the pre-service
teacher engaged in professional experience in
the classroom. The seven stages were selected
as they are signiicant developmental stages and
times of transition for self-eicacy beliefs and are
likely to serve as ilters at key times of change.
This is explained by Burke-Spero and Woolfolk
Hoy (2003) who argue that when investigating
teacher self-eicacy in its development in
unfamiliar contexts, it is important to consider
the possibility of a cultural lens that may ilter
information creating instability of interpretation.
A cultural lens is considered a cognitive ilter,
inluencing interpretation of eicacy sources.
Interpretations are made about personal beliefs,
behaviours, and attitudes that have their origin
in a speciic sociocultural frame (Burke-Spero
& Woolfolk Hoy, 2003). The iltering process
creates unstable teacher eicacy beliefs and
shifts according to the speciics of the content or
context (Burke-Spero & Woolfolk Hoy, 2003). In
this study, the changing context is diferent time
frames in the participants’ lives.
Method
In 2008, two hundred and one (201) beginning
generalist teachers (within the irst three years
of teaching since graduation) responded to an
invitation to take part in teacher self-eicacy
Australian Journal of Music Education
Middle years teachers’ past experiences
research. Respondents were recruited by
advertising in professional teacher publications,
at schools and at beginning teacher conferences.
An information letter was provided to potential
participants detailing the study. If a beginning
teacher expressed an interest in participating,
they were provided with contact details of the
research team. The questionnaire was then
emailed to the participant. Respondents were
advised that on return of their questionnaire, all
information would immediately be de-identiied.
Two hundred and one beginning generalist
teachers responded to the initial invitation,
with an almost 100% response rate of returned
questionnaires.
Beginning teachers were asked to write what
they could remember about the Arts in each
of the six stages of the past experiences. The
question was open-ended, providing opportunity
for beginning teachers to discuss the past
experience.
Responses were given a valence of either
positive or negative. No responses about prior
experience created a neutral value response.
Positive and negative response were then
analysed using content analysis. Content analysis
is “a research technique for making replicable and
valid inferences from texts (or other meaningful
matter) to the contexts of their use” (Krippendorf,
2004, p. 18). An adapted version of Cavana,
Delahaye & Sekaran’s (2003, p. 171) 15 stages
of content analysis (based within the constant
comparative method) was used to identify key
themes and meanings in life experiences. This
process allows newly identiied themes to be
compared with previously identiied themes
to ensure that the new theme does add more
understanding about the phenomenon under
investigation. Themes were located with
frequency counts, with 100% responses for all life
stages in the questionnaire. Coding for manifest
content (Wallen & Fraenkel, 2001) was employed
which acknowledges what was directly said in
the questionnaires, as opposed to latent content
which is implied.
31
Garvis and Pendergast

Context of Queensland of teachers (65.2% female and 34.8% male) were

In Queensland, arts education is deined as
music, dance, drama, visual arts and media.
It is expected that all generalist teachers are
capable of teaching the arts as a key learning area
alongside maths, English, Health and Physical
Education, Technology, Science and Studies of
Society and Environment.
In Queensland state schools, all primary school
students have access to a thirty minute music
lesson with a music specialist. In independent
schools this may or may not occur. In schools
that do not have a music specialist, music is
considered the responsibility of the generalist
teacher.
Demographics
The respondents were 201 beginning (less
than three years since commencing teaching)
generalist teachers of grades four to nine
throughout Queensland. Participants were aged
between 21 and 52 years. Results for the gender
similar to the reported ratio of 68.7% (female)
and 31.3% (male) by the Australian Bureau of
Statistics (2002) for the general teacher cohort.
The majority of beginning teachers were under
35 years of age (76.7%).
Results
The past experiences of beginning teachers were
analysed to reveal whether these experiences
were positive or negative, and to explore the
details of the comments as they impacted on
their self eicacy beliefs in the arts. Prospective
teachers bring to their classrooms beliefs,
attitudes, and prejudices that they have learned
through their lifetime (Pajares, 1992). Experiences
during the teenage years (when self-esteem was
developing) and pre-service teacher education
seemed to hold the strongest emotional arousal
for beginning teachers not to engage with the
arts. This psychological arousal appeared to add
to feelings of incompetence. Thus, it was possible
to see evidence of a cognitive lens (Burke-

100

90

80

70

60
Positive
%

50
Negative
40

30

20

10

0
Childhood Teenager Young adult Pre-service Pre-service Within the Current
teacher teacher first months
education - education - of teaching
education practical
Life Stages related experience
courses

Life Stages
Figure 1: Positive and negative valence of past experiences related to arts education

32 2010, No. 2

Spero and Woolfolk Hoy, 2003) during cognitive
processing of eicacy beliefs as beginning
teacher’s perceptions of self-eicacy became
unstable as they shifted into unfamiliar contexts.
A summary of the valence of past experiences is
presented in Figure 1 and each stage is discussed
in turn.
Childhood
As can be seen in Figure 1, the majority of
beginning teachers reported positive experiences
(86%) with the arts either in school classrooms or
in private lessons during childhood.
Respondents often used the word “like”, “love”
and “enjoyment” to describe their childhood
experience. For example:
I wasn’t shy and loved to be part of live
performances, public speaking or anything ‘artsy’.
Good memories and feelings towards the arts as
a child. (Respondent, 10)
Always played with paints, loved to draw and
was encouraged to bring my artwork home and
stick on the fridge. Nothing negative ever came
from art in this time of my life. (Respondent, 64)
I always enjoyed artistic ventures, was into
art and crafts, visited galleries and museums,
performed in plays and choirs etc.(Respondent, 9)
Respondents described inluences with a positive
valence from family towards the arts. They
suggested their parents were encouraging of the
arts and would often model arts engagement for
them:
Some of the happiest family memoires in some
way involve the arts (family concerts, activities).
(Respondent, 1)
I learned piano at a young age and was always
surrounded by a variety of music from my Welsh
parents who were always singing. I loved art
and drawing and dancing with my friends.
(Respondent, 16)
A minority of respondents (14%) reported not
having experienced arts education during their
primary schooling, or had negative memories
associated with the arts from their schooling. For
example:
Australian Journal of Music Education
Middle years teachers’ past experiences
Criticism has a deinite efect and way of
discouraging a shy child from stepping outside
the bounds of security and the known to venture
into the unknown. Taking risks was not part of
my make-up. (Respondent, 17)
I cannot recall having many experiences in
drama, and occasionally we did an art project at
school. I dearly would have loved more visual arts
activities as a child (as I loved to draw) but so few
of our teachers ever did art with their classes. It
was an “if we have time activity”.
(Respondent, 96)
The emotional arousal associated with
these negative experiences may hinder the
development of beginning teacher self-eicacy
for the arts.
Teenager
During the teenage years, respondents reported
more negative experiences (54%) of the arts
than positive (46%), a shift from their childhood
experiences which were mostly positive (86%).
The use of emotive terms such as “love” and
“like” of the arts were replaced with the word
“study”, showing the academic shift towards
high school studies of the arts. The arts were
no longer considered for enjoyment, but rather
a pursuit of skill. A number of respondents
described negative experiences from specialist
arts teachers. Critical comments appeared to
create negative emotions towards the arts, with
students immediately disengaging with the arts
at school. Examples of such comments include:
The arts teachers were too critical and did not
encourage enjoyment. (Respondent, 161)
I studied visual arts up to year 10 at school but
the teacher was very negative and critical of what
I produced so I didn’t take up any more visual arts
for a number of years. (Respondent, 16)
I hated all of it due to lack of conidence and
ability. [I] tried out for choir and was told I had
a terrible voice and did dance in high school to
discover I had bad rhythm. (Respondent, 4)
Some respondents described having to consider
future job prospects, as they were asked to
33
Garvis and Pendergast
study other subjects that were considered
more academic and necessary for their future.
Respondents also suggested their high school did
not support the arts. It did not appear that all of
the arts had been taught, or were considered of
low importance in the school compared to other
endeavours, such as reported by Respondent 25
below:
High school music continued, however the high
school programme was not as advanced as the
primary school. Competing interests from sport
saw a lack of motivation to continue beyond
school. I attended an all boys high school
and there was a sporting culture in place that
thwarted teachers eforts to initiate choirs etc.
(Respondent, 25)
The minority of respondents who described
enjoying arts activities in their high school years
were sometimes involved in arts communities or
private lessons outside of high school. These were
described by respondents as being engaging and
interesting, for example:
Very involved and interested in various arts
communities. I feel I have still retained a lot of
knowledge from these experiences.
(Respondent, 10)
I had a vibrant theatrical society in Fiji which
was committed to putting on productions
(Respondent, 21).
The high school experiences of the beginning
teacher respondents report a strong shift in their
perceptions towards arts education compared
to what they reported from their childhood.
Criticisms from specialist teachers, the shift
to “study” as opposed to “enjoyment”, the
undervaluing of arts in schools and job prospects
appeared to contribute to negative perceptions
towards the arts.
Young Adult
The majority of respondents described various
positive experiences with the arts (74%), during
the time of being a young adult.
Positive experiences included undertaking
classes in the arts, joining arts communities,
34
personal enjoyment, appreciation of
performances and undertaking degree and
careers in arts related professions, as reported by
the following respondents:
I started folk art lessons in my mid thirties and
really enjoyed the experience. This started my
love of painting however, I still lack conidence
in this area. I also joined my daughter’s dance
classes and performed on stage at the Christmas
concert. This gives me an understanding of
what my students face each time they engage in
drama (Respondent, 4).
My arts degree I majored in Drama and I was
involved in my own amateur theatre groups. I
also taught drama at the local dance school. I
sing and play guitar and have worked in bands
(Respondent, 39).
I loved participating in the arts. I engage
with ilms on a regular basis and use those
as entertainment as well as education. In my
spare time, I like to paint pictures which can go
on my wall. I enjoy expressing myself through
colours and imagery rather than through words
(Respondent, 64).
Twenty-six per cent of respondents suggested
having experiences with a negative valence or no
experience with the arts as young adults. They
reported that they were not ‘artistic’, the arts did
not relate to their university studies, job or life
and there was not enough time to engage with
the arts due to busy lives. For example:
I moved away from the arts as I did not study any
of those subjects and they didn’t pertain to my life
or job. (Respondent, 45)
No time for the arts in personal life-too busy.
(Respondent, 50)
I am not an ‘artistic’ person. [I] wished I had done
Art as a subject in high school but felt I wasn’t
good at it. (Respondent, 116)
I feel worlds apart from musical knowledge and
see it as a very diicult and out of reach area of
knowledge. (Respondent, 22)
I was not good at the arts and therefore stopped
engaging with them. (Respondent, 33)
Pre-service Teacher
Experiences in education related courses
Seventy-four per cent of beginning teacher
respondents described negative experiences
2010, No. 2

with arts during their teacher education courses.
Problems included: the need for application
of their arts courses to a teaching context;
conlict with lecturers/ tutors; limited exposure
at university to the range of arts subjects;
competing subject interests with Maths and
English; assessment and general pressure within
arts subjects.
Respondents described arts courses as needing
more application to the teaching context. Arts
courses were considered to be too theorised.
Some beginning teachers also suggested the arts
course did not improve their skills or knowledge,
as reported following:
Arts education courses at university were very
airy fairy, due to the fact that they didn’t provide
any hands on experience. Theory is good in a
university situation, but in the real world all that
theory goes out the door the minute you walk
into a classroom…MAKE IT RELEVANT TODAY!
NOT YESTERDAY. (Respondent, 64)
I studied externally so I learnt everything from
texts. No observations of arts teaching during
university at all. (Respondent, 82)
I felt the uni[versity] arts class was a waste of
time. I did not learn how to teach any form of the
arts comprehensively. (Respondent, 132)
I undertook one unit at university “intro to
literature and drama”. I didn’t enjoy this unit at all.
We seemed to learn little theory or understanding
of components of theatre. Much of the contact
[time] was spent doing ‘embarrassing’ drama
activities, in which I always felt uncomfortable. I
remember feeling very frustrated at having to pay
for a course that had me “galloping around like
a horse”. We were also given numerous contact
hours to put together our own skit-rather than
learning how to by our lecturer. (Respondent, 58)
Respondents also described lecturers and
tutors who were too critical, unsupportive and
inequitable in their teaching and learning of the
arts. For example:
We had a lecturer that was a bit over the top in
terms of her criticism of the arts pieces that we
had to do for assessment. (Respondent, 6)
As it was the irst year my degree was run I
felt some of the lecturers made excuses for
disorganisation in my course. Some of the arts
Australian Journal of Music Education
Middle years teachers’ past experiences
courses were changed after our year as they did
not meet expectations of the uni[versity] or the
students. (Respondent, 95)
Lecturer were not very interesting and/or
incomprehensible. (Respondent, 27)
Respondents reported what they perceived to
be a lower valuing of the arts within teacher
education programmes. They suggested the
university placed greater emphasis on maths and
English, viz:
General education lecturers only provided a ‘duh’
kind of common sense outlook and overview of
schooling life for the teacher. Too much focus was
placed on maths and English and middle years
and not enough focus placed on the importance
of arts education. (Respondent, 12)
Sixteen per cent of the respondent beginning
teachers did, however, present positive
comments towards their arts education course
in teacher education. These positive experiences
were based around some arts courses being
seen as relevant to teaching, peer interaction
and assessment, as evidenced in the following
comments:
I was conident that I was going to have an ‘artsy’
classroom where all forms of meaningful arts
experiences were implemented (Respondent,
114).
I enjoyed working with my peers at uni[versity]
when completing visual art, music and drama
activities (Respondent, 14).
My best learning experiences in this course were
tutorial based whereby each group would get
to teach the rest of the group a lesson in the arts
(Respondent, 24).
Overall, the majority of beginning teachers did
not consider they had adequate teacher training
and considered this a major deterrent to teach
the arts.
Experience whilst undertaking professional
learning in school classrooms
Practical experience during teacher education
helped examine the socialisation of beginning
teachers into the schooling culture. Sixty-three
35
Garvis and Pendergast
per cent described negative experiences towards
the arts while on practical experience.
Respondents described limited opportunities
to observe arts teaching, with the school
curriculum focusing on other key learning
areas and a general struggle with behaviour
management. Comments revealing these
scenarios include:
Many of my prac[tical experiences] teachers
did not do the arts. If they did do the arts, it was
visual arts, and it was just drawing of something
related to the current theme of the unit. No
techniques were explicitly taught. At one school,
they did have an “Artist in Residence” programme
which was fantastic! (Respondent, 56)
On my irst prac[tical experiences] at a public
state school I was involved in art groups that
consisted of all of the things that I had avoided in
my work in my work in early childhood centres.
Stencilled outlines of horses that children had
to collage over, bubble blowing painting- where
was the freedom of expression in that? When
doing a maths lesson in subtraction for a year 2
class, I sang ten green bottles with the class. The
children sang along happily but my supervising
teacher told me to keep the noise down so as not
to disturb the children next door. (Respondent,
16)
I had no practical experience during pracs,
because the focus was on maths and English.
(Respondent, 11)
I only saw a focus towards maths and
English, especially before the national exams.
(Respondent, 146)
Nevertheless, 37% of beginning teachers
described scenarios with a positive valence
while on professional practical experience. These
were largely relected by a school culture that
valued the arts. Respondents reported of the
opportunity to form relationships with students
through the arts, ‘on a diferent level’.
I had many opportunities to teach the arts on prac.
One prac[tical experience] I did a dramatisation of
the pied piper that was challenging. The children
enjoyed it. On prac[tical experience] the school had
a dance group come in and teach the children to
dance. (Respondent, 130)
I was at a private school that valued music.
36
There were abundant resources for the students
and their achievement level was above average
across the board. The students also wanted to
learn, they could see that resources were being
provided for them and they wanted to know how
to play on an instrument or record on a music
program. (Respondent, 12)
For these respondents, practical experience
could therefore be viewed as an important time
for teacher self-eicacy development, when
beginning teachers take on values and beliefs
associated with the school’s collective eicacy
towards the arts.
Within the irst months of commencing
teaching
The majority of respondents described negative
valence experiences during the irst months
of beginning teaching (72%). Respondents
frequently reported that they lacked conidence,
were continually struggling, lacked time to focus
on the arts and didn’t have supportive teaching
colleagues who valued the arts. Comments
typical of these responses include:
I have a negative teaching partner who didn’t like
the arts. (Respondent, 160)
I lacked conidence. Limited time to develop
skills- English and maths units were far more
demanding of my time. (Respondent, 61)
I lacked conidence to experiment with diferent
classroom situations in my irst few months of
teaching. Thus, I was hesitant to do drama and
whole class painting or construction to begin
with. (Respondent, 2)
I sometimes had diiculties knowing what I could
and couldn’t do in a particular school because
what was outlined on paper was not what
actually occurred. (Respondent, 9)
Just under one-third (28%) of participants
described positive experiences teaching the arts
during the irst months of teaching. Beginning
teachers appeared to have a “realisation” of the
importance of arts in their classroom. For some
teachers, this was achieved by having supportive
teaching partners:
2010, No. 2

I realised the arts (in many forms) generally
connect with the students in some way therefore
it is important to integrate the concepts across all
subjects. (Respondent, 22)
I was fortunate to pair up with a teaching
partner who was also passionate about
teaching in the Arts. We established a classroom
environment that adopted the diversity of the
Arts which ensured each and every student had
the opportunity to learn both in a theoretical
and practical sense to appreciate the Arts.
(Respondent, 20)
It was daunting to teach any subject in the
irst month let alone the arts! But I found the
teacher aides to be invaluable in assisting me to
ind suitable activities and resources during my
lessons. (Respondent, 59)
Again, the school culture appears to contribute to
teacher’s self-eicacy for the arts. Teachers’ beliefs
became unstable as they shifted to an unknown
context, however they valued the support from
other school colleagues.
Beginning teacher (currently)
Respondents, now at the stage of being
beginning teachers with less than three years
experience, commented on their current
experiences with arts education. Almost half
(47%) described positive valence experiences.
Respondents revealed that because of the
overcrowded curriculum, integration was a way
of addressing the absence of arts education.
Respondents commented:
[I] love using the arts as a teaching tool rather
than running speciic lessons in the arts. I am
trying to integrate it into my classroom and use
activities as a way of learning. (Respondent, 1)
I enjoy arts in my classroom because students
enjoy it and it allows me to see another side of
their character. (Respondent, 6)
I enjoy teaching within the arts and ind that
I am able to have positive relationships and
experiences with my students. (Respondent, 9)
However, over half (53%) of beginning teachers
reported negative experiences. Some beginning
teachers found it hard to integrate the arts, were
Australian Journal of Music Education
Middle years teachers’ past experiences
restrained by school policy, negative student
behaviour and problems with suitable planning.
The following comments reveal such challenges:
At the moment I am worried that I’m not covering
certain strands properly- sorry that students are
missing out on potentially good experiences-
thinking about how I can improve things for next
year. (Respondent, 71)
Dance and drama are not taught often in
primary school and when we do dance and
drama, students are over excited and this can
spoil the learning experience. (Respondent, 56)
I wish the curriculum wasn’t so overloaded
so I would have more of an opportunity to
teach the arts, especially visual art and drama.
(Respondent, 29)
I struggle with a new grade to combine/integrate
the arts at a higher level. I integrate drama and
media with ease. I attempted a great visual arts
unit but failed (the art process did not work) but I
did feel it was educational. (Respondent, 22)
Due to mandated additional remedial programs
at my current school, [there is] very little time for
arts (Respondent, 116).
Discussion and implications
This study reveals that the cohort of respondents
reported profoundly divergent past experiences
with the arts over the seven stages selected,
ranging from a predominance of experiences
with a positive valence during childhood, to
predominantly negative valence experiences
during pre-service teacher education and in the
early months of teaching. This pattern of past
experiences is one of the coalition of factors
shaping their sense of eicacy as teachers of
arts education (Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk
Hoy & Hoy, 1998). Teachers’ beliefs appeared to
become unstable as they underwent cognitive
iltering in new contexts. While primary school
might be considered a ‘golden age’, it was deeply
contrasted against the negativity associated with
the teenage years. Likewise, pre-service teacher
education and practical experience appeared to
be a negative experience for many beginning
teachers. When these beginning teachers
37
Garvis and Pendergast
entered schools, they felt they did not have the
conidence or skills to teach the arts and were
often exposed to a school culture that did not
value the arts. Since teacher self-eicacy is still
forming within the irst three years of teaching
(Bandura, 1997), many of the sources of eicacy
did not appear to contribute positively to teacher
self-eicacy for the arts. Support structures to
sustain teacher self-eicacy with the arts existed
in very few schools reported in this study.
Ironically, the cohort of respondents in this
study (Queensland beginning teachers of
students in their irst three years of teaching
in the middle years) report similar levels of
positive and negative experiences in their current
teaching of the arts (47% positive, 53% negative)
as they reportedly experienced as teenage
students (46% positive, 54% negative). In their
current classrooms they are teaching this age
group. It is interesting to consider whether their
experience and that of their current teenage
students would align so closely.
The results from this survey suggest that
beginning generalist teachers, as respondents
in this study, revealed more negative past
experiences of the arts at the survey points of
interest in the study than positive experiences,
and this was true of their current experience as a
beginning teacher. Speciically:
• While childhood was viewed as a ‘golden age’
for the arts for most of the beginning teachers,
the teenage years appeared negative for the
majority of respondents because of teacher
criticism, negative school culture towards the
arts and competing subjects. A general shift
was evident from enjoying the arts to studying
the arts.
• During teacher education, some respondents
reported that lecturers and tutors were
critical, learning objectives in the arts courses
inappropriate, and there was a perception
of competing demands between the arts;
and English and maths. Some beginning
teachers did not study arts as part of their
pre-service teacher education. While on
38
professional practical experience the majority
of respondents reported being exposed to a
negative school culture towards the arts, with
a greater emphasis on English and maths.
• During their beginning months of teaching,
they were again exposed to a negative school
culture towards the arts, with little support in
their teaching.
The results of this study also reveal diferences
between personal enjoyment of the Arts and
professional enjoyment of the Arts. When
beginning teachers were young adults 74%
enjoyed Arts experiences. Currently when
teaching the Arts, only 28% reported positive
experiences. Results again highlight the well
documented gap between Arts activities
undertaken outside of school and Arts education
in schools. This study suggests the gap is not
only limited to school students, beginning
teachers also experience a diference between
personal and professional Arts experiences (in
the classroom and during teacher education).
While teachers may actively engage with the
Arts outside of school, within the classroom
teaching the Arts is not a positive experience.
Subsequently, negativity towards teaching the
Arts may lead the beginning teacher to reduce
or remove Arts education from their teaching
altogether.
For teacher educators, this study serves as
a reminder that pre-service teachers bring
with them a range of past experiences which
impact on their beliefs about arts education.
It is paramount to provide opportunities for
the development of positive experiences and
mastery in the arts, and for self-relection and
the opportunity to confront negative beliefs. Part
of this is ensuring that pedagogical experiences
in lectures and tutorials do not reinforce cycles
of failure as may have typiied past experiences.
Teacher educators should develop greater
awareness of their contribution to developing
positive teacher self-eicacy through the
experiences they create for their students.
2010, No. 2

Teacher educators must also acknowledge
pre-service teacher engagement with the
Arts outside of teacher education. Pre-service
teachers may actively engage in attending
concerts, art galleries, dance classes and drawing
classes. Teacher educators must ind a way
to include and build on pre-service teacher’s
personal experiences in teacher education by
re-examining current Arts education content
taught within generalist teacher training. Content
must irst focus on the interests of the pre-service
generalist teacher before further knowledge
development can occur.
This paper raises interesting questions about
the continual cycle and impact of deicient arts
education in Queensland schools. It documents
the overall valence of past experiences which
impact on the development of teacher self-
eicacy. It also provides a platform for future
research into creating supportive school cultures
and teacher education that supports positive
arts engagement. In particular, it would be
interesting to investigate the impact of enhanced
in-service training and school support for the
arts for beginning generalist teachers and
their subsequent perceived self-eicacy. Do
these support structures change negative past
experiences associated with the arts? If we are
dedicated to improving arts in schools so all
students can develop positive engagement with
the arts, we must look at intervention in all life
stages, to help develop positive values and beliefs
towards the arts.
Results from the respondents, who are deined
in this case as beginning generalist teachers with
no more than 3 years teaching experience, reveal
inluences from past experiences in teaching the
arts towards their current teacher self-eicacy.
While this relationship was not tested statistically,
it can be conidently predicted that there is a
signiicant relationship between teacher self-
eicacy and the impact of past experience
(Bandura, 1997). Past experiences create
emotional arousal that may sometimes further
Australian Journal of Music Education
Middle years teachers’ past experiences
hinder the likelihood of beginning teachers
engaging with the arts. There is considerable
evidence in the comments cited in this paper
to support this belief. This hypothesis however,
requires further investigation. A study involving
multivariate statistics would enable further
investigation of this hypothesis. If it is true, as
teachers, teacher educators, administrators and
policy makers we must look at past experiences
as a signiicant contributor to the motivational
construct of arts teacher self-eicacy, which
ultimately impacts on student learning outcomes.
References
Allinder, R. M. (1994). The relationships between eicacy
and the instructional practices of special education
teachers and consultants. Teacher Education and
Special Education, 17(2), 86-95.
Andrews, B. W. (2006). Re-play: Re-assessing the
efectiveness of a collaborative approach to program
delivery in arts teacher education. International Review
of Education, 55(2), 443-459.
Armor, D., Conroy-Oseguera, P., Cox, M., King, N.,
McDonnell, L., Pascal, A., Pauly, E., & Zellman, G. (1976).
Analysis of the school preferred reading programs in
selected Los Angeles minority schools. Santa Monica,
CA: RAND.
Ashton, P. T., & Webb, R. B. (1986). Making a diference:
Teachers’ sense of eicacy and student achievement.
New York: Longman.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2003). Children’s
participation in cultural and leisure activities, Australia,
Retrieved online on 31 October 2007 from <www.abs.
gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/0b14d86e14a1215eca256
9d70080031c?OpenDocument.>
Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-eicacy in cognitive
development and functioning. Educational
Psychologist, 28(2), 117-148.
Bandura, A. (1995). Manual for the construction of self-
eicacy scales. Stanford University, Stanford, CA.
Published in F. Pajares & T. Urdan (Eds.). Self-eicacy
beliefs of adolescents, (Vol. 5., pp. 307-337). Greenwich,
CT: Information Age Publishing.
Bandura, A. (1996). Ontological and epistemological
terrains revisited. Journal of Behavior Therapy and
Experimental Psychiatry, 27, 323-345.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-eicacy: The exercise of control.
New York: W.H. Freeman.
Bandura, A. (2006a). Adolescent Development from an
Agentic Perspective. In F. Pajares & T. Urdan (Eds.), Self-
eicacy beliefs of Adolescents (pp. 1- 44). Connecticut:
Information Age Publishing.
39
Garvis and Pendergast
Bartel, L., Cameron, L., Wiggins, J., & Wiggins, R. (2004).
Implications of generalist teachers’ self-eicacy related
to Music. In P. M. Shand (Ed.), Music education entering
the 21st century (pp. 85-90). Nedlands, AU: International
Society for Music Education.
Bergman, P., McLaughlin, M., Bass, M., Pauly, E., & Zellman,
G. (1977). Federal Programs supporting Educational
Change VII, Factors afecting Implementation and
Continuation. Rand: Santa Monica CA.
Burke-Spero, R. & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2003). Thick
description: A qualitative investigation of Developing
Teachers’ Perceived Eicacy. Unpublished manuscript,
Ohio State University.
Coladarci, T. (1992). Teachers’ sense of eicacy and
commitment to teaching. Journal of Experimental
Education, 60, 323-337.
Foddy, W. (1993).Constructing Questions for Interviews and
Questionnaires: Theory and Practice in Social Research,
London: Cambridge University Press.
Henson, R.K. (2001). The efects of participation in
teacher research on teacher eicacy. Teaching and
Teacher Education, 17, 493-508.
Jeanneret, N., Brown, R., Bird, J., Sinclair, C., Imms, W.,
Watkins, M., & Donelan, K. (2006). Encounters with
engaging pedagogy: Arts education for the pre-service
primary generalist. Paper presented at Backing our
Creativity: National Education and the Arts Symposium
2005.Canberra: Australian Arts Council. Retrieved on 2
February 2010 from http://www.australiacouncil.gov.
au/research/education_and_the_arts/reports_and_
publications/backing_our_creativity_symposium_
inal_report
Kane, J. (2008). Interplay: Factors afecting the Music
teaching self-eicacy of pre-service student teachers.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of New
South Wales.
Krippendorf, K. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction
to its methodology, 2nd ed. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Ministerial Council on Employment, Education, Training
and Youth Afairs. (2005). National Education and the
Arts Statement.. Retrieved online on 27 January 2007
from http://www.curriculum.edu.au/verve/_resources/
National_Education_Arts_Statement.pdf
Moore, W., & Esselman, M. (1992). Teacher eicacy, power,
school climate and achievement: A desegregating
district’s experience. Paper presented at the Annual
Meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, San Francisco.
Susanne Garvis is a lecturer in arts and early childhood at Griith University Gold Coast. She recently completed her
PhD exploring teacher self-eicacy for the Arts.
Associate Professor Donna Pendergast is the Head of School for Education and Professional Studies at Griith
University on the Gold Coast. She has conducted a number of national research projects of signiicance including
“Beyond the Middle”, which investigated literacy and numeracy in middle schooling; and “Lifelong Learning and Middle
Schooling”.
40
Moss, C. M. (1997). Systematic self-relection: Professional
development for the relective practitioner. Paper
presented at the annual meeting of the American
Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL.
Mulholland, J. & Wallace, J. (2001). Teacher induction and
elementary science teaching: Enhancing self-eicacy.
Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 243- 261.
Oreck, B. (2001). The Arts in teaching: An investigation
of factors inluencing teachers’ use of the Arts in
the classroom. Doctoral dissertation, University of
Connecticut, Storrs.
Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers’ beliefs and educational
research: Cleaning up a messy construct. Review of
Educational Research, 62(3), 307-332.
Russell-Bowie, D., & Dowson, M. (2005). Efects of
Background and Sex on Conidence in Teaching the
Creative Arts: Tests of speciic hypotheses. Paper
presented at the Australian Association for Research in
Education, 2005, Sydney.
Schunk, D. H. & Zimmerman, B. J. (1997). Social origins of
self-regulatory competence. Educational Psychologist,
32(4), 195-208.
Shachar, H. & Shumuelevitz, H. (1997). Implementing
cooperative learning, Teacher collaboration and
teachers’ sense of eicacy in heterogeneous high
schools. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 22, 53-72.
Tschannen-Moran, M., Woolfolk Hoy, A., & Hoy, W. K.
(1998). Teacher eicacy: its meaning and measure.
Review of Educational Research, 68, 202-248.
Tosun, T. (2000). The beliefs of pre-service elementary
teachers toward science and science teaching. School
Science and Mathematics, 100, 374-379.
UNESCO. (2006). Road Map for Arts Education World
Conference on Arts Education: Building Creative
Capacities for the 21st Century. Lisbon, Portugal, 6-9
March, 2006. Retrieved November, 2, 2007 from http://
portal.unesco.org/culture/es/ev.php-URL_ID=30335_
DO-DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=2a.html.
Wallen, N. & Fraenkel, J. (2001). Educational research: A
guide to the process (2nd Ed.). Mahwah, New Jersey:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Whitten II, W. B. & Leonard, J. M. (1981). Directed search
through the autobiographical memory, Memory &
Cognition, 9(6), 566-579.
2010, No. 2
 a u s t r a l i a n

s
a o c i e t y

f o r
s m u s i c

m
In their voice: Lower secondary
e d u c a t i o n

i n c o r p o r a t e d
e

school students’ beliefs about playing

musical instruments, and the impact of
the instrument lesson upon those beliefs
Geofrey Lowe

Edith Cowan University

Abstract
Many young West Australians learn musical instruments through school based elective programs. However, many
students drop out from these programs, particularly in lower secondary school. This paper reports on a study I
conducted into the motives of 48 lower secondary school students for playing a musical instrument, and the role of
the instrument lesson in inluencing student decisions to continue learning. Students in their irst year in secondary
school in WA (Year 8) were chosen, because the irst year of secondary school has been identiied as a time when
student motivation towards elective activities in general decline. Focus group interviews revealed that while Year 8
students generally enjoyed playing an instrument and described playing as important to airming notions of self,
their competence beliefs were fragile. Importantly, students also indicated that the instrument lesson did impact
their competence beliefs, and that competence beliefs can, in turn, impact student decisions to continue learning.
After discussing the implications of the indings, I conclude the paper with a series of recommendations for teaching
practice, designed to target the competence beliefs of lower secondary students.

Key words: instrumental music, motivation, music education, retention, secondary school, competence beliefs

Australian Journal of Music Education 2010:2, 41-51

Introduction in lower secondary school, as evidenced by

low numbers presenting for examinable post-
Learning a musical instrument has well
compulsory music courses in WA (Curriculum
documented cognitive and emotional beneits
Council, 2008). I set out to examine why this
for young people. Many young Western
might be the case by focusing upon the
Australians play instruments, and this is
experiences of a group of WA music students in
relected in Australian Bureau of Statistics igures
their irst year in secondary school (Year 8). The
indicating that approximately 21% of young
irst year of secondary school has been identiied
Western Australians aged 12 learn musical
as a time when motivation towards elective
instruments against a national average of 17%
activities in general exhibit strong declines
(ABS, 2003). Music instrument lessons run as
(Wigield and Wagner, 2005; Bandura, 1994;
elective programs in most WA secondary schools.
Harter, 1990).
However, many students would appear to drop
Student motives for engaging in activities
out of these elective programs, particularly
are less stable than adults, and are more

Australian Journal of Music Education 41

Lowe
susceptible to outside inluence (Stahlberg &
Frey, 1988). Given that the instrument lesson is
the central point of interaction in a school based
instrumental program, I chose to examine Year 8
student motives for playing an instrument, and
the potential inluence of the instrumental lesson
upon the decisions of these students to continue.
Speciically, this paper reports on a study
involving 48 Year 8 students drawn from seven
government, Catholic and private secondary
schools. In focus group interviews, students
were asked about their motivation for playing an
instrument, and the positive and negative aspects
of the instrument lesson.
Creech and Hallam (2009), Lierse (2007), St
George (2006; 2004) and Brakel, (1997) report that
the instrument lesson is a determinant in student
decisions to continue learning an instrument.
However, as St George (2004) notes, there has
been a surprisingly little critiquing of instrument
teaching practice in relation to its impact upon
student decisions to continue. Accordingly, after
considering the indings of this study, this paper
make a series of recommendations for instrument
teaching practice targeted at enhancing the
beliefs of lower secondary students towards
learning a musical instrument.
While the indings and recommendations
of this paper stem from a substantive setting, I
believe they have relevance to all music teaching
systems and sectors across Australia. Retaining
students in elective instrument programs is not
just an issue in WA, but represents one of the
great challenges facing music education, both
internationally and in Australia. By constructing
an understanding of the beliefs of this particular
year group for playing an instrument, and the
impact of the instrument lesson upon those
beliefs, I hope to better equip instrument
teachers with principles designed to enhance
student beliefs, and ultimately reduce the drop-
out rate from instrumental music programs in
lower secondary school.
42
Background
Music Instrument lessons in Western
Australia
Music instrument lessons are centrally organised
in the government system in Western Australia
through the agency of the School of Instrumental
Music (SIM). All students are selected via a music
aptitude test and lessons are provided at no
cost to the student. SIM commences around
4000 beginners each year (DEST, 2005). Students
are taught in groups of up to ive by qualiied
specialist peripatetic instrument teachers, and
lessons run for 30 minutes on a weekly basis.
Students are taught in school time, and are
withdrawn from regular classes on a rotating
timetable. String instruments are started from
Year 3, while wind, brass, percussion and guitars
are started from Year 6. Thus, students in Year
8 are generally into at least their third year of
learning when they enter secondary school.
In the Catholic and private systems, students
generally pay for individual lessons. Around 4000
students per year also commence or continue
lessons from Year 8 in both these systems.
Instrument teachers do not have to have teacher
qualiications to teach in the Catholic or private
systems in Western Australia.
The irst year in secondary school
A range of international studies describe the
move from primary school to secondary school as
disruptive for many students. Disruption and the
resulting sense of dislocation can have a major
impact upon student motivation, particularly
towards elective subjects and activities (Wigield
and Wagner, 2005; Bandura, 1994; Harter, 1990).
Harter (1990) states that dislocation occurs as a
result of 1) disrupted social networks, 2) more
impersonal interactions with teachers, 3) less
personal school bureaucracies and 4) ability
streaming in some subjects. In indirect support,
Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS, 2003)
2010, No. 2

statistics indicate that student participation in
elective music instrument programs can decline
by up to 25% per year following the transition to
secondary school (from age 12).
The efects of dislocation combine with
psychological changes in students as they begin
to mature from a state of ‘parent protection’ to
‘self determination’ commencing from around
age 11 (Zillman and Gan, 1996). Students from
this age desire greater freedom and autonomy
which cannot always be accommodated in the
highly organised and controlling secondary
school environment (Eccles and Midgeley, 1989).
Conlict can occur when inappropriate instruction
practices, ability groupings and competitive
assessment practices impact fragile self eicacy
beliefs across a range of subjects, leading to
avoidance behaviours (Bandura, 1994). As a result,
students may disengage from elective programs
such as learning an instrument because these
programs do not meet their changing emotional
needs. I considered it important to consider the
extent to which these general issues are relected
in the responses of Year 8 instrumental music
students.
Research Assumptions
The student voice
This study was guided by the need to construct
an understanding of the motives of Year 8
students for learning an instrument, and the
impact of the lesson upon student motivation
to continue. The phenomenological nature of
the research called for rich data derived from a
natural real life setting. Accordingly, I chose to
speak directly with the students themselves. The
student voice has widely been used in ‘drop-
out’ research in other subject areas (Smyth and
Hattam, 2001; Willis, 1997), but has not been
widely used in music education (Pitts, 2004).
Based upon my previous research, I believe Year
8 students have well developed beliefs about
learning an instrument (Lowe, 2008). I agree with
Australian Journal of Music Education
Secondary school students’ beliefs
Fielding (2004) that speaking with students rather
than for students can yield a clearer picture of the
motivational issues faced by Year 8 instrumental
students.
Expectancy-value theory
I employed expectancy-value theory as the
theoretical foundation for this study. The
intention of this study was not to prove or
disprove the theory, but rather to use expectancy-
value theory as a ‘regulatory ideal’, to make sense
of the phenomenon. The theory was also used
as a conceptual organiser for the data, and I
was aware that indings needed to be reported
through the expectancy-value lens.
Expectancy-value theory was speciically
developed by Eccles (1983) to explain adolescent
motivation for mathematics, and has been widely
employed in other subject areas, including
instrumental music (Wigield and Wagner, 2005;
De Backer and Nelson, 1999; Wigield, O’Neill
and Eccles, 1999; O’Neill, 1996). Importantly in
the context of this study, the values components
of the theory are reported to accurately predict
future enrolment decisions, whereas expectancies
predict future efort (Eccles and Wigield, 2002).
Therefore, understanding the values Year 8
students attach to learning an instrument, and
the impact of the lesson upon these values, may
help me understand why many Year 8 students
drop out. Values derive from student beliefs
about learning activities, and expectancies are
closely linked with ability beliefs. In general
terms, values can be deined as ‘why should I
do this learning activity’, whereas competence /
expectancies can be deined as ‘what do I think
about my abilities to complete this learning
activity’, and ‘will I succeed in the future’.
Values are diferentiated into attainment
(importance), intrinsic (interest) and extrinsic
(usefulness) components. These are in turn
mediated by both the physical and personal cost
of involvement. Attainment value is closely linked
with identity, and whether learning activities
43
Lowe
provide students the opportunity to express
or conirm aspects of self. Learning activities
will be described as important to self if they
are optimally challenging and relevant to the
individual. Intrinsic value relates to the inherent
enjoyment the student gets from undertaking
the learning activity (situational interest), and the
overall interest in the subject (individual interest),
while extrinsic value relates to how well learning
activities conform to current (short-term) and
future (long-term) goals (Eccles, 2005).
Competence beliefs include student self
assessments of their current ability beliefs to
complete learning activities, and expectancies
for future success. These are informed by the
learning environment, past experience and
teacher feedback (Wigield and Wagner, 2005).
Method
Based upon my beliefs about the student voice in
research, I employed a focus group methodology.
I deemed this approach less intimidating for Year
8 students than individual interviews with an
adult, and focus groups ofered the potential for a
rich, wider range of responses. To ensure a degree
of representativeness, government, Catholic and
private schools were included in the sample.
For this study, 48 students were drawn from
seven secondary schools, and organized into
focus groups within each school. Schools were
selected from across the Perth metropolitan
area via a random stratiied sampling process
based upon school districts, and included four
government, two Catholic and one private school.
All the research schools ofered instrumental
lessons to Year 8 students.
All focus group participants learned
an instrument. Students were selected in
conjunction with their class music teachers to
ensure focus groups were socially compatible and
participants were willing to talk to an adult. While
acknowledging the potential of this approach
to skew the sample towards a certain type of
student, I did not consider this problematic
44
as students were drawn from an existing pool
representing ‘typical cases’ (Bloor et al., 2001).
Participants were not chosen based upon their
musical abilities, and included a range of students
from highly motivated to others on the verge of
discontinuing.
The focus group interviews were semi-
structured to allow room for student directed
discussion. Each interview was based around
ten key questions, including three icebreaker
questions, framed by the expectancy-value
constructs. Interviews were undertaken in each
school for maximum student comfort, and each
focus group ran for approximately one hour. I
undertook a facilitator’s role, keeping discussion
focused, and students appeared comfortable.
Resulting discussions were animated and wide
ranging.
Each focus group interview was digitally
recorded and professionally transcribed. Data
went through a three stage analysis process;
irstly, data was coded against the questions.
Secondly, data was grouped under three
headings relating to 1) motivation for playing
an instrument, 2) the positive inluence of the
instrument lesson, and 3) the negative inluence
of the lesson. Finally, data under each heading
was compared against expectancy-value theory
constructs. Nvivo 8 qualitative software was used
to assist data management and manipulation.
In presenting the indings in this paper, I have
selected a number of representative student
quotes to illustrate the various themes which
emerged through the analysis process, and to
bring a sense of realism to the report.
Findings
Motivation for learning an instrument
From the data, 18 diferent motives for learning
an instrument were coded. Individual students
described short-term extrinsic reasons for
learning, including the enjoyment of undertaking
music exams and getting out of regular classes,
2010, No. 2

but a majority of responses described attainment
and intrinsic reasons for learning. These included
playing for relaxation and de-stressing, and for
the love of performing. One student described
motivation in terms of expressive sound quality:
I really love the sound of the saxophone and
really like playing music and the expression it can
give you and stuf.
Another student described the joy of self-
expression and the challenge associated with
succeeding:
It’s the way of expressing myself and I want to be
good at my instrument and so it makes me feel
better when I can practice and I can get over a
piece and actually play it well…
Many students described play as fun, but
struggled to articulate why this was so, as
illustrated in the following:
I don’t want to become a musician but I want to
keep playing my instrument for ages. I don’t want
to stop. I don’t want to become a musician. I just
like playing ‘cos I like playing.
Overall, the majority of student in this study
appeared to enjoy playing an instrument.
Enjoyment was most commonly described in
global, stable terms (individual interest) rather
than in relation to speciic activities. Whereas
intrinsic valuing was strong, I also noted the
presence of attainment values. Many students
favorably described playing an instrument in
terms of the challenge of successfully learning
new, diicult pieces, and relevance of playing
to an emerging sense of self. In summary, the
majority of students in this study described
playing an instrument as fun and enjoyable. In
addition, playing an instrument was becoming an
important expression of self.
Positive inluence of the instrument lesson
Based upon the frequency of student responses,
I coded ive emergent themes relating to the
positive aspects of the instrumental lesson. They
were:
Australian Journal of Music Education
Secondary school students’ beliefs
• The provision of a supportive and non-
threatening learning environment
• Respect and rapport with the instrument
teacher
• Professional teacher attributes relating to
organisation, enthusiasm, encouragement and
patience which build competence beliefs
• Professional musician attributes relating to the
instrument teacher’s playing ability
• The instrument teacher’s learning activity
selection, relating to repertoire choice and
ensemble playing.
Twenty-ive students described the instrument
lesson as being diferent to regular classes. They
described the lesson as an intimate environment,
and enjoyed the opportunity to relate to their
teacher.
I really like going to lessons, cos, like, it’s good if
you have a bond with the teacher and you feel
pretty special.
Three quarters of all students across focus groups
stated that having a rapport with their instrument
teacher was important.
[My teacher] is always happy and it’s easy to
relate to what she’s talking about as well. She
seems to really like us and it makes me want to
try harder…
The importance of professional teacher
attributes such as organisation, enthusiasm,
encouragement and patience were constantly
reiterated across all focus groups. Encouragement
was described as a key component of the
supportive learning environment.
My teacher repeatedly gives me good comments
and says, ‘Well done’ and ‘good job’ and that’s
like, it gives you a better self esteem, and you
practice more and you get better, and then you
start liking the music too…
All students described a need to feel competent,
and a desire not be singled out in group lessons.
Bandura (1994) notes that students at this age
are particularly sensitive to their relative standing
among peers in activities that determine prestige.
45
Lowe
Students also drew inspiration from hearing
their teachers demonstrate on their instruments.
My saxophone teacher, he plays the instrument
like really, really well so he always plays to me,
like how he plays…so that I can know how I will
sound maybe one day if I keep practicing and
stuf – it’s like sort of inspiring.
Students responses indicated that hearing their
teacher model their instrument was 1) helpful
in terms of understanding how a piece should
sound, 2) helpful in terms of understanding
how the instrument should sound, 3) useful as
a practical application of verbal instructions
and 4) valuable for time management – hearing
what to play was quicker than repeated verbal
instructions.
All focus groups indicated a desire for a regular
turnover of repertoire, and a desire for repertoire
with particular musical characteristics; students
indicated a preference for faster, more rhythmic
pieces to slow pieces. In addition, students
enjoyed ensemble playing in group lesson
situations. Ensemble playing was described as fun
and non-threatening, because ensembles catered
for a range of difering ability levels:
It’s also lots of fun because when you are in
a group, you can like do trios and duets and
things….if you make a mistake, then there’s also
other people who can cover it up…which also
helps.
In summary, students described the instrument
lesson as diferent to other school learning
environments. Lessons were described favourably
when students felt encouraged and inspired,
and teaching practices protected prestige and
musical eicacy beliefs.
Negative inluence of the instrument
lesson
Also based upon the frequency of student
responses, I coded four emergent themes relating
to the negative aspects of the lesson. They were:
• A dislike of technical work
• Comparative teaching practices in group
46
lessons leading to perceptions of loss of
prestige and feelings of incompetence among
students
• Repetition, including lack of repertoire
turnover
• Lack of rapport between the instrument
teacher and students.
Perhaps unsurprisingly, virtually all students did
not enjoy being asked to practice scales. Most
described a failure to see the point of them,
especially when they were asked to play them
every week. All students involved in group
lessons described an awareness of difering levels
of ability within their groups. Issues relating to
prestige within the group and musical eicacy
were raised when students were placed in
comparative assessment situations in lessons:
Because sometimes, if you stuf it, you get all
embarrassed and there’s people that will laugh at
you or something, if you do.
Students across all focus groups were quick to
suggest teaching strategies designed to reduce
comparisons and competitive teaching practices.
Prestige and eicacy related not just to playing,
but had implications for the teacher / student
relationship:
… sometime people, they’re like, ‘yeah, right,
we’ve got it’ and stuf, and other people are
behind. Then they’re too scared to say anything
and then Miss just presumes they’ve got it and
just goes ahead…
Repetition was negatively described in relation to
lack of variety in instructional practices, and lack
of repertoire turnover:
Just the repetitiveness of having to play the
same boring songs and then trying the hard ones
which sound better but take a long time to get
them. If you tried like diferent things every lesson,
just like to make it more interesting…
Lack of rapport manifest itself in the teacher
having a dull voice and a general lack of
enthusiasm and encouragement:
One of my teachers told me, well, she’s not my
teacher anymore but she told me that I would
never be good enough to do TEE (Tertiary
Entrance Exam) in music which I thought was
2010, No. 2

pretty harsh, so I kind of don’t really like her
anymore, and I was seriously looking at my
cello going, ‘am I really that bad?’ Oh really. But
you know what, my teacher said, like my other
teacher I went back to, said I was ine so I’ve
just kept playing. But I don’t really like the other
teacher a lot.
The importance of the teacher in creating a
positive learning environment was well summed
up in the following quote:
In my irst year in Year 6, the irst year I was
playing, we had a really bad teacher and he
always just set lots of homework and he wouldn’t
do very much at all. He didn’t bring his trumpet in
so he didn’t play it at all, he’d just tell us what to
do. And there was about…there was ive people
ofered the position of the trumpet. Everyone
took it up and then by the end of the year there
was only two left. Lots of people had just quit and
dropped out and I was actually thinking about it
until I asked in the oice and they said we were
getting a diferent teacher for next year. So that’s
the only reason I stayed.
Students commonly cited boredom as a reason
for dropping out. Discussions revealed that, while
boredom could result from teaching practices
such as a lack of repertoire turnover, it was
also a label associated with a desire to protect
self eicacy. Students who were made to feel
less competent than other students in lessons
described avoidance behaviours such as not
attending lessons and not practicing. Avoidance
behaviour, under the guise of boredom, was a
strategy designed to protect them from a fear of
confronting feelings of failure. The need for the
instrument teacher to identify this behaviour was
emphasised:
One of my friends, she gave up because she
couldn’t do one of the things that she had to do.
And she didn’t speak up or anything...
Discussion
When viewed through the expectancy-value
lens, all students in this study described a strong
individual interest in playing an instrument.
Students generally enjoyed playing, and
Australian Journal of Music Education
Secondary school students’ beliefs
individual interest motives appeared relatively
stable. However, predictably, the instrument
lesson impacted situational interest through
the repertoire teachers chose, and attendant
teaching pedagogies. For Year 8 students,
ensemble playing, lively music and a regular
turnover of repertoire stimulated their situational
interest while scales, slow music and repetition of
repertoire reduced their situational interest. For
many students, playing an instrument appeared
to activate attainment values relating to the
challenge of successfully learning new music, and
growing relevance of playing to self. Accordingly,
I recorded relatively high and stable intrinsic and
attainment values. Motivation for playing was
stabilising around cognitive and afective notions
of self. Apart from situational interest, the lesson
did not appear outwardly to greatly impact
student values. Relatively stable values should
be indicative of strong motivation to continue
learning an instrument beyond Year 8.
However, competence beliefs appeared less
stable and much more open to the inluence
of the teacher and the learning environment.
Students consistently spoke of the need to
feel competent, and sought reassurance
through teacher encouragement. Conversely,
students were delated and discouraged by a
lack of teacher encouragement. The emotional
insecurity of adolescence may explain the
need for high levels of reassurance in lessons.
Some students may drop out because a lack
of positive reinforcement undermines already
fragile competence beliefs, and thus their
expectancies for future success. They don’t think
they will get better at playing an instrument.
Further, Wigield (1994) reported an empirical link
between competence and attainment value in
that a fear of failure can undermine the perceived
importance of the activity to notions of self. By
inference, low competence beliefs can begin to
outweigh the values some students associate
with playing an instrument.
In group lessons, fragile competence beliefs
are exacerbated by a consistent fear of appearing
47
Lowe
incompetent in front of others. Students in this
study were aware of diferences in ability, possibly
due to their increasing cognitive capacities, and
a greater emphasis on competitive practices
in secondary school. For less able students,
awareness of diferences in ability reduced
competence beliefs, leading to avoidance
behaviours to avoid feelings of failure. Students
who perceived that they were not as good as
others dropped out under the guise of boredom
to protect self-eicacy, especially when teaching
practices emphasised ability diferences between
students. Further, competence beliefs impacted
not just self-eicacy, but also prestige. Students
were conscious of their social standing, and
uniformly expressed a fear of being embarrassed
in front of other group members. The primacy
of social standing in group lessons may result
from Year 8 students being placed in new and
unfamiliar groups, and the need to establish their
social standing within the group.
The dangers of teaching practices which
emphasise competition and highlight ability
diferences are well documented (Weiner, 1974;
Asmus, 1994; Eccles & Wigield, 2002). Students
tend to attribute diferences in standard to
ability rather than efort. They view ability as
a ixed state over which they have no control.
Accordingly, when students perceive themselves
as ‘failing’ in competitive situations, they attribute
failure to lack of ability and don’t think they
can improve. In this study, I detected a strong
overarching theme of fear of failure among Year
8 students, the majority of whom were taught in
group lessons.
The impact of dislocation and the emotional
challenges of adolescence may contribute to the
fragile competence beliefs and the fear of failure
detected among participants in this study. The
desire of Year 8 students for a non threatening
learning environment may be a reaction to
the competitive practices of secondary school
in general, while their desire for rapport with
48
the instrument teacher may be relective of a
desire for close and personal reassurance from
an adult in an increasingly impersonal school
environment. Fear of embarrassment in the group
setting may be relective of the need to rebuild
disrupted social networks.
Whatever the reasons, the key inding of this
study is that given the primacy participating
students attached to the need to feel competent,
competence beliefs may be just as important
as values in determining lower secondary
students’ decisions to continue learning
instrument. Perceptions of levels of support from
the instrument teacher in the context of the
instrument lesson appear to be highly inluential
in student decisions to continue learning.
Further, because students view their instrument
teacher as professional musicians, they view
their instrument teacher as the most appropriate
person to emulate and provide meaningful
encouragement. This inding represents a
departure from previously reported expectancy-
value indings, and warrants further research in
the instrumental music context.
Building student conidence:
recommendations for teaching
practice
Based upon the indings of this study, I now
make a series of recommendations for teaching
practice. The recommendations take the form
of general teaching principles with pedagogical
implications, and are aimed at building the
competence beliefs of lower secondary school
students. They are also aimed at countering some
of the general negative efects associated with
the transition into secondary school.
The learning environment
The instrument lesson represents a unique
teaching situation. Because of the small
numbers involved in group and individual
2010, No. 2
 Secondary school students’ beliefs

lessons, instrument teachers can consciously The group dynamic

attempt to build an intimate, supportive learning
This study found that students both consciously
environment. This can be done by taking a
and unconsciously compare themselves against
personal interest in students, through the use
others in their groups and are acutely aware of
of simple ‘meet and greet’ strategies. While
diferences in playing standards between group
acknowledging that the lesson represents such
members. Comparative learning environments
a short time in the overall academic week, the
can lead to negative ability beliefs among weaker
instrumental lesson environment still ofers
students, resulting in avoidance behaviours and
teachers an opportunity to build a personal
ultimately discontinuance. The use of ensemble
relationship with students in the increasingly
music (duets, trios and quartets) in group settings
impersonal secondary school learning
can accommodate difering levels of playing
environment.
ability, enhance group dynamics and reduce
comparative practices.
Instrument teachers as professional
teachers
Repertoire
Students in this study reported the value
Students in this study indicated a desire for a
of professional teacher attributes such as
regular turnover of repertoire, and a preference
organisation, enthusiasm, encouragement
for faster, rhythmic and catchy music. Instrument
and patience. Of these, encouragement
teachers are therefore encouraged, where
emerged as the most important to students.
possible, to consider repertoire with these
Given that lower secondary students appear
motivation properties, and regularly rotate
to have relatively fragile competence beliefs,
repertoire to maintain student situational
judicious encouragement in particular can help
interest. Further, ofering students a degree of
maintain and build competence beliefs. Further,
repertoire choice may encourage student feelings
it is recommended that instrument teachers
of autonomy and independence.
encourage student efort, not ability, to counter
students’ beliefs that ability is a ixed state.
Alternative pedagogies
Instrument teachers as professional This study found that while students of this
musicians age acknowledge the importance of technical
work such as scales, they struggled to see its
Students in this study uniformly viewed their
de-contextualised value. Instrument teachers
instrument teachers as professional musicians.
are therefore encouraged to review the
They drew inspiration from them, and sought to
appropriateness of technical work in relation
emulate them. Accordingly, instrument teachers
to repertoire being studied, and investigate
are encouraged to model their instruments to
alternatives forms of delivery of technical
their students when and as appropriate. Teachers
work, such as call and response type activities.
should be aware of the pedagogical value
In addition, instrument teachers may wish to
of modelling. Modelling not just helps teach
consider varying technical work delivery modes
the music, but helps students conceptualise
to maintain situational interest.
how their instrument should sound, and aids
in the application of verbal instructions. This
recommendation has particular implications for
multi-instrument teachers.

Australian Journal of Music Education 49

Lowe
Conclusion
In this study, I set out to examine the motives of
lower secondary students for learning a musical
instrument, and the inluence of the instrument
lesson in the decision of Year 8 students to
continue learning. The study was framed by the
knowledge that retention in elective instrumental
music programs is an issue, and that many
students drop out following the transition into
secondary school.
I found that, while Year 8 students appear to
have outwardly strong values associated with
playing, their competence beliefs are fragile,
possibly due in part to dislocation associated
with the move into secondary school, and
in part to changing emotional needs. While
values are reported to be accurate predictors
of students’ future enrolment decisions, in
the context of this study, competence beliefs
may be just as important in determining Year
8 student decisions to continue. Accordingly, I
have presented a series of principles for teaching
practice designed primarily to enhance student
competence beliefs.
This paper conirms that instrument teachers
have a role to play in improving student retention
rates. Urdan and Turner (2005) report that
when students exhibit avoidance behaviours,
many teachers tend to dismiss the students
as unmotivated. However, this study suggests
that avoidance behaviours among many Year
8 students may be a mechanism for protecting
prestige and musical eicacy. Ultimately,
understanding the motives students have for
playing, and students’ views on the impact of
the instrument lesson upon their beliefs can
place instrument teachers in a better position to
respond to the speciic needs of this year group.
Motivational theories such as expectancy-value
theory ofer music educators a well developed
framework for investigating student motivation.
The next step for music educators may be the
greater application of theoretical perspectives
in more practice based research in substantive
50
settings. Given that this study uncovered issues
speciic to students in their irst year in secondary
school, it may well be that similar practice based
research will uncover issues of relevance to other
year groups. Music education will then be better
placed to develop teaching pedagogies which
target speciic year groups, resulting in improved
retention rates across elective music programs as
a whole.
Learning a musical instrument does have
signiicant cognitive and emotional beneits for
young people. Therefore, any future practice
based research aimed at improving retention
rates must ultimately be of beneit to not only
school music programs, but to the well-being of
the students themselves.
References
Asmus, E. (1994). Motivation in music teaching and
learning. The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and
Learning, 5(4), 5-29.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2003). Children’s
Participation on Cultural & Leisure Activities – Australia’s
Culture no. 14. Cultural Ministers’ Council. Retrieved on
14/07/2006 from www.dcita.gov.au/swg/statsinfo.html
Australian Government Department of Education,
Science and Training. (2005). National Review of School
Music Education: Augmenting the diminished. Canberra:
Department of Education, Science and Training,
Australian Government.
Bandura, A. (1994). Self-eicacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran
(Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol 4, pp 71-81).
New York: Academic Press.
Blor, M., Frankland, J., Thomas, M. & Robson, K. (2001).
Focus groups in social research. London: Sage
Publications.
Brakel, T. (1997). Attrition of instrumental music students
as a function of teaching style and selected demographic
variables. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Indiana
University: Indiana, United States
Creech, A, & Hallam, S. (2009). Interaction in instrumental
learning: The inluence of interpersonal dynamics on
parents. International Journal of Music Education, 27(2),
94-106
Curriculum Council. (2006). WACE. Music Course of Study
– Teachers & Administrators. Retrieved on 12/06/2008
from http://newwace.curriculum.wa.edu.au/pages/
courses/course_music.asp
2010, No. 2
 Secondary school students’ beliefs

Eccles, J. (1983). Children’s motivation to study music. In
Motivation and Creativity: Documentary Report on the
Ann Arbor Symposium on the Application of Psychology
to the Teaching and Learning of Music; Session 111.
(pp. 31-38) Reston, VA: Music Educators National
Conference.
Eccles, J. & Midgley, C. (1989). Stage-environment it:
Developmentally appropriate classrooms for young
adolescents. In C. Ames & R. Ames (Eds.), Research on
Motivation in Education (Vol. 3), San Diego: Academic
Press.
Eccles, J. & Wigield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs,
values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53,
109-132.
Eccles, J. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles
et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A.
Elliott & C. Dweck (Eds.). Handbook of competence and
motivation. New York: The Guildford Press.
Fielding, M. (2004). Transformative approaches to
student voice: theoretical underpinnings, recalcitrant
realities. British Educational Research Journal, 30(2),
295-311
Harter, S. (1990). Processes underlying adolescent self-
concept formation. In R. Montemayer, G. Adams &
T. Gullotta (Eds.), From childhood to adolescence: A
transitional period? (pp. 205-239). Newbury Park, CA:
Sage Publications.
Lierse, S. (2007). The private music studio: Celebrating a
micro music community. Proceedings of the XVI ASME
National Conference (pp. 19-32) Perth: Australian
Society for Music Education
Lowe, G. (2008). A study into year 8 student motivation
to continue class music in Perth, Western Australia.
Unpublished doctoral thesis, Edith Cowan University,
Perth, Australia.
O’Neill, S. (1996). Factors inluencing children’s motivation
and achievement during the irst year of instrumental
music tuition. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Keele
University.
Pitts, S. (2004). Book review: How popular musicians learn,
Lucy Green. Popular Music, 23(2), 237-239.
Smyth, J. & Hattam, R. (2001). ‘Voiced’ research as a
sociology for understanding ‘dropping out’ of school.
British Journal of Sociology of Education, 22(3), 401-415
Stahlberg, D. & Frey, D. (1988). Attitudes 1 – Structures,
Measurement and Functions. In M. Hewstone, W.
Stroebe, J-P Codol, & G. Stevenson. Introduction to
social psychology. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
St George, J. (2004). The musical drop-out: A new
perspective. Proceedings of the XXVI ANZARME
National Conference (pp. 260-269) Melbourne: Monash
University.
St George, J. (2006). The relationship of practice to
continued participation in musical instrument
learning. Proceedings of the XXVIII ANZARME National
Conference (pp. 189-199) Sydney: Monash University.
Urdan, T. & Turner, J. (2005). Competence motivation
in the classroom. In A. Elliott, & C. Dweck. (Eds.).
Handbook of competence and motivation. New York:
The Guildford Press.
Weiner, B. (1974). Achievement motivation. Morristown,
New Jersey: General Learning Press.
Wigield, A. (1994). Expectancy-value theory of
achievement motivation: A developmental
perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 6(1), 49-77.
Wigield, A. & Wagner, A. (2005). Competence, motivation
and identity development during adolescence. In A.
Elliott & C. Dweck. (Eds.), Handbook of competence and
motivation. London: The Guildford Press.
Zillman, D. & Gan, S. (1996). Musical taste in adolescence.
In D. Hargreaves & A. North (Eds.) The social psychology
of music. Oxford University Press: Oxford.

Geofrey Lowe is Senior Lecturer in Music Education in the School of Education at Edith Cowan University in Perth,
Western Australia. He teaches into both the undergraduate and postgraduate music education courses in addition to
conducting various community ensembles in the most isolated capital city in the world. Dr Lowe’s research interests
include student motivation, secondary classroom pedagogy and instrumental music pedagogy. He has written a
number of national award winning secondary music resource books.

Australian Journal of Music Education 51

 a u s t r a l i a n

s
a o c i e t y

f o r
s m u s i c

m
The perilous path from proposal
e d u c a t i o n

i n c o r p o r a t e d
e

to practice: A qualitative program

evaluation of a regional music program
Helen Grimmett, Nikki S. Rickard and Anneliese Gill

School of Psychology & Psychiatry, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia

Fintan Murphy

School of Music, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia

Abstract
The current paper retrospectively evaluates the eicacy of implementing a large-scale music education program into
a regional cluster of Victorian primary schools. The program’s primary aim was to increase access and quality of music
education for students in these rural schools. The methods utilized to evaluate the program and the discrepancies
between intended and implemented program are irst described. Thematic analyses from qualitative data from
principals, music teachers, parents and students are then reported, revealing that while increased access to music
education was indeed achieved, the quality of the program and its impact in schools was not as high as intended. An
impact evaluation of the program revealed that the recipient needs and resources were not suiciently incorporated
into the program’s goals, and as a result, the program design may not have been the best it for this community. A set
of recommendations for implementing future music education programs is provided, with an emphasis on optimizing
sustainability in regional areas.

Key words: music education, program evaluation, qualitative research, string teaching.

Australian Journal of Music Education 2010:2, 52-65

An evaluation of a particular project has its
greatest implications for projects that will be put
in place in the future. (Cronbach and Associates
1983, p. 409)
Introduction
In 2004, a committee of educators from a
regional secondary school in Victoria, Australia,
successfully applied for a government grant
to implement a large-scale music education
initiative. The funded project, referred to in this
paper as ‘MP’, ambitiously aimed to improve
provision of music education within all of the
state government funded schools in their area.
In addition to building a new community music
centre at the secondary school and expanding
the existing secondary school music program
(for students aged 12-18 years), the MP proposal
also included strategies to provide high-quality
classroom and instrumental music programs to
the primary school students (aged 5-12 years)
in its cluster of ‘feeder schools’, at no cost to
the families involved. The aim of the irst three-
year phase of the program (2005-2007) was to
introduce the full program described in this
paper into ive of the ten primary schools in the

52 2010, No. 2

cluster, with the remaining ive schools to receive
beneits from additional community music
initiatives.
The MP committee established a partnership
with Monash University to develop and
implement a comprehensive evaluation of
whether implementation of an intensive music
education program for school children with
varied psychosocial and academic needs yielded
signiicant beneits on a range of student
potentials. The efects of the primary level music
program on music-related outcomes, measures of
academic and cognitive ability and psychosocial
well-being were measured and analysed
throughout the three-year program using
quantitative research methods. Positive efects
of the program on immediate recall of verbal
information and self-esteem were observed, and
the detail of these quantitative indings are to be
reported elsewhere (Rickard, N., Appelman, P.,
James, R., Murphy, F., Gill, A. & Bambrick, C. 2010).
This article will report on a qualitative
program evaluation, performed by a research
team consisting of academics from three
university disciplines (Psychology, Music and
Education), which describes how this ambitious
music program was implemented into the ive
primary schools over the three-year period
and the lessons that can be learned from this
initiative. As the opening quotation implies,
the purpose of this evaluation is to provide
educational administrators and music educators
with a detailed account of the successes and
pitfalls of this particular program in order
that they can make informed decisions about
implementing similar programs in the future.
This article will be presented in four sections.
First, the music program originally proposed
and the program actually implemented will be
outlined. Second, the methodology utilised for
the evaluation process will be described. Third,
an impact evaluation of the program will address
whether program objectives and recipient
needs were met, why changes occurred to the
Australian Journal of Music Education
Evaluation of a regional music program
proposed program as it was implemented,
and what unintended outcomes occurred.
Finally, the implications of these indings with
particular respect to issues of sustainability
and transportability will be discussed and
guidelines for future program proposals and
implementation suggested.
Description of the proposed and
implemented music program
The objectives of the program, and how
these were implemented (planned vs actual)
are outlined in Tables 1 and 2. As part of the
evaluation process, it is important to recognise
the discrepancies between the original proposal
and the program that was actually implemented.
The reasons for these discrepancies will be
discussed in the impact evaluation.
Participants
The irst year of Victorian government primary
schools is referred to as Preparatory (Prep) and
students entering Prep class are typically 5 years
of age. Students continue through years 1-6 in
following years, before moving to a secondary
school for years 7-12 (age 12-18 years). Secondary
Table 1: Objectives and Outline of Intended Program
1 To ensure all students, regardless of socio-
economic status, have access to high-quality
classroom and instrumental music programs.
2 To improve academic, musical, cognitive and
psychosocial student outcomes through such
participation in a high-quality music program.
3 A high-quality music program was deined as
having three interconnected aspects:
1. At least three sessions of classroom music
per week
2. Weekly instruction on at least one musical
instrument.
3. Participation in at least one high-quality
ensemble, involving weekly rehearsals and
regular public performances.
53
Grimmett et al.
Table 2: Summary of Intended and Actual Program
Proposed strategies for treatment schools
Kodály classroom program
Years Prep-2
Three 30min sessions per week
Sequential and developmental Kodály program to
teach music literacy skills. Based on Queensland
music curriculum.
Qualiied Kodály teacher to develop program
materials to be used in cluster beyond funded
program and provide Professional Development
for music specialists and generalist teachers.
Instrumental program
Year 3 string program with cohort continuing in
following years.
Small group lessons with qualiied string teachers
Weekly one hour session to be supported by
at-home practice
Program to include best-practice pedagogy and
repertoire based on programs by Paul Rolland,
Sheila Nelson and Mary Cohen.
Program to utilise innovative technology including
interactive DVD-ROMs (Murphy 2008)
School to purchase instruments and program
would provide staf.
Ensemble program
All students were to have access to at least one
instrumental and/or choral ensemble, which
rehearsed weekly and gave regular
public performances.
54
Program actually implemented in treatment schools
Kodály/Orf classroom program
Years Prep-2
Two 40min sessions per week
(due to staing availability and timetabling issues)
Combined Kodály/Orf program
Kodály principles used to teach music literacy where
relevant to students and existing school program.
Less emphasis on music literacy in some schools
where students were not as receptive or Kodály
program was inconsistent with existing music program.
Employment of qualiied Kodály teacher diicult
in rural area. Music teacher employed undertook
Kodály training, but did not feel qualiied to claim
‘expert’ status to train other teachers.
Instrumental program
Year 3 string program with cohorts continuing in
following years.
Whole class group lesson taught in string
ensemble setting
Staing was problematic with a large number of
teachers of varying quality employed through
duration of program.
Typically almost half of session time was taken up
with tuning instruments.
Initially most students were not allowed to take
instruments home to practise.
Each teacher utilised own program, without
consideration of what other teachers had taught
previously, and with little reference to intended
best-practice materials.
DVD-ROMs were never purchased as schools did
not have facilities to use them.
One school also purchased brass/woodwind
instruments for Year 5 & 6 students who were
taught in a weekly whole class ensemble setting.
Ensemble program
Middle Years choir established in irst year of
program but struggled to gain and maintain
suicient numbers.
In subsequent years, choral directors travelled to
each school in the cluster every 2-3 weeks to rehearse
songs for regular cluster concerts.
Instrumental programs were taught in ensemble
settings and gave some informal performances to
peers and parents.
2010, No. 2

schools are generally centrally located and have
larger student numbers, drawing their population
from many ‘feeder’ primary schools in the wider
area. Two of the ive primary schools in this
study are located in the same regional town
as the secondary school which applied for the
government grant. The other three schools lie
within a 20 km radius of the town. According to
Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006 census data,
the town has a population of approximately 7000
and sits in the lowest decile on the Postal Area
Index of Economic Resources within the state of
Victoria. The wider area covered by this project
has a population of approximately 17,000 and
sits in the second lowest decile on the Local
Government Index of Economic Resources within
the state of Victoria. Despite these levels of
disadvantage, the grant proposal noted that the
area has a thriving arts community of local artists,
musicians and instrument makers.
Student involvement in the program at each
school ranged from 36 to 89 students, varying
with the size of the school. These ive schools
volunteered to participate in the program and
demonstrated their commitment to the project
by providing suicient funding to purchase class
sets of instruments. Before the implementation of
the MP program each school generally provided
one specialist music lesson per week for each
class and a small number of children participated
in user-pays instrumental lessons provided by
visiting teachers.
The MP coordinator in charge of implementing
the entire program was also the secondary school
music teacher. The MP program employed a
Kodály teacher, instrumental teachers and vocal
ensemble teachers to provide additional music
education to the primary schools throughout the
three year program. These teachers were oicially
based at the secondary school, but travelled
between each of the primary schools to deliver
the program.
Australian Journal of Music Education
Evaluation of a regional music program
Methodology
The methodology utilised in this evaluation
was informed by Stulebeam’s (1983, 2007)
“CIPP” (Context, Input, Process, and Product)
model of program evaluation and Owen’s (2006)
description of retrospective impact evaluation.
This qualitative approach to impact evaluation
seeks not only to measure what was achieved
in relation to intended objectives, but also
to gain a rich understanding of how and why
these achievements occurred. In addition, this
approach can also discover unintended outcomes
and assess the validity of intended outcomes for
the recipients and stakeholders.
Data collection and analysis
Observation visits were made to each of the
schools on at least four occasions. Music lessons
conducted by MP staf were observed and
short conversational interviews with students,
principals and teachers were conducted on
each of these visits. Researchers recorded
summaries and impressions in written notes.
Seven longer, semi-structured interviews were
conducted with 17 classroom teachers and ive
MP teaching staf at the end of the irst year of
the program. A principal, the MP Kodály teacher
and the MP coordinator were also interviewed
extensively during preparation of this report
at the conclusion of the program. These semi-
structured interviews were taped and transcribed
in summary form, with representational quotes
transcribed in full. Interview questions focussed
on the participants’ expectations and experiences
of the program, diiculties encountered,
positive and unintended outcomes and future
recommendations.
Informal group discussions were also
conducted during the inal round of testing with
string classes at three schools discussing what the
students liked and disliked about the program.
In addition open-ended feedback questionnaires
55
Grimmett et al.
were sent to all parents, principals and teachers
of the participating schools, and all MP teaching
staf. One school also designed and administered
their own questionnaire to the participating
string students. Participants were asked to
comment on the strengths and weaknesses of the
program and make recommendations for future
programs. Thirty seven responses were received,
representing parents, principals, classroom
teachers, MP teaching staf and students, and
therefore provided a diversity of quite detailed
additional feedback from stakeholders in the
program.
Thematic analysis was used to code and
organise the interview and questionnaire data
into themes relating to access and equity,
program content, program organisation, student
skills and attitudes, quality of teachers, and wider
beneits to the community. Repeated readings
of this coded analysis provided broad level
analysis and general indings about the program,
while closer analysis of individual interview
transcripts and survey forms provided speciic
examples to illustrate these broad indings.
Planning documents and correspondence
were also collected and analysed to provide an
understanding of the program organisation and
context.
Impact evaluation of the MP
program
Were the objectives of the program
achieved?
On a purely objectives-based assessment of this
music program, it is possible to conclude that for
the cohorts of students involved in the treatment
interventions, the program did meet most of the
intended objectives. Students in the 2005 cohort
of Years Prep-3 at the ive treatment schools
received free access to an expanded music
program for three years, and did demonstrate
some measurable improvements in verbal
56
memory (Rickard, Vasquez et al., 2010) and self-
esteem (Rickard, Appelman et al., 2010). While
some of these beneits were not observed in
control schools who did not receive the program,
it is diicult to determine from the quantitative
data what components of the program were
responsible for these efects. The qualitative
data presented in this report suggest, however,
that beneits are unlikely to have been caused
directly by the intended improvements in music
education provision as it is doubtful that the
actual program received by the students met the
MP proposal’s deinition of a high-quality music
program.
Were the needs of the recipients met?
Perhaps more importantly, however, is that the
desired outcomes of the program appear to have
varied signiicantly across diferent stakeholders.
For instance, even if the intended goals of a
high-quality music program had been achieved,
it is unclear whether this form of music program
was regarded by all stakeholders as appropriate
for the needs of the particular community.
The proposed program was based on the MP
coordinator’s previous experience as a music
teacher in non-government private schools in
much larger regional towns and her desire to
have students from the local feeder schools arrive
at secondary school with consistent levels of
music experience and skills to participate in the
secondary music program.
This is probably being a bit pie in the sky, but I
couldn’t see why the state schools couldn’t do the
same. If you had the same resources and teachers
it should be the same (as in private schools). (MP
coordinator)
A comprehensive audit of the existing assets,
resources or limitations associated with the
primary school music programs was not
performed before the original proposal was
developed, nor was input from the primary
school principals, staf or students regarding
their own opinions of their needs efectively
2010, No. 2

sought. Assessment of the particular budget
constraints, staing formula or curriculum
approaches of government primary schools, and
how these difer from the secondary schools or
non-government private schools with which the
leaders of the submission were familiar, may also
have been insuicient for successful adoption of
the program. It appears that while the primary
school principals were keen to participate in the
program and boost the degree of attention given
to music within their schools, they deferred to the
professional experience of the MP coordinator
with regard to the form of program that should
be implemented. For instance, one principal
stated that:
Even though I thought a diferent instrument
might be easier... it was certainly too good of an
opportunity and I was prepared to defer to the
coordinator’s better judgement. I think that’s all
you can do if you’re looking at someone who can
accumulate quality resources and quality tutors.’
Common complaints from students involved
in the string program were that they found the
lessons boring and the repertoire uninteresting.
These observations were also reported by parents
and generalist teachers. One parent commented,
‘She was never challenged with the music
work they did and lost a lot of interest,’ while a
classroom teacher wrote, ‘No efort was made
to consider student needs/wants. They need to
engage the students. The talented students were
bored and the struggling ones left behind!’ It
is diicult to ascertain from the collected data
whether these comments refer to problems with
the teaching materials or the manner in which
teachers implemented them.
Some adults questioned whether compulsory
learning of a string instrument was culturally valid
in a community where few families could aford
to purchase their own instrument and continue
tuition at the cessation of the program and few
opportunities existed for hearing or joining with
other string performers in the community outside
of school. Some suggested that percussion,
guitar or ukulele might have been options
Australian Journal of Music Education
Evaluation of a regional music program
that were more afordable and appealing for
students in this particular community. Although
the original funding submission makes mention
of the fact that this regional area has a vibrant
arts community, the proposed program did not
capitalize on this local expertise or encourage
students to develop skills consistent with
participation in existing local activities.
Although the majority of teachers and
principals interviewed were positive about the
Kodály program and impressed with the students’
improvements in musical literacy, staf at two of
the schools were concerned about the highly
structured nature of the program and whether
this was appropriate for young children. One
generalist classroom teacher commented, ‘Kids
at that age they want to sing and they want
to get into things and they really have short
concentration spans. And when you’re sitting
on the loor and doing that sort of thing all the
time [they get a bit restless]...I know that the
basics of the singing and things like that are really
important but you would also like to factor in the
fun aspect of music. Because I think that’s really
important. I mean correct singing is very nice and
it’s lovely but I think it also needs to be fun.’
This comment highlights a possible
discrepancy between music educators and
generalist school staf and parents regarding
the value and role of music education. The MP
program was introduced into participating
schools with limited explanation of the reasons
for why the particular aspects of the program
had been chosen or the outcomes that could
be expected. The literature suggests that it is
not uncommon for schools and students to
value music primarily as an opportunity for
entertainment and a break from ‘real work’ (Forari,
2007, p. 142; Tacka & Houlahan, 1995, p. 9). In
relecting on the program, the MP coordinator
also recognised the need for schools with poorly
informed expectations to be educated about the
beneits of music learning if they are to value
and support the eforts of such a comprehensive
intervention program:
57
Grimmett et al.
There’s also the notion of entertainment versus
education. Some schools were happy if the kids
came out of lessons happy and they’d had a
fun day. But to have it connecting and building
all the way through (in a sequenced program)
from Prep-12 was the aim and it was happening.
Principals began to see that music education is
much more involved than they thought – it’s not
just a little add-on.
In another example of highly variable feedback
about a speciic issue, a comment repeated by
parents, students and teachers was that the
compulsory nature of the string program had
negative impacts on the learning of the students
who were enthusiastic because of the need to
cater for students who were disinterested and
poorly engaged. Yet, other respondents felt that
compulsion to participate had been positive
because it exposed many children, whom
teachers and parents felt may never have self-
volunteered, to the experience of playing a string
instrument.
You don’t realise the musical talents some
children have until they are given an instrument
...This program has probably tripled or
quadrupled the amount of kids that have an
interest in music. (Primary school principal)
In summary, it is therefore diicult to conclude
whether the needs of the recipients of the
program were met, as these needs were not
clariied at the beginning of the program.
Diferent needs and expectations of participants
will inevitably lead to diferent perceptions of the
same issues, making it diicult to use qualitative
data to assess the overall value of the program.
While the quantitative data collected do indicate
that many of the objectives were met and several
measurable positive outcomes were achieved, the
qualitative data questions whether the outcomes
achieved were consistent with the expectations
and values of the program’s stakeholders.
Why was the program not implemented as
planned?
The major changes to implementation of the
program were due directly to staing issues. From
58
the very outset, it was extremely diicult for the
MP coordinator to obtain appropriately qualiied
and experienced staf to implement the proposed
program. This was partly due to the very small
numbers of qualiied music teachers living in
this relatively small regional area available for
employment, but also because some of those
who may have been available expressed concern
about the diiculties involved in taking up such
a highly demanding itinerant position (personal
correspondence to MP coordinator, March 2005).
Eventually, almost two terms after funding
was allocated, a teacher returning from family
leave agreed to take up the Kodály position on a
part-time basis, rather than the full-time position
proposed. Diiculties in attracting and retaining
appropriately qualiied string teachers led to a
high turnover of teachers in the string program,
with each teacher possessing variable skills,
background and experience. Staf availability and
timetabling issues within the schools thus led
to a reduction in the number of Kodály lessons
each class received per week, and the adoption
of whole-class lessons instead of small group
sessions in the string program.
Changes to the implemented program also
inevitably occurred due to the individual music
teachers’ own expertise and interests and
adaption to the particular context and needs of
the individual schools and students. Forari (2007)
argues that the ideologies of policy are frequently
either ignored or transformed by teachers to
it with their own agendas and values. Such
actions may be a result of the manner in which
teachers make sense of the new policy they are
meant to implement. Individuals make diferent
interpretations of the same policy message
dependent on their previous knowledge,
experience, values and attitudes. For example,
some teachers may focus on surface aspects of
the new policy that are familiar to them and fail
to recognise the deeper diferences that require
change, while emotional self-preservation can
also prevent complete adoption of policy change.
2010, No. 2

These inevitable implementation diiculties
which occur in all new programs were further
compounded in this program by insuicient
communication, induction and training at the
beginning of each MP teacher’s employment.
Due to the MP coordinator’s own teaching
duties at the secondary school there may not
have been suicient time to provide adequate
direction and supervision of MP staf. Although
the Kodály teacher undertook substantial training
in the Kodály method, the instrumental teachers
established their own program and repertoire
with little reference to the proposed program
and materials, and frequently without reference
to what had already been taught to the students
by previous teachers. Feedback from students,
parents and teachers showed considerable
frustration with the fact that each teacher
seemed to start again from the very beginning
and often repeated the same repertoire.
What were the unintended outcomes?
Thematic analysis of feedback and interview
responses indicated several unintended
outcomes occurred as a result of the
implementation of the music program.
Unanticipated positive outcomes mentioned
by respondents (in addition to the intended
outcomes of increased access to music education
and development of musical and personal
skills described earlier) included expansion of
performance opportunities (which were felt
to have increased student self-conidence);
the building of the new music centre at the
secondary school which had provided a
signiicant community resource; and expectations
about music learning had been raised within
the community, particularly in regard to young
children’s ability to acquire music literacy skills
and learn to play an instrument. As one music
specialist said, ‘I would never have assumed that
Preps were capable of such things!’ There was
some limited adoption of the Kodály principles
by at least three of the music and generalist
Australian Journal of Music Education
Evaluation of a regional music program
teachers who observed the program and valued
its contribution to music literacy and singing
technique. The program provoked a new
understanding within the community of what
is possible if adequate funding and staing is
available for music education.
Some schools also reported unintended
outcomes that had detrimental efects on their
existing music programs. In some schools,
existing music teachers felt that their own
programs were undermined and devalued by
the arrival of ‘experts’ who did things diferently.
In at least two cases, the MP program replaced
elements of the existing classroom music
time allocation rather than supplementing
the standard music curriculum already being
provided by school staf. One school previously
had a long established choir of 60 plus members,
established primarily through the music teacher’s
efective rapport with students and dynamic
personality and teaching style. When the program
established the travelling choral experts, time
allocation for the existing choir was cut. Within
weeks of beginning the new choral sessions with
visiting teachers, the numbers of participants
dropped to approximately 12-15 members. The
momentum of the original choir was lost and the
teacher subsequently found it diicult to rebuild.
There were also signiicant costs to the
schools to participate fully in the program. Some
principals and staf reported dissatisfaction that
signiicant funds had been committed on the
basis of the proposed program, yet a substantially
reduced program was ultimately delivered.
String instruments are relatively expensive and,
as only one of the schools was able to self-fund
employment of staf to continue the string
program beyond the funded project, most of
these instruments ended up in storage, unused
in the schools. Anecdotal reports suggest that
because the schools invested heavily in music
over the period of this program, administrators
have felt under pressure from staf and parents
to subsequently direct available funds and
59
Grimmett et al.
attention to other subject areas instead of trying
to maintain the music program. Despite this
attitude, one enterprising school music teacher
has actually traded in several violins to purchase
a class set of ukuleles and has successfully
developed a class music instrumental program
with a local musician.
Implications and guidelines for
future programs
The problematic implementation of this program
highlights the many diiculties that can be
encountered between planning a proposal
and successfully putting it into practice. From a
retrospective impact evaluation of this program,
the following guidelines for other groups
interested in establishing similar music programs
are proposed.
Establish and carry out efective proactive
evaluation procedures prior to proposal
development
A proactive evaluation must irst consider the
needs and context of the particular community
to determine what sort of proposal is suitable
and viable. The context evaluation component
(to assess needs, assets, and problems within a
deined environment) and the input evaluation
component (to assess competing strategies
and the work plans and budgets of the selected
approach) of Stulebeam’s (2007) CIPP evaluation
model checklist provide a structured approach
for ensuring that program proposals are well
considered, appropriate and viable for the
particular community. These assessments must
question both philosophical and practical issues.
For example: Is the proposed curriculum relevant
and engaging for these students? Is it based on
current best-practice research? Can suicient
staf and funding be obtained to implement this
program? In this case, such an evaluation could
have alerted the MP committee to many of the
organisational diiculties the program would
60
face and the need to either redesign the intended
proposal or put in place further support measures
to ensure the program’s acceptance and viability.
Empower stakeholders to develop
ownership of the program and work
towards institutionalising the new
program
Ideally, the community must have some input
and sense of ownership of the program if they
are to commit to its implementation. However,
Fullan (2007) does suggest, that provided
the initiative is in fact a good idea, this sense
of ownership can grow over time provided
participants are empowered to make choices
and provide input as the program develops.
This program was proposed with the best of
intentions but insuicient process may have been
initiated to encourage participants to develop
their own sense of ownership of the program.
To encourage empowerment, a clariicative
evaluation must take place in the early stages
of program implementation to ensure that the
needs identiied in the proactive evaluation
have been fully ascertained (Owen, 2006). Often
participants can only fully understand and make
informed judgements about their needs once
they actually become involved in a new initiative
and can relect on their practice (Fullan, 2007). A
formal process for acknowledging participants’
experiences and responding to their suggestions
allows participants to develop their own meaning
for the initiative and greatly improves the
likelihood that the program will be implemented
and sustained.
Long-term sustainability of such a program
requires institutionalisation of infrastructural
changes to the schools’ values, policies, and
capacities of staf. Fullan (2007) suggests that
while signiicant change can be achieved within
2 to 3 years by implementing a speciic program,
institutional reform can take 5 to 10 years. It
is extremely diicult for programs to build up
suicient momentum within three years to self-
2010, No. 2

fund their continuance. Proactive steps must be
taken from the outset of the program to gradually
change the values and music education policy
of each school. In order to be able to continue
the program beyond the initial funding, there
must be a commitment from schools to either
seek to employ appropriately qualiied staf or
to provide adequate professional development
for existing staf. Even if schools are willing to
make such commitments (as at least one of the
schools in this program was), the funding realities
of government primary school budgets and the
lack of availability of appropriate professional
development or qualiied staf in regional areas
can make this objective unrealistic without
alternative funding sources.
Establish efective management and
organisational structures for:
a) monitoring and long-term development of
the program
b) day-to-day implementation and
communication amongst stakeholders
As part of the original submission for this
particular program, a proposed management
structure was developed consisting of a steering
committee and sub-committees for building,
evaluation, sustainability, parent support,
and program development. However, the
crucial evaluation, sustainability and program
development sub-committees were never
formed, leaving the bulk of the responsibility for
managing the program to the MP coordinator.
Continuous interactive and monitoring
evaluative processes require the regular attention
of a dedicated group, representative of the
various participants, to both identify and take
action on issues as they arise. In such a large-scale
initiative, it is vital that efective communication
processes are developed to keep the many
participants informed of what is happening and
what is expected of them. Collaborative decision-
making processes and delegation of tasks are
Australian Journal of Music Education
Evaluation of a regional music program
essential to both manage the day-to-day issues of
staing and implementing the various aspects of
the program and to provide long-term guidance
for development of the curricular program.
Choose curricula content and pedagogical
practices appropriate for the needs of
students and the community
A major consideration for any program proposal
regards selection of the particular curriculum
content and pedagogical practices. According to
sociocultural theorists, students learn through
participation in the valued and meaningful
practices of their community, gradually gaining
competence and building identity with the
support of more knowledgeable peers and adults
(see Lave & Wenger, 1991; Rogof, 1990, 2003;
Vygotsky, 1978; Wenger, 1998). By this deinition
of learning, students must be motivated to
actively participate (engage) in meaningful
practices that they regard as relevant to either
present or perceived future needs (Cambourne,
1988).
The highly traditional approaches to music
education chosen for this program (Kodály-based
classroom program and instrumental string
program) may have unintentionally alienated
some students and generalist teachers from
engaging with the chosen curricular content
and practices. The National Review of School
Music Education (DEST, 2005) recognised that
the concept of quality music education can be
viewed from various perspectives which need
not be mutually exclusive. The authors describe
how these perspectives can form a continuum
from a pedagogy for participation (valuing
enjoyment, inclusion and participation) through
to a pedagogy for expertise (valuing acquisition
of skills and excellence in performance). Although
an aim of this music program was to provide
access to music education to all students, it also
aimed to do this through provision of curriculum
strategies focused on a pedagogy for expertise.
61
Grimmett et al.
While lofty goals are admirable, they can miss
their mark if a suicient base of participation
and enjoyment has not been well established
irst. The chosen curriculum of any proposed
program must take into account the varying
levels of commitment of the participants and
provide curricular activities that are relevant to
their needs. Parents and teachers particularly
questioned the relevance of compulsory learning
of a string instrument when it is so far removed
from the types of music to which most students
listen and engage in outside of school. Several
respondents suggested that the string program
may have been better received if all children
were given an opportunity to trial the program
(perhaps for one term or semester) and were then
allowed to choose whether or not they would
continue.
The intrinsic educational value of these
particular curriculum choices is beyond the
scope of this paper; rather, the issue is raised
to highlight the importance of selecting an
approach which is appropriate for the context.
Interestingly, several researchers commenting on
the implementation of the Kodály-based music
curriculum in Queensland have also reported
that some teachers feel this approach is not
suitable for all educational contexts (Southcott
& Hartwig, 2005; Barton & Hartwig, 2004;
deVries, 2001). Whilst deVries strongly supports
the philosophical beliefs of Zoltán Kodály, he
argues that the way his philosophy is frequently
interpreted and implemented (focusing on
acquisition of discrete musical skills) is faulty and
neglects the cultural pluralism of the twenty-irst
century.
Recruit and retain quality teachers
and provide appropriate professional
development and resources to ensure
teachers can deliver the proposed curricula
The qualitative data collected in this study
clearly showed the importance of recruiting
and retaining high quality teachers. Student
62
enjoyment and progress appeared to be
associated with the MP teachers who were
able to build a good rapport with the students,
diferentiate learning activities for students of
diferent abilities and establish an enjoyable, yet
challenging learning environment. Provision of
acceptable working conditions and appropriate
remuneration are crucial factors in establishing a
stable teaching team. Inevitably, the short-term
contracts, poor pay rates, excessive travel and
teacher isolation often inherent in the role of
itinerant instrumental teachers make this stability
very diicult to achieve.
Given the high turnover of program staf, it
has been diicult to ascertain which, indeed
if any, string teachers utilised the proposed
curricular and pedagogical strategies. Any
successes or failures of the program are therefore
not necessarily attributable to the particular
strategies proposed, but rather to the general
increase in the amount of music exposure and
involvement provided by participation in the
program. Stringer and Owen (1986), summarising
the work of Fullan and Pomfret (1977) and Fullan
(1982), suggest that successful implementation of
a particular curricular innovation relies on ‘teacher
knowledge of the curriculum to be implemented,
positive attitudes towards the intentions of
the curriculum, and an ability to undertake the
teaching roles implied in the curriculum.’ As the
MP Kodály teacher indicated:
It became very clearly apparent when I did the
Kodály training how much I didn’t know, what
I didn’t know. People say that if you’re doing a
few hand signs and taas and titis then you’re
teaching Kodály. People just don’t get it. If you’re
going to deliver a Kodály program then you
need to have the commitment of the schools to a
sequential developmental program and you need
to have the staf trained.’
A key recommendation for any group aiming
to establish an innovative curriculum program
is to ensure that teaching staf are well informed
about the particular pedagogy required and how
it difers from their previous teaching practice.
2010, No. 2

This understanding must be not only at the
surface level of content and materials, but also at
the deeper philosophical levels of pedagogical
practice and beliefs. They must also be provided
with appropriate resources and training to
provide any special materials and skills necessary
for carrying out this new pedagogy.
Establish a collaborative professional
learning community that builds teacher
capacity through the recognition and
development of individuals’ strengths and
interests
A successful program must not only inspire
a shared vision of the program intentions
through adequate professional development
but also acknowledge the unique strengths
and interests that individual teachers bring to
the practice of teaching. Eisner (1983) describes
teaching as a unique form of ‘artistry’ that
cannot be completely prescribed or controlled
by hierarchical forces. This is particularly so in
music education where teachers bring vastly
diferent skills and experience according to the
instruments they play and their levels of training.
The unique skills of many of the pre-existing
music teachers in the cluster were perceived to
be overlooked or devalued by the introduction
of this program rather than being built upon
and enhanced. Neither were the skills of existing
musicians in the community capitalized upon,
which may have enhanced sustainability of
enhanced music education beyond the three year
funded period. The development of a professional
learning community allows teachers to work
collaboratively to build their capacities with a
focus on improving student learning rather than
on simply implementing a prescribed program
(Fullan, 2007). Extending this community beyond
the school also shapes the program as a culturally
relevant and valued practice with which all
stakeholders can identify, and which embeds
the student’s development within a sustainable
future in that community.
Australian Journal of Music Education
Evaluation of a regional music program
Actively plan for student engagement by
listening to and valuing students’ opinions
In recent decades, research into student
participation in educational change has argued
for the necessity of listening to students’ views
about what they are taught and how they best
learn, although some argue, little has changed in
practice (Fullan, 2007). If students are expected
to engage in musical learning, it makes sense
to allow students to share their opinions about
the types of music and activities they enjoy and
ind meaningful. The musical and technological
environment contemporary students grow up
in is signiicantly diferent from that of their
teachers’ generation, radically altering children’s
musical and learning preferences (Grimmett,
2008). Through exposure to interactive
technology, contemporary students understand
how it feels to be fully engaged in an activity and
demand similar levels of engagement in their
school activities (Prensky, 2001, 2005). Fullan
(2007) argues that such engagement will only
occur through two changes:
• a change in classroom pedagogies that
actively seek to understand students’ needs
and engage them in relevant and meaningful
learning experiences, and
• a change in school culture that recognises and
values the opinions that students have about
factors that afect their learning and takes
action on these.
In terms of music education, it may therefore
be necessary to constantly update curricula
to recognise, include and value the forms of
music making and listening that students ind
meaningful in their own lives. A central tenet
of Kodály’s philosophy is to use the musical
mother tongue of students as a starting point
for music education so that ultimately they will
have the musical knowledge to understand
the masterworks of musical literature (Choksy,
2003). The typical musical mother tongue of
contemporary students extends beyond nursery
rhymes and folk songs and includes the rich array
of culturally diverse musical styles and forms
63
Grimmett et al.
available in most homes through electronic
media. Music educators may therefore be more
likely to engage students if they build upon,
rather than ignore, this eclectic musical heritage
(deVries, 2004).
In closing, it is interesting to note the recent
relections of Dr Deanna Hoermann who
introduced the Kodály concept into Australia
through the establishment of the Developmental
Music Program (1970–1985) in western Sydney:
Music is a pathway to richer opportunities in
every students’ [sic] educational journey, but
setting new directions in music education is a
complex learning and unlearning process for
all concerned. Above all we cannot aford to
underestimate the individual and organisational
capabilities required to manage the change
process in music education and succeed. Had I
the knowledge about change management that
I have today I feel sure that the program could
have succeeded in continuing and expanding.
(Hoermann 2005, p. 7)
While it is diicult enough to manage change
within one institution, to manage signiicant
change across a cluster of schools with many
competing agendas, values, priorities and
personalities is an enormous task. Any such
proposal must be realistic about what can
reasonably be achieved with the time and
resources available. Funding should be aligned
with the need to develop appropriate criteria that
reward well-planned and manageable proposals
that are irmly embedded in the reality of their
community context. Reasonable timelines must
be allowed for both planning the proposal and
preparing to implement the program if educators
are to succeed in successfully implementing
innovative proposals. Ultimately, proposals based
on lofty ambitions and good intentions can only
successfully navigate the path into practice if
they are matched with a thorough understanding
and commitment to contemporary evaluation,
change management, organisational and
teaching/learning practices.
64
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the Australian
Research Council who supported this research
via an ARC Linkage grant (#LP0669864), and
the research assistance of Mr Stuart Lee and Ms
Holly Knox Anderson. We would also like to thank
the staf and students involved in the music
education program, in particular, Ms Marilyn
Keogh and Ms Linda Browne.
References
Barton, G. & Hartwig, K. (2004). To do or not to do?
Proceedings of the XXVIth Annual Conference, Australian
Association for Research in Music Education,13-24.
Cambourne, B. (1988). Whole story: Natural learning and
the acquisition of literacy in the classroom. Auckland:
Ashton Scholastic.
Choksy, L. (2003). Making (which?) music together. XVI
International Kodály Symposium, www.kodaly.org.au.
Cronbach, L. and Associates. (1983). Ninety-ive theses
for reforming program evaluation. In: G. Madaus,
M. Scriven and D. L. Stulebeam. (Eds.) Evaluation
models: Viewpoints on educational and human services
evaluation. Boston: Kluwer-Nijhof.
deVries, P. (2001). Reevaluating common Kodaly
practices. Music Educators Journal, 88 (3),24-27.
deVries, P. (2004). Listen to the fans. Music Educators
Journal, 91 (2),25-28.
Eisner, E. W. (1983). Educational connoisseurship and
criticism: Their form and functions in educational
evaluation. In G. F. Madaus, M. S. Scriven and D. L.
Stulebeam (Eds.). Evaluation models: Viewpoints on
educational and human services evaluation.Boston:
Kluwer-Nijhof.
Forari, A. (2007). Making sense of music education policy.
British Journal of Music Education, 24 (2),135-146.
Fullan, M. (2007). The NEW meaning of educational
change. 4th ed. New York: Teachers College Press.
Grimmett, H. (2008). A school in tune? The stories behind
one school’s singing culture. Unpublished M Ed
dissertation, Faculty of Education, Monash University,
Melbourne.
Hennessy, S. (2001). Research and development in music
education. In C. Philpott and C. Plummeridge (Eds.).
Issues in music teaching. London: Routledge Falmer.
Hoermann, D. (2005). Keynote address: Relections on
the Developmental Music Program through the lens of
change. Proceedings of the XXVIIth Annual Conference,
Australian Association for Research in Music Education,
1-8.
Lave, J. & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate
peripheral participation. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
2010, No. 2
 Evaluation of a regional music program

Owen, J. (2006). Program evaluation: Forms and
approaches. 3rd ed. Sydney: Allen & Unwin.
DEST (Department of Education, Science and Training)
(2005) . National review of school music education:
Augmenting the diminished. Edited by R. Pascoe, S.
Leong, J. MacCallum, E. Mackinlay, K. Marsh, B. Smith,
T. Church & A. Winterton. .. Canberra: Australian
Government
Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants,
part II: Do they really think diferently? On the horizon
(6), www.marcprensky.com/writing/default.asp.
Prensky, M. (2005). Engage me or enrage me: What
today’s learners demand. Educause (September/
October), 60-64.
Rickard, N. Appelman, P., James, R., Murphy, F., Gill, A. &
Bambrick, C. (2010). Orchestrating life skills: The efect
of increased school-based music classes on children’s
social competence and self-esteem. Under review.
Rickard, N. S., Vasquez, T., Murphy, F., Toukhsati, S.
R., & Gill, A. (2010). Beneits of a classroom based
instrumental music program on verbal memory of
primary school children. Australian Journal of Music
Education, in press.
Rogof, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in thinking: Cognitive
development in social context. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Rogof, B. (2003). The cultural nature of human
development. New York: Oxford University Press.
Southcott, J., & Hartwig. K. (2005). States of change: A
comparison of school music curricula initiatives in
Queensland and Victoria. Proceedings of the XXVIIth
Annual Conference, Australian Association for Research
in Music Education, 142-149.
Spillane, J. P., Reiser, B. J., Reimer, T. (2002). Policy
implementation and cognition: Reframing and
refocusing implementation research. Review of
Educational Research, 72 (3), 387-431.
Stringer, W. N. & Owen, J. M. (1986). Is the music
curriculum in dire straits? A project on innovatory
approaches to teaching and learning in music at the
secondary school level in Victoria. Melbourne: Centre for
Program Evaluation, Melbourne College of Advanced
Education.
Stulebeam, D. L. (1983). The CIPP model for program
evaluation. In G. F. Madaus, M. S. Scriven and D. L.
Stulebeam (Eds.).Evaluation models: Viewpoints on
educational and human services evaluation. Boston:
Kluwer-Nijhof.
Stulebeam, D. L. (2007). CIPP Evaluation model checklist
[Second Edition]: A tool for applying the CIPP Model
to assess long-term enterprises. Evaluation Checklists
Project, http://www.wmich.edu/evalctr/checklists/
cippchecklist_mar07.pdf.
Tacka, P., & Houlahan, M. (1995). Sound thinking:
developing musical literacy. Vol. 1. New York: Boosey &
Hawkes.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of
higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning,
meaning and identity. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.

Helen Grimmett is a Research Assistant in the School of Psychology, Psychiatry & Psychological Medicine at Monash
University. Her research interests include music education, innovations in pedagogy and professional learning of
teachers.

Nikki Rickard is an Associate Professor in the School of Psychology, Psychiatry & Psychological Medicine at Monash
University. Her main teaching and research interests are within the ield of Behavioural Neuroscience. Her current
research programs include evaluation of the impact of music education on academic and psychosocial factors in
schoolchildren, cognitive beneits of engaging in non-performance music activities and neuromodulation of memory
with afectively salient music.  She is also an executive member of the Australian Music and Psychology Society.

Anneliese Gill, a musician and Fulbright Scholar, is part of the music-psychology research team in the School of
Psychiatry, Psychology and Psychological Medicine at Monash University. She is involved in researching the beneits of
school-based music education and is a guest lecturer on Music Performance Anxiety.

Fintan Murphy is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Music, Monash University, Australia. His main research areas are
body use and coordination in string playing and the use of multi media in instrumental teaching. Recent publications
include the DVDROM’s Violin Bow Technique (Twofold/Alfred, 2008) and the Violin Alive series (Twofold/Young
Musicians, 2001-2009), the CD recording The Soul of the Viola (Move, 2004) and the Series 7 violin books (consultant
editor) for the Australian Music Examinations Board (Allans, 2001)

Australian Journal of Music Education 65

 a u s t r a l i a n

s
a o c i e t y

f o r
s m u s i c

m
Experiences and understandings:
e d u c a t i o n

i n c o r p o r a t e d
e

Student teachers’ beliefs about

multicultural practice in music education
Dawn Joseph

Deakin University

Jane Southcott

Monash University

Abstract
In this time of national curriculum re-thinking, tertiary institutions are positioned to create opportunities amongst
pre-service teachers for the cultivation of knowledge, skills and understandings concerning cultural diversity in
music education. The demographic proile of the State of Victoria is the most culturally diverse in Australia and the
curriculum framework for schools, Victorian Essential Learning Standards (VELS), mandates multiculturalism as an
integral part of the education. The Arts domain ofers a range of suggestions as to how school students might develop
an awareness of aesthetic and critical aspects of arts works from varied cultural, social, and historical contexts. In
preparing pre-service teachers to embrace these ideas and understandings, tertiary educators continue to face
a mismatch between curricular expectations and the realities of the school music classroom. In 2005 we began a
research project that sought to explore fourth year pre-service music education students’ understandings about
curriculum constraints and classroom practices in music education. This article focuses on the data collected in 2008
and 2009 from students from Deakin and Monash Universities. The semi-structured interviews were analyzed using
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. The indings revealed a disjuncture between VELS and what our students
found during their school placements. This study reports on two themes: perceptions of multiculturalism and the
teaching and learning of multicultural music in schools. As tertiary music educators, we endeavor to encourage our
student teachers to examine their own experiences and understandings in multicultural music.

Key words: Australian curriculum, Multiculturalism, Multicultural music practice, teacher education

Australian Journal of Music Education 2010:2, 66-75

Introduction as one of the arts in the second phase of the

National Curriculum (ACARA, 2009). Curriculum
In Australia in 2005, the National Review of
review and reform is an ongoing global
School Music Education (NRSME) reported that
phenomenon from which Australia is not exempt.
music was poorly resourced and often neglected.
Tertiary teacher educators should respond to
The NRSME found that “there is a need for
the societal contexts and expectations in which
immediate priority on improving and sustaining
future teachers will ind themselves situated.
the quality and status of music education”
Baldwin, Buchanan and Rudisill (2007) point
(DEST, 2005, p. v). Four years later the Australian
out that teacher educators are “charged with
Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority
the complex task of preparing a teaching force
(ACARA) announced that music will be included
with the skills for teaching to high standards

66 2010, No. 2
 Experiences and understandings of student teachers
while meeting the needs of all the learners in the
classroom” (p. 325). Part of this complex task must
consider the cultural diversity that currently exists
in Australian classrooms. As culture is expressed
through music, future teachers should have
engaged, explored and experienced a variety of
musics in their pre-service education. Jeanneret
and Forrest (2009) conirm that there has long
been debate about how and what musical
understandings and skills should be present in
teacher education and that there continues to be
too little time and resources allocated to music
education. They acknowledge that “there is little
in the way of concrete recommendations” for
hoped for improvement (p. 208).
This article focuses on one Australian state,
Victoria, and the inclusion of music in both
curriculum and in teacher education. In 2004 the
Victorian Essential Learning Standards (VELS) was
introduced. VELS is a curriculum framework for
schools (years Preparatory to 10) that is organized
under three learning Strands (Physical, Personal
and Social Learning; Discipline-based Learning;
and Interdisciplinary Learning) (VCAA, 2009). Each
Strand is divided into Domains and the Arts are
considered under the Domain of Discipline-based
Learning. In VELS there are ive mandatory levels
and one additional optional level for extension.
The Levels each cover one to two years of
schooling. Levels 1, 2 and 3 comprise Preparatory,
Years 1 to 2, and Years 3 to 4 respectively. Levels
4 and 5 encompass the middle school years,
Years 5 to 6 and Years 7 to 8. Level 6 (Years 9-10)
ofers a curriculum framework that may be
employed although at this level of schooling, it
is common that program content is determined
by the inal years’ curricula in which students
specialize. It is only to be expected that school
music educators would look to the requirements
of the inal year 12 external examinations to
determine prerequisite knowledge and skills
to be acquired in the elective years (years 9
to 12). Within Discipline-based Learning, the
Arts curriculum framework ofers, according to
Australian Journal of Music Education
Southcott and Hartwig (2005), scant guidance
for music teaching, with only “generic language
with little real information to guide the teacher”
(p. 147). It is acknowledged that VELS only ofers
a framework not a syllabus but, particularly in
primary teacher education where generally there
is little time allocated to music education in
courses, more details would be helpful. With little
direction, it is challenging for both teachers and
tertiary teacher educators to develop efective
inclusive classroom curricula. Further the issue
of multiculturalism was not initially discussed
in any detail in VELS. Australia has used the
term ‘multiculturalism’ as part of oicial federal
government policy since 1973 (Department of
Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous
Afairs, Australian Government, 2005) and
continues to do so (Australian Government
Department of Immigration and Citizenship,
2008). More recently in 2009 the Victorian
Curriculum Assessment Authority (VCAA) (2009)
added that, “multiculturalism is an integral part
of VELS and covers a range of knowledge, skills,
values and behaviours”. VCAA acknowledges
the diversity of Australian populations and the
importance of intercultural understanding in
a social context where there is a wide range of
cultural variation. Further VELS emphasizes the
importance of developing culturally appropriate
values, responses and behaviours particularly
through the exploration and creation of various
forms of cultural expression (VCAA, 2009).
VELS was written speciically for Victoria
which is the most culturally diverse state in
Australia with a population from more than
two hundred countries that speak more than
two hundred and thirty languages and dialects
(Victorian Multicultural Commission, 2010).
Sadly this did not appear to be uppermost in the
thinking of the VELS designers. Even with the
recent VCAA (2009) addendum concerning the
inclusion of multiculturalism, music teachers are
still left with little speciic guidance. Likewise,
tertiary music educators are faced with the
67
Joseph and Southcott
challenge of preparing pre-service teacher
education students to support the changing
demographics and cultures of Victorian school
music classrooms. Encouragingly Erwin, Edwards,
Kerchner and Knight (2003) point out that, “music
educators of the twenty-irst century have the
opportunity to be better prepared than previous
generations to teach diverse populations
utilizing diverse musics” (p. 137). However, the
mere inclusion of a smorgasbord of diferent
musics does not necessarily ensure culturally
plural music education. For nearly twenty
years, ethnomusicologists and music educators
have argued that, to counter this teachers at
all levels should include cultural knowledge,
understandings, and skills to make learning more
relevant, efective, and authentic (Tucker, 1992;
Palmer, 1992; Burton, 2002; Campbell, 2004).
The meaningful inclusion of a variety of diverse
musics and their cultural context can promote
culturally inclusive plural music education.
Teacher educators have the responsibility to
prepare responsive, tolerant, respectful and
inclusive future music educators. It is important
the music education teachers and students
understand that “there are many diferent
but equally valid forms of musical and artistic
expression that encourages students to develop
a broad perspective based on understanding,
tolerance, and respect for a variety of opinions
and approaches” (Anderson & Campbell, 1989,
p. 1).
The ideal of inclusivity is just that – an ideal.
The problem is how to facilitate this in tertiary
teacher education so that future teachers are
empowered to create culturally inclusive music
curricula. Chen-Hafteck (2007) challenges us not
only to develop musical understanding, skill,
and awareness of socio-cultural context, but also
to inculcate “a positive attitude towards music”
(p. 229). This is the crux of the problem. How do
we get future teachers to change their attitudes
and perceptions based on their past, often
haphazard, music experiences? Further, those
68
experiences in both formal and informal learning
are predominantly taught from a ‘west is best’
perspective. Henkin and Steinmetz (2008) conirm
that, student teachers enter tertiary education
with “experiential knowledge of teaching through
their own prior school experiences, and therefore,
view teaching with the tinted lenses they have
personally gained over time” (p. 102). The same
could be said for their experiences in music. This
presents a challenge for tertiary educators given
the limitations of time and resources and the
demands of the increasingly crowded Australian
curriculum (Temmerman, 1997; Jeanneret,
1997; Russell-Bowie, 2003; Jeanneret & Forrest,
2009). Given the curricular expectations of VELS
and the realities of both teacher education
and schooling, how then can we approach the
ideals of cultural inclusivity? This problem is
not unique to Australia. In the USA, Henkin and
Steinmetz (2008) reported that “by discovering
what pre-service teachers know about diversity
in the classroom, we can then build upon their
funds of knowledge and help them teach
diverse curriculum and serve diverse students”
(p. 103). Further, Baldwin, Buchanan and Rudisill
(2007) point out that “shifting demographics
in schools toward greater ethnic and linguistic
diversity require teacher education programs to
teach future teachers how to be efective with
all learners” (p. 315). Inherent in this process of
change, student teachers should become aware
of their preconceptions and be prepared to
engage, as Allen and Porter (2002) suggest, “in
an efective teaching-learning exchange… and
relect on their personal behaviours, beliefs, and
values and how they inluence their interactions
with others” (p. 128).
In this article we will focus on two themes
drawn from the interviews: perceptions of
multiculturalism and the teaching and learning of
multicultural music in schools. The data revealed
that students have varying understandings
of multiculturalism per se and recognize the
importance of moving from a curriculum that
2010, No. 2
 Experiences and understandings of student teachers
is dominated by a western musical paradigm
to one that demonstrates cultural inclusivity.
In practice, given the cultural demographics
of Victorian school classrooms and the recent
pronouncements concerning the importance of
multiculturalism in schools, the students were
dismayed by what they experienced during their
placements.
The research context
In this exploration of the inclusion of multicultural
music education in both VELS and Victorian
teacher education we focus on responses
gathered by 30 semi-structured interviews
that were undertaken in 2008 and 2009 across
Deakin University and Monash University in
Victoria, Australia. In the interviews we explored
fourth-year music students’ understandings
and experiences in multicultural music, in
their personal backgrounds, their university
courses, and during their school teaching
placements. Depending on the course, various
numbers of days’ placement experience in
schools are mandated. This ranges between
40 and 90 days, depending on the teacher
registration requirements. This research adopted
a phenomenological stance and employed
semi-structured interviews to explore the lived
experiences of participants. The data were
analyzed using Interpretative Phenomenological
Analysis (IPA) which is a lexible, non-prescriptive
approach that ofers guidelines that are readily
adapted by researchers (Smith & Osborn, 2003).
The use of IPA provides an understanding of
participant experiences and ofers researchers
the opportunity to engage at an idiographic level
to explore “in detail how participants are making
sense of their personal and social world” (Smith
& Osborn, 2003, p. 51). In IPA the participant’s
lived experience is coupled with a “subjective
and relective process of interpretation” (Reid,
Flowers & Larkin, 2005, p. 20). In this hermeneutic
process researchers actively try to understand the
participant’s personal world (Smith, 2004). Across
both years, the same research assistant undertook
Australian Journal of Music Education
all interviews in both universities. The semi-
structured interviews lasted approximately 45
minutes and allowed a conversational lexibility
while still following a set of pre-prepared
questions set by the authors. These questions
were selected from those already trialed in earlier
years of this study (Southcott & Joseph, 2007;
Joseph & Southcott, 2009) for example, “What
do you understand multiculturalism to be?”,
“Have you learnt any music from other cultures?”,
“Why do you think multiculturalism is important
in school music?”, and “Did you experience any
multicultural music while you were on teaching
placement?” All interviews were transcribed and
given to the participants for clariication and
conirmation. The transcribed data were analyzed
only by the authors in a process that involves
“coding, organizing, integrating and interpreting
of data” (Reid, Flowers & Larkin, 2005, p. 22). IPA
is used to generate a thematically presented
narrative account in which direct quotations
from the interviews are included to illustrate the
discussion. No participants are identiied in the
discussion of the data.
Findings
The indings drawn from the interview data will
be considered under two emergent themes:
irst, the perceptions of multiculturalism held
by our participants, and second, the teaching
and learning of multicultural music in schools
understood by the pre-service teacher education
music specialists.
Perceptions of multiculturalism
The pre-service teacher education students’
understandings of multiculturalism in music
education traversed a continuum that
began from a somewhat naïve assertion that
multiculturalism was a ‘good thing’ but what that
might be exactly was poorly articulated. One
student stated that, “I think it’s important that we
use diferent types of music in our classrooms”
but did not elaborate further on why or how this
might be accomplished. Another added that,
69
Joseph and Southcott
“music is in every culture and even if it’s diferent,
people can still listen to it”. Participants ascribed
responsibility for the inclusion of diferent musics
in classrooms to teachers. One participant clearly
stated, “I think all teachers should make every
attempt to educate themselves about other
cultures so they can support and understand the
kids in their classrooms”. Such a response only
takes into account the teaching and learning
environment in schools. This teacher-centered
approach does not recognize the diversity within
the school student population and within the
wider society in which the school is positioned.
A more inclusive response was ofered by one
student who saw learning diferent musics and
genres as a means of inculcating an appreciation
of cultural diversity which he thought “starts in
the classroom”. He mentioned how successful the
experience of using another music in his teaching
had been, describing a school and community
celebration for the Sri Lankan Sinhala New Year
that he organized during his practicum. This
interviewee drew on his own expertise and that
of his community as bearers of culture which is
one way that we can be culturally responsive
teachers (Villegas & Lucas, 2002).
Several of the interviewees mentioned that
they were raised in an Anglo-Celtic Australian
environment and trained in western musical
genres. Nonetheless they felt it was important
to challenge themselves as musicians and
music educators by exploring music of other
cultures. One participant said that, “I think that
music is not just western music; music is made
all over the world – has diferent meaning all
over the world, therefore I think it’s extremely
important to actually show students you know
how music can be made in diferent places”. This
is particularly pertinent, as the future teachers
participating in this study may work in schools
with demographic proiles that relect the rich
population diversity of this state. As Victoria is
currently the most multicultural state in Australia
with a history that was “forged on successive
waves of migration” with new arrivals changing
the makeup of society (Victorian Multicultural
70
Commission, 2009), the interviewees’ awareness
that there are many other musics and cultures
is encouraging. Continuing this idea, another
respondent commented that, “I don’t think that
anybody should be led to believe that western
music is everything and all that we should
teach … otherwise we are limiting the musical
experiences and cultural understanding of the
students in our classes”. It can be argued that the
notion that ‘West is best’ must be discarded so
that “Australian music educators can be prepared
to embrace cultural diversity in music education”
(Joseph & Southcott, 2009, p. 469). One student
added that this understanding demanded a
“respect of each of those diferent cultures” and
another identiied the importance of upholding
cultural “values, traditions, [and] everything”.
Bradley (2006) recognizes the importance of
respecting and valuing other peoples and their
musics. One interviewee elaborated on this,
music relects the society in which it is composed
… music is an inherent part of the culture in
which it is produced and the culture in which
music is produced involves a whole social
setting, the historical setting, the historical lead
up to where the society is at the time, what’s
happening in the society at the time that the
music is produced and it is very important for
people to expand their understanding of how
things came about and why.
This understanding resonates with that of Chen-
Hafteck (2007) who states that, “learning about
a music without its contextualizing culture
lacks both feelings and emotions, which thus
denies access to both cognitive and afective
learning” (p. 227). Although the students in
general understood what multicultural music
could bring to teaching and learning, it remains
an individual decision about whether this will
occur. VELS does not mandate the inclusion of
multicultural music so the important question
becomes, how much value does the teacher
(or future teacher) place on the inclusion of
diverse musics in the classroom. Across the two
years of data collection, there was a consistent
acknowledgement that the inclusion of
multicultural music in contemporary Australian
2010, No. 2
 Experiences and understandings of student teachers
classrooms is valuable but the strength of this
conviction varied considerably. Some student
responses were simplistic, for example, one stated
that we should “sing a song from a diferent
culture at least once every term”. Another
extended this, saying that she would include
“lots of songs and talk about the cultures they
come from”. Henkin and Steinmetz (2008) also
found that, “most pre-service teachers approach
this issue of diversity individualistically, and their
conceptual ideas about diversity are shallow
and limited” (p. 102). More comprehensively, a
number of students described scenarios that
included music lessons where children in the
class, parents and community members were
involved in the teaching and learning of songs in
their cultural context.
By encouraging inclusive teaching and
learning of diverse musics and cultures that
moves beyond the teacher as the sole provider
of lesson content, interviewees recognized and
described the complexity of presenting culturally
inclusive school music. Interviewees pondered
how it would be possible to teach in a way that
relected the rich demographic that surrounds
a school where there may be many cultures
clamoring for inclusion. One student posed the
question, “How do you decide what to teach?”
Another said, “I don’t feel I know enough about
other cultures and their music as I did not learn
anything like this when I went to school”. In
addition, interviewees remarked that during their
tertiary studies they had gained some “skills and
understandings in world music but I would have
liked more”. There are considerable constraints
in teacher education, including the provision of
culturally diverse music education which is often
given a low priority (Coulby, 2006). Given the
limited time and resources available for the arts
in Australian teacher education, it is, as Villegas
and Lucas (2002) point out, “unrealistic to expect
teachers-to-be able to develop the extensive and
sophisticated pedagogical knowledge and skills
of culturally responsive teachers during their
pre-service preparation” (p. 30). It is hoped that
beginning teachers will undertake professional
Australian Journal of Music Education
development in multicultural music education
that will extend their knowledge and skills.
The teaching and learning of multicultural
music in schools
All interviewees were in the inal year of their
pre-service teacher education courses and had
undertaken a number of practicum experiences
in a wide range of schools which may or may not
include culturally diverse teaching and learning
programs. Our participants were realistic about
what they saw and might want to teach in the
future. Overall, only a few respondents found
diferent musics being taught in the classrooms
where they were place. It may be that, at other
times in the school year, culturally diverse music
was included, although this was not sighted
by our interviewees. What was observed again
ranged from the simplistic to the comprehensive.
One respondent described a lesson in which
a song (Shalom Chaverim) was introduced as
being a traditional song. The student said, “I was
surprised because as I learnt this as a song from
Israel but it was taught in English and there was
no explanation about where the song came
from”. Another student described a very diferent
experience. He said:
I watched my teacher teach a song from
Southern Africa called Sabunana Kusasa from an
old ABC school song book. The teacher explained
what the Zulu words meant and where these
people live in South Africa. This was really good
for the kids to know and it got even better when
he gave the children drums and they performed
the song in a circle. The kids really got into this
song and the movements really quickly.
Unfortunately this experience seemed to be the
exception rather than the rule. As one student
thought, “in schools in Victoria you will ind lots of
children in schools who come from other places
and cultures so why not teach multicultural
music?” Another participant observed that, “as
schools are already culturally diverse so teachers
should embrace this, especially in music lessons
where it is so easy to include without being
tokenistic”. Similarly, another said, “teachers
71
Joseph and Southcott
should be proactive in developing skills in other
music and learning about the cultures it comes
from”. This exploration was seen positively. One
student asked, “Why just do the old stuf that you
know, why not go and learn about other people’s
cultures?” As tertiary music educators we feel
limited in our own experiences and expertise
in our ability to ofer a wide range of musics in
pre-service teacher education programs. In an
attempt to address this we promote the many
professional development programs ofered in
Victoria in diverse musics and practices to our
pre-service teacher education students.
To explore new musics it is important to be
aware of one’s preconceptions. One student
expressed the desire “to learn more about a new
type of music, like African, as I like listening to it
and I would like to teach it in my classroom”. This
response also highlighted a lack of understanding
on the part of the interviewee who did not seem
to realize that there are many types of ‘African’
music. Similarly, another interviewee was keen
to learn more. He thought that music “is a great
way to get to know about other people and their
stories”. This seeking attitude is commendable,
given that pre-service teacher education cannot
address all the needs of future teachers. The
respondents did ofer examples of efective
multicultural teaching and learning that they
observed in schools. One reported excitedly,
“when I was on teaching rounds, some of the kids
brought their parents in to the music lesson and
they taught us all songs and stories from their
country. They had recently moved to Australia
from Vietnam. It was really great – far better than
watching it on You Tube”. One of the students
who himself came from another culture ofered to
teach songs from his country in the classroom. He
described the excitement amongst the children
learning these new songs, “they loved seeing me
play the bouzouki and learned the Greek words
really quickly. I even managed to teach them a
simple dance to go with the song”. This student
explained that, even after his teaching placement
was inished, the class music teacher continued
to invite him back to the school to work with
72
the students. The respondent reported that the
teacher had explained that she considered this
a “really authentic way to teach Greek music
that was much better than watching a video or
teaching from someone else’s lesson plan”.
In addition, students were asked about
how they might teach multicultural music in
the future. One interviewee suggested that it
would be possible to use the local students
and community as a resource. He thought that
it would be possible to just “ask one student
from one country to bring a piece of music and
describe it to the others and by doing that share
other cultures”. Another respondent went further
and expanded this idea. She said that she would
try to “invite the parents and grandparents of
students from other countries to come and
teach their songs, stories and dances as they
would teach it more convincingly”. Villegas and
Lucas (2002) point out that such practices can be
very efective as teachers “not only know their
students well, they use what they know about
their students to give them access to learning”
(p. 27). One student described an excursion
that her tertiary class had taken to the Centre
for Education and Research in Environmental
Strategies (CERES) in Brunswick in Melbourne
where they experienced Indian music and culture.
CERES is a community educational centre where
students and teachers can interact and “discover
traditional and contemporary celebrations,
customs and traditions” from a range of
cultures (Centre for Education and Research in
Environmental Strategies, 2010). This student
thought that this would be “a great thing to do
with my classes when I am teaching next year. We
could learn about multicultural music, arts and
crafts programs from places like India, Africa and
Indonesia”. Another student suggested that, “you
could work with other teachers and integrate
subjects and other cultures, maybe in a concert
or in a play”. Although the students may not
have experienced a range of multicultural musics
and cultures during their school placements,
their ideas about their future teaching are
encouraging.
2010, No. 2
 Experiences and understandings of student teachers

Discussion and Conclusion The VELS expectations although positive and

encompassing, ofer little real guidance to
This article has outlined the perceptions of inal
classroom music teachers in whose classrooms,
year music teacher education students regarding
students are expected to “learn about ways to
their understandings and beliefs concerning
design, improvise, represent, interpret, make
multiculturalism per se and the inclusion of
and present arts works that communicate
multicultural music in schools. The curriculum
feelings and their interests and understanding
framework in which they will be working
of themselves, their relationships and other
(VELS) expects schools to use the arts to “relect
people … incorporating inluences from their
the cultural diversity of students and school
own and other cultures and times” (VCAA,
communities and … recognize the multicultural
2009, p. 35). This is a tall order for music
world saturated with imagery, sounds and
teachers but the pre-service teacher educators
performances that students inhabit” (VCAA, 2009,
interviewed in this study were cognizant of
p. 31). The interview data presents a snapshot
the many potential beneits and challenges
of what our students saw and understood
ofered by the inclusion of multicultural music
during their teaching placements in 2008 and
in schools. Our interviewees were well aware
2009. What they described show that there is
that the responsibility for change begins with
comparatively little cultural diversity present in
them. Heard (1999), writing speciically about
the music classrooms where they were placed.
multicultural teaching, says that teachers should
This discussion is not a discussion of all schools,
be encouraged to “change themselves and the
just those that were visited but this still presents
ways they teach” (p. 464). Gorinkel (2010) points
a concerning picture. Our students appear to
out that this is not always straightforward and
be well aware that multiculturalism should
there remains a challenge when integrating
be an integral part of schools but this was not
diverse music and culture into the classroom
apparently enacted in school music classrooms
to “move beyond a simplistic crusade” (p. 47).
they observed. VELS does address ideas of
She recommends that students may be guided
cultural inclusivity. For example, VELS Level 4
and encouraged to explore more deeply the
(VCAA, 2009) speciically states that students are
music of their own and other cultures and the
expected to:
connections that might be made between them.
Develop skills and behaviours for connecting
To move from a monocultural and somewhat
with a variety of groups, including peer and
community groups. Students participate in a insular perspective to a broader, inclusive and
range of classroom activities where they explore potentially global position, beginning teachers
the similarities and diferences in the values and should explore cultural diferences in both the
beliefs of a range of individuals and groups. classroom and society (Mushi, 2004). Through
They begin to relect on what this may mean this meaningful rather than tokenistic inclusion
for themselves when building and maintaining of diverse musics we can promote culturally
relationships with a diverse range of people. inclusive music education. Unfortunately
They explore and discuss behaviours which our interviewees described schools where
demonstrate sensitivity to cultural diferences in
multiculturalism was only represented in music
their interactions with others. (p. 19)
programs by tokenistic smatterings of songs from
In this students should consider other cultures.
...the experiences of diverse cultural groups O’Hagin and Harnish (2006) point out that,
… and their contributions to Australian one way to develop more efective “multicultural
identity. They consider the values important music programs in our schools is to improve our
in a multicultural society such as respect and
teacher education programs at the university
tolerance” (VCAA, 2009, p. 28).
level … to educate and sensitize our students

Australian Journal of Music Education 73

Joseph and Southcott
who will be future teachers” (p. 57). Both authors,
like other Australian tertiary music educators,
are restricted in both time and resources when
presenting teaching and learning of multicultural
music and its pedagogies. At Monash University,
in the inal year of secondary teacher education
students undertake music methodology units but
only one workshop is dedicated to multicultural
music per se as there are so many other issues
to be addressed. At Deakin University, the
students are more fortunate, undertaking a
series of workshops that focus on the music and
culture of sub-Saharan Africa. The students also
undertake an excursion to CERES as described
by one of the participants. As tertiary educators
we acknowledge that we are not doing enough
but this is all that we can manage in a crowded
curriculum, particularly when students undertake
extended school placements. At best, we can
only introduce topics that we would prefer to
explore in depth. Nonetheless, both institutions
ofer students support in the form of extensive
readings, direction to a range of informative
audiovisual materials, and information about
websites and professional development
opportunities that they are encouraged to
pursue.
There appears to be signiicant disjunctures
between school music, VELS and pre-service
teacher education in multicultural music in
Victoria. This research project, across two
Victorian universities, has demonstrated that
our students understand that, to be culturally
responsive teachers they need to develop socio-
cultural awareness, embrace the concept of
inclusivity and recognize cultural diversity. We
hope that these future teachers will become
educational agents of change. The indings of this
study are not generalisable across all Australian
tertiary institutions and schools but they do
illuminate the gaps that exist in what we do and
what we should be doing. The authors agree with
Mushi (2004) who asserts that teacher education
programs must take the lead in preparing
culturally literate and responsive teachers. The
beliefs and understandings that underpin current
74
teacher education students’ thinking are vitally
important in creating future teachers who can
ofer inclusive and culturally diverse school music
education programs.
References
Australian Curriculum and Assessment Reporting
Authority (2009). Australian Curriculum Consultation
Portal. Retrieved 6 May 2010, from http://www.
australiancurriculum.edu.au/Home
Allen, J. D. & Porter, O. F. (2002). Teaching about diversity
issues. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 38(3), 128-133.
Anderson, W. M. & Campbell, P. S. (1989). Teaching
music from a multicultural perspective. In William
M. Anderson & Patricia Shehan Campbell (Eds.),
Multicultural Perspectives in Music Education, Virginia:
MENC, 1-7.
Australian Government Department of Immigration and
Citizenship Australian Multicultural Advisory Council.
Retrieved 24 March 2008, from http://www.immi.gov.
au/
Baldwin, S. C., Buchanan, A. M., & Rudisill, M. E. (2007).
What teacher candidates learned about diversity
social justice, and themselves from service-learning
experiences. Journal of Teacher Education, 58(4), 315-
327.
Bradley, D. (2006). Music education, multiculturalism, and
anti-racism – Can we talk? Action, Criticism & Theory
for Music Education, 5(2). Retrieved 24 July 2008, from
http://act.maydaygroup.org/articles/Bradley5_2.pdf
Burton, B. (2002). Weaving the tapestry of world musics.
In C. A. Jones (Ed.), World musics and music education:
Facing the issues (pp. 161-186). Reston, Virginia, USA:
The National Association for Music Education.
Campbell, P. S. (2004). Teaching music globally:
Experiencing music, expressing culture. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Centre for Education and Research in Environmental
Strategies (CERES).Culture. Retrieved 7 May 2010, from
http://www.ceres.org.au/node/41
Chen-Hafteck, L. (2007). In search of a motivating
multicultural music experience: Lessons learned from
the Sounds of Silk project. International Journal of
Music Education, 25(3), 223-233.
Coulby, D. (2006). Intercultural education: theory and
practice. Intercultural Education, 17(3), 245-257.
Department of Education, Science and Training (DEST)
(2005). National review of school music education:
Augmenting the diminished. ACT: Department
of Education, Science and Training, Australian
Government.
Department of Immigration and Multicultural and
Indigenous Afairs, Australian Government (2005).
Facts sheet 06. Retrieved 15 March 2008, from http://
www.immi.gov.au/facts/06evolution.htm
2010, No. 2
 Experiences and understandings of student teachers

Erwin, J., Edwards, K. Kerchner, J. & Knight, J. (2003).
Prelude to music education. New Jersey, USA: Prentice
Hall.
Gorinkel, L. (2010). Pushing the boundaries of ‘music’:
cross-cultural and cross-disciplinary possibilities for
‘other’ musics in the Australian music classroom. In P.
Dunbar-Hall (Ed.) Proceedings of the 10th International
Conference on Cultural Diversity in Music Education,
Sydney Conservatorium of Music, University of Sydney,
11-13 January, 2010, 45-51.
Heard, D. (1999). A developing model of teachers
educating themselves for multicultural pedagogy.
Higher Education, 38(4), 461-487.
Henkin, R. & Steinmetz, L. (2008). The need for diversity
education as perceived by preservice teachers. Journal
of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 8(1), 101-
109.
Jeanneret, N. (1997). Model for developing preservice
primary teachers’ conidence to teach music. Bulletin of
the Council for Research in Music Education, 133, 37-44.
Jeanneret, N. & Forrest, D. (2009). Teaching music: How
do we prepare the primary generalist? 7th Asia-Paciic
Symposium on Music Education Research ISME Asia-
Paciic Regional Conference 2009, 208-217.
Joseph, D. & Southcott, J. (2009). “Opening the doors
to multiculturalism”: Australian pre-service music
teacher education students’ understandings of cultural
diversity. Music Education Research, 11(4), 457-472.
Mushi, S. (2004). Multicultural competencies in teaching:
a typology of classroom activities. Intercultural
Education, 15(2), 179-195.
O’Hagin, I. B. & Harnish, D. (2006). Music as a cultural
identity: a case study of Latino musicians negotiating
tradition and innovation in northwest Ohio.
International Journal of Music Education, 24(1), 56-70.
Palmer, J. A. (1992). World music in music education: The
matter of authenticity. International Journal of Music
Education, 19, 32-40.
Reid, K., Flowers, P. & Larkin, M. (2005). Exploring lived
experience. The Psychologist, 18(1), 20-23.
Russell-Bowie, D. (2003). A salad bar or a sandwich
approach to teaching music? Integrating music
education with other subjects. In K. Hartwig (Ed.),
Proceedings from the Australian Society for Music
Education XIV National Conference (pp. 94-96). Brisbane,
Australia: Australian Society for Music Education.
Smith, J. A. & Osborn, M. (2003). Interpretative
phenomenological analysis. In J. A. Smith (Ed.)
Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research
methods. London: SAGE Publications.
Smith, J. A. (2004). Relecting on the development of
interpretative phenomenological analysis and its
contribution to qualitative research in psychology.
Qualitative Research in Psychology, 1(1), 39-54.
Southcott, J. E. & Joseph, D. Y. (2007). Perceptions of
multiculturalism in music education: What matters and
why. Proceedings AARME, 137-143.
Southcott, J. & Hartwig, K. (2005). States of change:
A comparison of school music curricula initiatives
in Queensland and Victoria. In Peter de Vries (Ed.),
Reviewing the Future: Proceedings of the XXVIIth Annual
Conference of the Australian Association for Research in
Music Education, 142-149.
Temmerman, N. (1997). An investigation of
undergraduate music education curriculum content in
primary teacher education programmes in Australia.
International Journal of Music Education, 30, 26-34.
Tucker, J. (1992). Circling the globe: Multicultural
resources. Music Educators Journal, 78(9), 37-40.
Victorian Curriculum Assessment Authority (2009).
Multiculturalism in the VELS. Victorian Learning
Standards, Retrieved 10 March 2009, from http://
vels.vcaa.vic.edu.au/support/crosscurricular/
multiculturalism.html
Victorian Multicultural Commission (2009). Population
and migration. Retrieved 22 March 2009, from http://
www.multicultual.vic.gov.au/web24/vmc.nsf/
headingpagesdisplay/population+and+migration
Villegas, A. M. & Lucas, T. (2002). Preparing culturally
responsive teachers: rethinking the curriculum. Journal
of Teacher Education, 53(1), 20-32.

Dr Dawn Joseph is a senior lecturer in music and education studies in the Faculty of Arts and Education, Deakin
University, Melbourne. She is responsible for teaching in both undergraduate and postgraduate courses and is the
Course Coordinator of the Bachelor of Teaching/Bachelor of Arts. She researches, publishes and reviews in national
and international journals in the areas of teacher education, African music, cultural diversity and multiculturalism. She
is a committee member of the Australian Society for Music Education and is the deputy chair of the Victorian Chapter.

Dr Jane Southcott is a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Education, Monash University. Her main research focus is the
history of the music curriculum in Australia, America and Europe. She is a narrative historian and much of her research
is biographical. Dr Southcott also researches experiential education, cultural identity and performance anxiety.
She is Director of Postgraduate Education, teaches in postgraduate and pre-service programs and supervises many
postgraduate research students. Dr Southcott is National President of the Australian and New Zealand Association for
Research in Music Education and a member of the editorial boards of international and national refereed journals.

Australian Journal of Music Education 75

 a u s t r a l i a n

s
a o c i e t y

f o r
s m u s i c

m
A ten year follow-up investigation
e d u c a t i o n

i n c o r p o r a t e d
e

of preservice generalist primary

teachers’ background and conidence
in teaching music
Deirdre Russell-Bowie

University of Western Sydney

Abstract
This paper reports the indings of a study involving 138 NSW preservice generalist teachers and compares them with
similar indings from a similar group of students from a previous study. Students’ perceptions of their background in
formal music education and their conidence in teaching music lessons are analysed. The paper also examines the data
to identify if there is a correlation between the students’ background and their conidence in music teaching. Results
indicated that preservice teachers entering the creative arts unit had little formal music education and lacked conidence
in teaching music lessons, however about half of them felt positive about teaching music lessons. These results are
compared with current and past research as well as with the indings from the previous study and indicate that students
in the previous study had a stronger formal musical background than those in the recent study. Further research
suggestions are considered along with suggestions for addressing these challenges in Teacher Education courses.
Key words: preservice teacher, music education
Australian Journal of Music Education 2010:2, 76-86

Introduction example, in a survey of Australian teachers, Duck

Entry level preservice teachers bring with them
a wide variety of background and experiences
in the diferent subjects they are to learn and
teach (Jensen & Rowley, 2004). What preservice
teachers learn is inluenced by the assumptions,
conceptions, beliefs, dispositions and capabilities
that they bring to their experiences (Jensen &
Rowley, 2004). By clarifying preservice teachers’
preconceived notions and experiences in relation
to teaching, educators can tailor their teaching
approaches to suit the wider contexts of their
students.
It is particularly important to understand the
background and knowledge levels of preservice
teachers in relation to music because of the
varied and largely limited exposure to this
subject area throughout their schooling life. For
(1990) conirmed that most teachers have little
experience in the arts from their own education
and are not conident in teaching them. Lack of
exposure to music and the other arts through
early, primary and secondary schooling, and
lack of involvement in the arts outside of school
pose a signiicant challenge for arts educators
who must help preservice teachers become
competent to teach these subjects, often within a
limited time frame.
Background
Since the 1980s, the responsibility for music
teaching in primary schools is situated with
either a specialist or the generalist music teacher,
as decided by the state and/or the school
(Stevens, 1997). In New South Wales (NSW)

76 2010, No. 2

there has always been a policy of not using
specialist teachers, including music teachers,
in the primary school (Ardzejewska, 2006). As
a result, many NSW state primary schools have
less than adequate music programs, as teachers
perceive that they do not have the conidence,
training, competence, resources, time or priority
to implement an efective music program
(Department of Education, Science and Training
[DEST], 2005; Russell-Bowie, 2002; Senate
Environment, Recreation, Communications and
the Arts References Committee [SERCARC], 1995).
In a study focussing on practising teachers,
Russell-Bowie (1993) found that, because of
the lack of supportive family background and
adequate training in music, Australian generalist
primary teachers were anxious about, and lacked
conidence in teaching music and, therefore,
often ended up omitting this subject from their
program. These results have been relected
repeatedly in numerous Australian reports
into music and arts education over the past 40
years. Conirming indings in these previous
reports (ASME/ACE, 1973; Bartle, 1968; Covell,
1970; Hobcroft, 1980; NSW Conservatorium of
Music, 1981; NSW Ministry of Education, 1974;
Russell-Bowie, 1993; Schools Commission/
Australia Council, 1977) the report of the Senate
Environment, Recreation, Communications and
the Arts References Committee (1995) reiterated
that
Generalist primary classroom teachers, because
of their own poor arts experience at school, and
because of inadequate teacher training, lack
conidence to teach the arts. As a result ... there is
a strong impulse to marginalise the arts in their
teaching. (p. 49)
So why are primary school teachers not conident
to teach music in their classroom? When
focusing on preservice teachers, both anecdotal
experience and research indicate that generalist
primary preservice teacher enter their teacher
education courses with very little background
and low conidence levels (Ballantyne, 2006;
Conway, 2002; Jacobs, 2008; Jeanneret, 1997;
Australian Journal of Music Education
Primary teachers’ background and conidence
Kim, 2001; Mills, 1989; Temmerman, 1997). In their
primary school experiences, they have had little
music education, as their teachers were generally
ill equipped by their own preservice education
to provide developmental and quality music
experiences (SERCARC, 1995). In their teacher
education course, students also at times do not
receive the training they require to give them
conidence and competence in teaching music
(DEST, 2005, p. 60; Green et al., 1998).
Research indicates that if students have had
a strong background in a subject area, they
will be more conident in teaching the subject.
Coopersmith (1967) and Harter (1982) found that
preservice teachers’ early experiences in music
may have a signiicant efect on the musical self-
conidence of students. The preservice primary
teachers in Ryan’s study (1999) reported that
“having positive experiences in music prior to
university made them more conident to teach
music” (p.136). In their study of primary preservice
teachers, Russell-Bowie, Roche and Marsh
(1995) indicated that if preservice teachers felt
conident about themselves as students of the
subject, they would feel more conident about
teaching that subject. Welch’s study (1995) into
art education and preservice teachers indicated
that the personal experience of primary school
teachers during their teacher education course
are instrumental in developing their conidence
in teaching art education.
In a study using preservice teachers learning
mathematics, Bruce (2001) found that students’
prior experience in mathematics had a signiicant
inluence on their conidence levels in teaching
mathematics. Lazar’s study (2007) investigated
preservice teachers’ attitudes towards children
and teaching of reading. He found that successful
professional experience placements in schools
had a strong positive inluence on students’
conidence and interest in teaching children to
read. Therefore background in music, in-course
positive experiences in the subject and perceived
success in teaching music in professional
77
Russell-Bowie
experience would seem to be strong inluences
on preservice teachers’ conidence in teaching
music in the classroom.
In relation to family background, the Australia
Council’s study on Australians and the Arts (Saatchi
and Saatchi, 2001) found that those who placed
a high value on the arts were most likely those
who had encouragement from their parents as
they were growing up. Similarly, those who had
arts lessons outside of schools were more likely
to place a high value on the arts than those who
did not have these experiences (p. 127). From
the research presented in the Australia Council’s
submission to the Enquiry into the Education of
Boys they found that “parental involvement is the
strongest single factor to encouraging positive
attitudes to the arts” (Nihas, 2001, p. 11).
A long history of research indicates that
Australian music educators have documented the
lack of formal music education experiences their
generalist preservice teachers exhibit prior to
entering their teacher education course. In 1968,
Bartle indicated that 75% of student teachers
knew nothing about formal music (Bartle,
1968). Eleven years later, Silsbury (1979) claimed
that 85% of her students knew nothing about
formal music and twelve years later, Ryan (1991)
reported similar results. Also in Australia, Fromyhr
(1995) stated that many student teachers were
reluctant to teach music because they lacked
the conidence to do so. Her study also supports
Lange and Burroughs-Lange (1992) who found
that Australian preservice teachers’ existing
knowledge inluenced how they beneited from
their course (p. 1).
In relation to in-course experiences, Welch
(1995) claimed that negative experiences in
teacher education courses may negatively afect
the conidence of preservice teachers to teach
art, and Hudson’s study (2005) indicated that
university-based courses can positively inluence
preservice teachers’ conidence in teaching art.
However, when students enter teacher
education courses having little background in the
78
arts subjects, it is hard to expect the universities
or colleges to change this situation in a few years,
working only in class time (SERCARC, 1995).
Over the past twenty years, Universities have
decreased this class time for arts education due
in part to funding cuts (DEST, 2005, p. 60), despite
the repeated recommendations from a variety
of reports into Arts education, for preservice
teachers to be more adequately trained in the
arts.
The recent National Review of School Music
Education (Department of Education, Science and
Training [DEST], 2005) also focuses on this aspect
and recommends that universities improve
the standard of preservice music education for
all generalist classroom teachers by providing
more time for training of students in dedicated
music education units which allow students to
demonstrate both their personal and professional
musical understanding and skills (p. xvi).
Currently Australian primary music educators
in universities are working with students who
indicate a lack of background in formal music
education experiences and who have little time
in their teacher education course to equip them
adequately to teach music. The study reported
here examines the background and conidence of
some of these NSW preservice teacher education
students in relation to music education and music
teaching. The irst group were part of a four year
undergraduate teacher education course and the
second group were enrolled in an end-on one
year Master of Teaching course, both at the same
institution.
This paper examines how conident these
primary preservice teacher education students
are in the area of music education and if
this conidence correlates with their formal
background in music prior to entering their
teacher education course. It also investigates
if there are diferences in background and
conidence between the students who have
completed an undergraduate degree prior
to their teacher education course and those
who have entered teacher education course as
2010, No. 2

undergraduate students. Results between two
similar cohorts of students ten years apart are
compared.
Research Questions
This study was a follow-up to a larger study
covering all four arts subjects conducted ten
years previously and compares responses from
students in a recently administered similar survey.
Speciically this study examines the following
questions, the irst two of which were included in
the initial study:
• How do generalist primary preservice teacher
education students perceive their own
background and conidence in relation to
music teaching and music education?
• Is there a correlation between students’
perceived formal music background and their
conidence in teaching music?
• Are there diferences between the responses
from the undergraduate students in the
original study and those of postgraduate
students in the current study to the music-
related questions?
Method
The 2008 study was based on a survey instrument
used in a similar previously validated survey
1998 at the same teacher education institution,
to ascertain the attitudes of preservice teachers
to music education (Russell-Bowie, 2002). This is
a follow-up to the original study and sought to
compare diferences in students’ responses over
the years.
Participants
The participants were 138 university students
enrolled in a tertiary generalist primary teacher
education course in Sydney, Australia. The
students had completed a non-education
undergraduate degree and were in their second
semester of a one year Master of Teaching
Australian Journal of Music Education
Primary teachers’ background and conidence
(Primary) degree. Table 1 indicates that there
were more females (92%) than males (8%) as is
usually the situation in primary teacher education
courses.
In Australia, the Arts is one of the key learning
areas in the primary schools and comprises a
core, though constantly diminishing, component
in teacher education courses in Universities.
Within this context, the sample students were
training to be generalist primary school teachers,
not specialists in any of the particular creative
arts areas. Some of the students had already
completed at least one semester of the Master of
Teaching (Primary) course and had been expected
to teach one or more creative arts lessons in their
Professional Experience session in a primary school
in the previous semester, with little pedagogical or
musical input from university staf.
Survey Instrument
The instrument for this current study covered all
four strands of the Creative Arts (music, dance,
drama and visual arts) and was administered to
the students in a mass lecture at the start of their
creative arts unit. Apart from the demographic
questions, each of the other questions had
one stem with four endings, and each of the
endings related either to music, visual arts,
dance or drama. Responses were given on a ive
point Likert scale. This paper reports on those
items related speciically to students and their
perceptions in relation to music. Questions
relating to this study were:
i) I am able to play a musical instrument well;
ii) I clearly understand music theory;
Table 1:
Gender details of sampled students N = 134
Item Category Number Sample %
Sex Females 123 92%
Males 11 8%
TOTAL 134 100%
79
Russell-Bowie
iii) A family member plays an instrument well;
iv) My family is often involved socially in musical
activities;
v) I have had music lessons outside of school;
vi) I have a good background in music;
vii) I have taught some successful music lessons;
viii) I feel positive about teaching music; and
ix) I am conident in teaching music lessons.
Data Analysis
Statistical procedures were selected in light of
the questions to be tested. Frequencies were
computed for the responses to the questions
and a 2-tailed Pearson Correlation test was
undertaken to ascertain correlations between
students’ perceived background and conidence
in teaching music. The frequencies of positive
responses from the initial group surveyed
and those of the second group surveyed were
compared.
Results
How do generalist primary preservice teachers
perceive their own background and conidence in
relation to music teaching and music education?
In considering this question, cross-tabulations
of frequencies of students’ responses to each of
the selected questions were analysed and the
following results were indicated. In relation to
the sampled students’ perceptions of their formal
music background prior to university, 13% said
they could play a musical instrument well, 13%
could understand music theory, and 17% had
taken music lessons out of school. Students
responded that 38% of them had a family
member who played an instrument well and 25%
indicated speciically that they themselves had a
good background in music (Table 3).
In relation to their perception of their
conidence in music teaching, 14% indicated that
they had taught some successful music lessons,
48% felt positive about teaching music and 21%
80
felt that they were conident teaching music
lessons.
Is there a correlation between students’ perceived
formal music background and their conidence in
teaching music?
Correlations between the selected questions
were computed and results indicated that several
were signiicant at the level of 0.01 level (see
Table 2). There was a strong positive correlation
between students feeling conident about
teaching music lessons if they felt they had a
good background in music (r=0.66), and if they
felt they could play a musical instrument well
(r=0.64). There was also a moderate positive
correlation between students who perceived
that they had a good background in music and
their feeling positive about teaching music
lessons(r=0.57) as well as if their family was often
involved socially in musical activities (r=0.45).
There was a negative correlation between
students not being particularly interested in
music and their feelings of conidence about
teaching music lessons (r=-0.33).
Are there diferences between the responses from
the undergraduate students in the original study
and those of postgraduate students in the current
study to the music-related questions?
When comparing the results relating to
musical background with the same questions
administered to an undergraduate group of
preservice primary school teachers in 1998
(see Table 3), the strongest diferences were in
response to the questions relating to playing an
instrument well (25% in 1998 compared with
13% in 2008), understanding musical theory (26%
in 1998 and 13% in 2008) and having a good
background in music (34% in 1998 and 25% in
2008).
When the responses from this study were
compared with those previous responses in
relation to conidence in music teaching, 69%
in 1998 had taught successful music lessons
compared with 14% in 2008, 53% of students
2010, No. 2
 Primary teachers’ background and conidence

Table 2:
Correlations between responses to the questions of background and conidence in teaching music.
Questions Mean Std N My family is often I feel conident about
Dev. involved socially in teaching music
musical activities lessons
My family is often 2.13 1.34 132 Pearson Correlation 1 .446**
involved socially in Sig. (2-tailed) .000
musical activities N 132 131
I feel conident 2.50 1.26 135 Pearson Correlation .446** 1
about teaching Sig. (2-tailed) 000
music lessons N 131 135
I have had a good I feel conident about
background in teaching music
music lessons
I have had a good 2.43 1.37 131 Pearson Correlation 1 .656**
background in Sig. (2-tailed) .000
music N 130
I feel conident 2.50 1.26 135 Pearson Correlation .656** 1
about teaching Sig. (2-tailed) .000
music lessons N 130 135
I have had a good I feel positive about
background in teaching music
music lessons
I have had a good 2.43 1.37 131 Pearson Correlation 1 .586**
background in Sig. (2-tailed) N .000
music 131
I feel positive 3.24 1.33 135 Pearson Correlation .586** 1
about teaching Sig. (2-tailed) .000
music lessons N 131 135
I am not I feel conident about
particularly teaching music
interested in music lessons
I am not 2.22 1.4 134 Pearson Correlation 1 -.334**
particularly Sig. (2-tailed) .000
interested in music N 133
I feel conident 2.5 1.26 135 Pearson Correlation -.334** 1
about teaching Sig. (2-tailed) .000
music lessons N 133 135
I can play a musical I feel conident about
instrument well teaching music
lessons
I can play a musical 1.93 1.26 138 Pearson Correlation 1 .644**
instrument well Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 138 135
I feel conident 2.5 1.26 135 Pearson Correlation .644** 1
about teaching Sig. (2-tailed) .000
music lessons N 135 135
** Correlation is signiicant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

Australian Journal of Music Education 81

Russell-Bowie

in 1998 felt positive about teaching music
compared with 48% in 2008 and 50% felt
conident teaching music lessons, compared with
21% in 2008.
In relation to music background, when
comparing the results of the recent survey with
those indings from the initial survey, there was
a clear diference between responses, with the
results from the 1998 students being generally
higher than those in the 2008 group of students.
In relation to students’ perceptions there was a
clear diference between the responses of both
groups in relation to those who could play an
instrument well (1998: 25%; 2008: 13%), those
who clearly understand music theory (1998:
26%; 2008: 13%), those who felt they had a good
background in music (1998: 34%; 2008: 25%) and
those whose their families were often involved
socially in musical activities (1998: 26%; 2008:
19%). Responses between the two groups in
relation to having music lessons out of school
(1998: 20%; 2008: 17%) and having a family
member who played a musical instrument well
(1998: 35%; 2008: 38%) were fairly similar (see
Table 3) although this latter pair of responses was
the only set for which the second group scored
higher than the irst group, and this was only by
3%.
As regards the students’ conidence in music
teaching, there was a clear diference between
the responses of both groups in relation to
having taught some successful music lessons
(1998: 69%; 2008: 14%) and their being conident
in teaching music lessons (1998: 50%; 2008: 21%).
The responses of the two groups to the question
relating to their feeling positive about teaching
music were similar, although the irst group was
still higher than the second group (1998: 53%;
2008: 48%).
Discussion
The results of the questions relating to how the
generalist preservice teachers in the second study
perceived their musical ability indicated clearly
that most students had minimal or no training on
a musical instrument and in musical theory and
had little family involvement in musical activities.

Table 3: Diferences between the responses from the students in the original study and those of students in
the current study to the music-related questions
1998: Per cent strongly 2008: Per cent
agree/agree strongly agree/agree
N=346 N=138
Music Background:
I can play a musical instrument well 25 13
I clearly understand music theory 26 13
A family member plays a musical instrument well 35 38
I have had music lessons outside of school 20 17
I have a good background in music 34 25
My family is often involved socially in musical activities 26 19
Conidence in Music Teaching
I have taught some successful music lessons 69 14
I feel positive about teaching music 53 48
I am conident teaching music lessons 50 21

82 2010, No. 2

Research has indicated that students whose
parents are involved in the arts are more likely
to have positive attitudes toward the arts (Nihas,
2001; Saatchi and Saatchi, 2001) and those who
have had arts lessons out of school are more likely
to place a higher value on the arts than those
who did not have these opportunities (Saatchi
and Saatchi, 2001, p. 127). The results of this study
indicated that only 13% of students perceived
they could play an instrument well, 13% could
understand music theory, 17% had taken music
lessons out of school, 19% had families who were
often involved socially in musical activities, and
38% of them had a family member who played
an instrument well. These indings conirm the
previously discussed research in which music
educators have documented the paucity of
formal musical background in their generalist
primary students over the years: Bartle (1968),
Silsbury (1979), Ryan (1991), Fromyhr (1995);
Jeanneret (1997), Russell-Bowie (2002) and more
recently, Ballantyne (2006).
However, despite their perceived lack of formal
musical skills, 25% of the surveyed preservice
teachers in the second group indicated that they
had a good background in music. This area could
be followed up by further research to establish
the reasons they perceived they had a good
background in music whether they included their
informal involvement with music, which is often
a signiicant factor in the lives of students, as part
of the basis of their response. Based on these
results, the challenge to music educators is to
make their music education courses challenging
and meaningful to this 25% of students as well
as to the 75% who do not perceive they have a
strong background in music.
The results from the second group of students
seem to be much lower than those from the irst
group of students but both groups fall close to
the per centages indicated by diferent authors
over the years, that is, from between 15% and
25% of students having a good background
in formal music, for example, Bartle (1968),
Australian Journal of Music Education
Primary teachers’ background and conidence
Silsbury (1979), Ryan (1991), Russell-Bowie
(2002). The lower results from the second survey
could indicate that children and young people
generally are increasingly not interested in
learning, or do not have the opportunity to learn
a musical instrument or music theory either in
school or outside the school environment. The
results could also indicate that families in general
are not involved in musical activities as much as
they might have been in previous years. Further
research could be undertaken in this longitudinal
study to survey a similar group of students both
in the short term, as well as in a decade’s time to
investigate if the results are trending downwards
or if this particular group of students was atypical
of the general trend.
In relation to conidence in music teaching,
almost ive times the number of students in
the irst group felt they had taught successful
music lessons (69%) compared with those in the
second group (14%). Both groups of students
were surveyed at the start of their irst (and only)
creative arts unit and most had been expected
to teach music and other creative arts lessons
in their course, prior to enrolling in this unit.
The second group’s perceived lack of speciic
musical skills (87% indicated they had minimum
or no formal musical skills) could have been a
disincentive to their teaching music lessons. On
their four week in-schools Practicum they may
have selected instead to teach visual arts, dance
or drama lessons instead of music lessons, or
they may have taught music lessons but not
considered them to have been successful.
The students’ responses as to whether or not
they were conident teaching music lessons
seems to relect their experience in teaching
successful music lessons as Lazar (2007) also
indicates. Of the irst group, 69% had taught
successful music lessons and 50% of them
felt conident about teaching music lessons,
compared with 14% of the second group
responding that they had taught successful
music lessons and 21% of them feeling conident
83
Russell-Bowie
teaching music lessons. This latter result could
be researched further as to why a third more
students felt they were conident teaching music
lessons than those who had actually taught
successful music lessons.
Further research also needs to be conducted
to identify students’ perceptions of a successful
music lesson. Research indicates that teachers
will only teach music or other subjects if they
feel conident as practitioners of that subject and
have a strong background of skills and training in
the speciic area (Bruce, 2001; Coopersmith, 1967;
Harter, 1982; Russell-Bowie, Roche & Marsh, 1995;
Ryan, 1999; and Welch, 1995).
However, despite their seeming lack of
conidence in teaching music lessons (2008: 21%),
their lack of experience in teaching successful
music lessons, and their perceived lack of an
adequate background in formal music, 48%
of the second group responded that they felt
positive about teaching music. These results seem
to contradict the previously cited research that
indicated students feel positive about teaching
a subject if they have had a good background
in that subject area and the correlations found
within this survey. The reasons they responded
as they did could be followed up with further
research to why they responded in this manner,
despite their not having a strong background in
music education.
When correlations were computed, the results
indicated that there was a high correlation
between students feeling conident about
teaching music lessons and their having a good
background in music (r = .66) as well as their
being able to play an instrument well (r = .64).
There was a moderate correlation between
their being conident about teaching music
lessons and their family being involved socially
in musical activities (r = .45) and there was a
lower negative correlation between their being
conident about teaching music lessons and not
being interested in music (r = -.33). Having a good
music background also correlated moderately
84
with students who felt positive about teaching
music lessons (r = .59). These results do conirm
to previously cited indings from a variety
of diferent authors who indicate that when
students have a strong background in music
education they are more likely to be conident
in, and positive about teaching music lessons
(Ballantyne, 2006; Jacobs, 2008; Jeanneret, 1997;
Mills, 1989; Temmerman, 1997).
Conclusion
This paper has raised several questions for further
research, which are discussed above. As well,
the results of the present investigation with
preservice generalist teachers have important
implications for teacher education. Student
teachers enter their training institution with
attitudes to music that they have developed over
their lifetime. Most of them arrive having had
little formal music education in school and often
have negative attitudes and low self-esteem in
relation to their ability to teach these subjects.
This will surely afect their conidence in teaching
music in the classroom. It is crucial that teacher
educators realise this nexus and attempt to
break down the negative attitudes and low self-
esteem by providing students with positive and
successful learning experiences in music, both
for the students personally and professional.
Successful experiences may help break down the
barriers and develop conidence and expertise in
teaching the music education in the classroom.
These interventions could include practical,
syllabus-based tutorials, online quizzes to ensure
all students learn the basic concepts of music
education, lectures to cover theory and practice
in music education and relective journal entries
where students relect on and analyse what
they have learned in each lecture and tutorial
to consolidate their learning. Students could
also be given the opportunity to participate in
a signiicant amount of time learning music to
develop their skills personally, in their own time,
2010, No. 2

based on their own interests and background and
be given credit for this. They could be asked to
write, implement and evaluate a music program
for a particular year group to give evidence
of their understanding of music education
pedagogy.
Such intervention, even for adults, can be
very productive in changing anxiety levels and
self-concept in relation to the arts. Positive
learning experiences in music have been found
to be a signiicant factor in breaking down
barriers, changing students’ attitudes, lessening
their anxiety, giving them conidence and new
teaching ideas, and developing their self-esteem
in relation to teaching each of the subjects in
their classroom (Russell-Bowie, 1997). Further
research could to be undertaken regarding the
basics that should be taught in a preservice music
education cause within the current minimal
timeframe.
As recommended by the Australian National
Review of School Music Education, preservice
teachers need to learn musical understandings,
skills and knowledge for themselves as well
as learning how to teach music efectively
to children (DEST, 2005). To empower and
encourage preservice teachers to develop their
personal conidence and competence in music
is a current and daunting challenge facing music
educators and must be backed up by universities
providing more time and priority for music
education in teacher education courses. With the
implementation of the National Curriculum in
the Arts in the near future, it is hoped that music
education will increase in its priority and funding
in both universities and schools to ensure that
primary teachers are given more opportunities to
be efectively trained prior to becoming full time
teachers.
Australian Journal of Music Education
Primary teachers’ background and conidence
References
Ardzejewska, K. (2006). Who’s teaching PE/Sport in NSW
primary schools? The ‘specialist teacher’: A case study.
In P. Jefries (Ed.) Conference Proceedings from the
2006 Australian Association for Research in Education.
Melbourne: AARE.
Australian Society for Music Education / Australian
Council for Education (ASME/ACE), (1973). Report
of the joint sub-committee of ASME/ACE in NSW on
ways of increasing the quality and consistency of music
education in infant and primary schools. Sydney: ASME/
ACE.
Ballantyne, J. (2006). Reconceptualising preservice
teacher education courses for music teachers: The
importance of pedagogical content knowledge and
skills and professional knowledge and skills. Research
Studies in Music Education, 26, 37-50.
Bartle, G. (1968). Music in Australian schools. Victoria:
Australian Council for Educational Research.
Bruce, C. D. (2001). Building conidence in teaching
mathematics: Experiences of Pre-service teachers that
hinder and enable conidence. Paper presented at the
annual meeting of the North American Chapter of the
International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics
Education, Delta Chelsea Hotel, Toronto, Ontario,
Canada Online Downloaded 19/11/08 from http://
www.allacademic.com/meta/p117562_index.html
Conway, C. (2002). Perceptions of beginning teachers,
their mentors and administrators regarding preservice
music teacher preparation. Journal of Research in Music
Education, 50(1), 20-36.
Coopersmith, S. (1984). The self-worth of achievement
motivation: Findings and implications. The Elementary
School Journal, 85, 5-20.
Costantoura, P. (2001) Australians and the arts. Sydney:
Federation Press.
Covell, R. (1970). Music in Australia: Needs and prospects.
Sydney: Unisearch (NSW).
Department of Education, Science and Training (DEST).
(2005). Augmenting the diminished: National review of
school music education. Canberra: DEST.
Duck, G. (1990). The arts in primary school and the
preparation of teachers to teach the arts: results and
implications of a research study, South Paciic Journal of
Teacher Education, 1(2), 119-126.
Fromyhr, J. (1995). Ready or not? The challenge for music
education. Conference Proceedings from the Australian
Society for Music Education, Hobart: ASME.
Green, L., Chedzoy, S., Harris, W., Mitchell, R., Naughton,
C., Rolfe, L., & Stanton, W. (1998). A study of student
teachers’ perceptions of teaching the arts in primary
school. British Educational Research Journal, 24(1), 95-
107.
Harter, S. (1982). The perceived competence scale for
children. Child Development, 53, 87-97.
85
Russell-Bowie

Hobcroft, R. (1980). Report of the ministerial taskforce of
enquiry into music education in primary schools. Sydney:
NSW Ministry of Education.
Hudson, S. (2005). Exploring irst-year preservice teaches’
conidence to teach art education in the classroom.
In P. Jefries (Ed.) Conference Proceedings from the
2005 Australian Association for Research in Education.
Melbourne: AARE.
Jacobs, R. (2008) When do we do the Macerena? Habitus
and art learning in primary preservice education
courses. International Journal of Pedagogies and
Learning, 4(5), 58-73
Jeanneret, N. (1997). Model for developing preservice
primary teachers’ conidence to teach music. Bulletin of
the Council for Research in Music Education, 133, 37-44.
Jensen, J. & Rowley, M. (2004). Instructional
environments and learning: Exploring knowledge
growth in preservice family and consumer sciences
education. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences
Education, 22(1), 29-42.
Kim, Y. Y. (2001). Training non-specialists in early
childhood music education of Korea. Conference
Proceedings from the 3rd Asia-Paciic Symposium on
Music Education Research, Japan 2001.
Lange, J. & Burroughs-Lange, S. (1992). A metacognitive
model of the developmental processes of professional
knowledge of student teachers. Conference
proceedings from the International Conference on
Thinking. Queensland: UT
Lazer, A. M. (2007). It’s not just about teaching kids to
read: Helping preservice teachers acquire a mindset
for teaching children in urban communities. Journal of
Literacy Research, 39(4), 411-443.
Mills, J. (1989). The generalist primary teacher of music:
a problem of conidence. British Journal of Music
Education. 6(23), 125-138.
Nihas, V. (2001) Submission to the House of Representatives
inquiry into the education of boys. Sydney: Australia
Council
NSW Ministry of Education. (1974). The Arts in schools: A
report by the inter-departmental committee appointed to
enquire into the arts in the education of school children in
NSW. Sydney: NSW Ministry of Education
NSW State Conservatorium of Music. (1981). The report
of the committee evaluating the primary school music
curriculum. Sydney: NSW State Conservatorium of
Music.
Russell-Bowie, D. (1993) Policy and practice in music
education in NSW state primary schools. Unpublished
PhD Thesis, University of Wollongong.
Russell-Bowie, D. (2002). Where in the world are we?
Australian Journal of Music Education, 1, 33 – 44.
Russell-Bowie, D., Roche, L. & Marsh, H. (1995). Wow! I
can do music! A study of the self-concept of student
teachers in relation to various subject areas. Conference
Proceedings from the 17th National Conference of
the Australian Music Education Lecturers Association.
Wollongong: AMEL
Ryan, M. (1991). Music teaching and student teachers
conidence in the K-6 classroom. Unpublished masters
thesis, University of New England.
Saatchi and Saatchi, (2001). Australians and the arts.
Sydney: The Federation Press.
Senate Environment, Recreation, Communications (1995)
and the Arts References Committee (SERCARC), Arts
education. Canberra: Parliament of the Commonwealth
of Australia.
Silsbury, E. (1979). The ediice complex – An examination
of the role of post-secondary institutions in music
education. Music in Teacher Education National
conference Report, M: 83-90.
Stevens, R. (1997). Music education. In W. Bebbington
(Ed.) The Oxford companion to Australian music, Oxford
University Press, Melbourne, pp. 396-399.
Temmerman, N. (1997). An investigation of
undergraduate music education curriculum content in
primary teacher education programmes in Australia.
International Journal of Music Education, 30, 26-34.
Welch, W. (1995). The eicacy of primary teachers in art
education. Issues in Educational Research, 5(1), 71-84.

Dr Deirdre Russell-Bowie has been lecturing in Creative Arts Education for over twenty-ive years and has authored
a proliic number of music and creative arts books and other publications. Her research interests include developing
children’s self-esteem through the arts and preservice and inservice teachers’ attitudes to, and practices in arts
education as well as technology mediated arts education. Her PhD thesis investigated the state of music education
in NSW and she has also written 32 books and numerous national and internationally published journal articles and
conference papers. In 2001 Deirdre won the prestigious national Australian Award for University Teaching in 2001 as
well as University awards for community service and research.

86 2010, No. 2
 a u s t r a l i a n

s
a o c i e t y

f o r
s m u s i c

m
Cassie: A gifted musician.
e d u c a t i o n

e i n c o r p o r a t e d

Socio-cultural and educational perspectives

related to the development of musical
understanding in gifted adolescents
Michelle M. Tomlinson

Griith University

Abstract
This qualitative study focuses on the intrinsic value of musical understanding and how it is inluenced by socio-
cultural and educational factors shaping the development of a gifted adolescent. Using Gross’s (1993) model of case
studies of exceptionally gifted children, the student was identiied for her innate abilities, and studied using the Maker
(1982) model within a context of cultural and social values, support from signiicant others, and motivation. The
complex interplay of these factors have been discussed in a case study by Ho and Chong (2008) where the need for
further studies on the development of musical gifts were identiied, particularly within a speciic cultural context. In
this study, the subject demonstrated a deep musical understanding using the skills of critical thinking and problem
solving in performance, and the ability to synthesise musical ideas in analysis tasks. Her socio-cultural environment
inluenced the development of skills such as written and oral communication, creativity, self-direction, leadership,
adaptability, responsibility and global awareness. These skills have been identiied in a survey of researchers,
curriculum specialists, administrators and teachers in the Harvard Education Letter (Waiser, 2008) as being necessary
for the 21st Century. This case study suggests ways in which these skills may be infused within classroom music
practices.

Key words: gifted musician, curriculum, diferentiation

Australian Journal of Music Education 2010:2, 87-102

Statement of the problem and existing in the implementation of the music

research questions
In this case study, the aim was to discuss
speciic problems inherent in the notion of
musical understanding as an outcome of music
education. The case study focused on the
integration and interplay of factors of identity,
social milieu, educational environment and
motivation as having profound inluence on
the development of musical understanding in
a gifted adolescent: Cassie. The purpose of the
study was illustrative, and indicative of problems
curriculum in a speciic socio-cultural context
and with an exceptionally gifted student. It was
not deinitive, because indings from a single
case study are not generalisable. This paper
will conclude with a discussion of practical and
insightful recommendations, some of which are
also highlighted in the literature review.
The main question to be addressed was: How
may the music curriculum and its implemented
by teachers cater for a student’s exceptional
musical ability? A subsidiary question to be
addressed was: How can the student’s program

Australian Journal of Music Education 87

Tomlinson
be diferentiated while maintaining positive
social, cultural and peer relationships?
Although Cassie had achieved remarkable
success in her musical activities, she expressed
the lack of “encouragement, opportunity
and challenging goals” in her senior years of
music education at school, which limited the
possibilities for individual and small group
music performance opportunities within the
parameters of the Queensland Studies Authority
Trial-pilot senior syllabus Music Extension (2006).
This problem, also expressed by some of her
peers, prompted this study. Cassie was selected
not only for her experiences of limiting choices
in existing structures and systems of education
and the inadequate provisions for challenge
and opportunity in music performance, but also
for her academic success in other domains of
learning (physics, chemistry, language and the
arts). In her community she won performance
awards in eisteddfods, opportunities to attend
workshops and master classes, and demonstrated
ability to promote a musical culture among her
peers, through outstanding leadership in music
at church, school and in performance ensembles.
In addition, she airmed her talent when tested
for musical giftedness in a series of assessments
for entry to a private school considered to ofer
a leading program of music education for gifted
and talented musicians. While she was ofered a
scholarship, she chose to remain in her familiar
school setting for geographic convenience.
Giftedness and
underachievement
Clark (2002) deines “giftedness” as a “biologically
rooted concept that serves for a label for a
high level of intelligence and indicates an
advanced and accelerated development of
functions within the brain”. She also sees “talent
development” as “appropriate, deliberate and
planned stimulation to develop the individual
intelligence in a variety of forms or expressions”
88
(Clark, 2002, p. 26). Intelligence, therefore, can
be enhanced or inhibited by the interaction
between an individual’s genetic patterns and
those opportunities provided by the learning
environment. With regard to the exceptionally
gifted, Gross (1993) describes such students as
being “unique in having an extremely specialised
gift that is expressed only under very speciic,
culturally evolved, environmental conditions”.
These students are “the most specialised
specialist we know about” (Gross, 1993, p. 10). In
her longitudinal study of children from seven to
nine years of age, she conirmed observations
by Hollingworth (1942) that education for
these students is inappropriate. “In the ordinary
... school, children of I.Q. 140 waste half their
time; those above I.Q. 170 waste all of their
time” (Hollingworth, 1942, p. 299). This data is
important despite its historic dating, for rigorous
longitudinal studies of exceptionally gifted
students of this calibre are hard to identify and
study over an extended period of time. Gross
(1993) agreed with Reis and McCoach (2000)
that educators need to identify acceleration
and diferentiation as an educational issue that
resists assimilation. This should be done because
potentially gifted students from various socio-
cultural backgrounds having language and
other diferences that account for inadequacies
in standardized testing to accurately determine
the potential and ability of these students. Reis
and McCoach (2000) recommend a lexible
student-centred approach to education
combining counseling (Butler-Por, 1993) with
diferentiation for gifted underachievers.
However, most interventions designed to reverse
underachievement in students have been
inconclusive and inconsistent (Emerick, 1992).
In a case study which analysed talent
development in a musically gifted adolescent,
Ho and Chong (2008) used Gagné’s (2003)
Diferentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent,
a model separating deinitions of talent and
inherent giftedness. They found that the
2010, No. 2
 Development of musical understanding in gifted adolescents
richness of cultural origins, background and
home-school relationships were important for
development of “natural ability” or inherent gifts
in music. As Gagné asserted, talent “is a complex
choreography” involving the interplay of many
factors (Ho & Chong, 2008). They concluded
that Gagné’s postulations on the existence of
“natural ability” or “giftedness” were essential
to the development of this student’s ability to
“understand complex musical structures and
accomplish tasks well beyond her age” (Ho &
Chong, 2008, p. 14). However, they found her
“empowerment and motivation for success” and
her support from signiicant others was equally
important (Ho & Chong, 2008, p. 14). Another
key inding was “the evidence of cultural values
and attitudes as having a profound impact on
the way parents perceive and practice talent
development”. Gagné deined giftedness as
“underlying competence that is distinctly above
average in one or more domains of ability”, and
talent as “performance that demonstrates ability
distinctly above average in one or more ields of
human performance” (Gagné, 1985, p. 108). He
deined these in terms of inluential personal and
environmental characteristics. All children may
possess talent, and respond to development of
such talent. On the other hand not all are gifted,
remarkable in the possession of an underlying
competence similar to that of the “specialist”,
responsive to empowering, challenging
opportunities for acceleration in culturally
appropriate environments.
VanTassel-Baska’s (1998) comprehensive
summary described an expanding lens viewpoint
on giftedness, from the narrow IQ base of the
1920s to current multimodal perceptions which
require recognition and appreciation of the full
range of worthwhile gifts and talents in learners.
Sternberg (1985) had contributed substantially
to expanding global concepts of giftedness with
his triarchic theory of intelligence. By the turn
of the century, he was encouraging educators
to seek, locate and cater for neglected talents
Australian Journal of Music Education
and abilities. He presented a strong case for
identifying gifted students more broadly, by
inding those who are practically and creatively
gifted as well as analytically gifted (Sternberg,
1998). Queensland has tended towards the
Renzulli (1994) ‘Total School Improvement’ model
as a basis for whole-school development.
Braggett (1997) indicated that the
development of sound educational reasons for
ability grouping, diferentiated curricula and
a total school approach involving all teachers
would ensure exceptionally gifted students
would reach very high levels of performance.
He reasoned that, as giftedness isn’t ixed
but is, rather, inluenced by background and
surroundings, the curriculum provided for these
gifted students should be shaped by smaller units
of work, challenging tasks, everyday, relevant
examples and revision to reinforce success. A
curriculum that is diferentiated must cater for
individual needs, rather than be conceived as an
add-on, if it is to motivate these gifted students.
The selection of appropriate tasks for motivating
gifted students within curriculum areas is crucial
(Torrance, 1965; Silverman, 1993; Van Tassel-
Baska, 1992).
Exceptionally gifted musicians develop a
passion for engaging in certain musical styles
and genres related to their individual socio-
cultural environment, expressing these further
in performance, composition and improvisation.
Focusing on these interests avoids their erosion
and consequent underachievement when
students have to conform to a curriculum of
little relevance to their lives (Porter, 2005). Cohen
(1998) identiied six themes that, when included
in music programs, were essential for these
students’ success, Themes identiied were: control
and mastery; nature and nurture; meaning
and origin of things and transforming them
into useful functioning products; people and
interrelations; artistic expression; and symbols
and systems (words, music, numbers, body
language).
89
Tomlinson
With regard to broader areas of interest (social,
aesthetic, practical and leadership skills), recent
research has explored the efects of friendship
and age on collaborative learning among music
students. MacDonald, Miell and Mitchell (2002)
found that when working together with a friend,
students produced compositions rated as having
better quality than those produced by students
working in isolation. A notable improvement in
verbal and musical communication also occurred.
Older students beneited more in negotiating
instrumentation and musical organization in
unstructured composition tasks. Friends worked
better, as there was mutual understanding
of processes and ideas. Pooling of ideas and
selection of the most appropriate material
through trial-and-error increased quality work
and synthesise ideas to create something of
greater merit. Conlicts in terms of overall vision
led to negotiation and justiication of ideas
amongst students, reining thematic materials
and reshaping ideas in the piece (Kaschub, 1997;
Mehan, 1984; Wiggins, 2000). Rigof (1990) found
that in learning situations, communication and
shared problem-solving inherently bridge the
gap between old and new knowledge.
Music learning is a social activity and never
context-free. Brandstrom (2000) investigated
the music education of northern Sweden to
explore the concept of its value as an investment
in cultural capital. The way students responded
to music education was found to be dependent
on both socio-cultural and musical background.
Those lacking in cultural or informational
background tended to drop out of the program
when they reached their teenage years. In a
paper summarizing the judgements of the quality
of provision for the arts in schools in England
in 1998, Mills (2001) found that those schools
which were successful provided opportunities
for students to extend activities and achieve
beyond school. Researchers have questioned the
appropriateness of our vision for gifted students
and advise on a diferentiated curriculum
90
integrating community and school activities
(Bailey, 2002; Crocker, 2002; Schultz, 2002).
Higgins (2008) suggests “the attributes of
generosity, empathy and care are acknowledged
in gift theory” and are familiar qualities of gifted
musicians who are often encouraged to give of
themselves in order to further develop these
attributes. There is a chain of connective forces
coming into play whenever music is practiced in
varying socio-cultural settings. Vygotsky (1978)
believed all learning to be socially mediated, as
the student’s own experience is contextualized
in a particular setting. He recognized links
between social collaboration, transformative
human relationships and the development of
metacognition (higher thinking, use of self-
regulation and problem-solving strategies).
Children’s concept of self and their world is
transformed by framing knowledge, enacting
agency intuitively, developing strategies and
internalizing knowledge (Vygotsky, 1978). Talent
may be identiied and developed in all children,
when supported by more knowledgeable
peers and adults who engage in thoughtful
discussions with students on the music they are
making. However, giftedness is a multifaceted
construct involving cognitive, metacognitive
and motivational components (Alexander, Carr,
& Schwanenlugel, 1995). It refers to exceptional
potential in multiple domains, while talent is
speciic to one domain and involves systematic
development of skills and above-average
performance in that domain (Gagné, 1985).
Gifted music students are often motivated to fulil
roles of supporting less knowledgeable peers in
activities which promote talent development. In
return, educators are called to commit to those
who possess exceptional giftedness in order to
enhance ability, not to inhibit these individuals
from reaching their full potential.
Relevant, meaningful curricula catering for
problem-based learning has been recommended
for students of exceptional musical ability
whose desire to participate is buried because
2010, No. 2
 Development of musical understanding in gifted adolescents
of peer pressure and an outdated, irrelevant
curriculum (Freebody, Watters & Lummins,
2003). The Freebody report, presented at the
Gifted and Talented Students State Conference,
recommended that Education Queensland move
to “more explicitly integrate the education of
gifted students into its current policy initiatives”
(Freebody et al., 2003, p. 69) and that “patchy
visibility (of these gifted education policy
initiatives) continues to set unacceptable limits
on the kinds and levels of academic and artistic
achievement that many students could attain
over the course of their school careers” (Freebody
et al., p. 63). Delegates at the conference
suggested the wording be altered to “make
the education of gifted students a priority”.
This would include teachers and able students
being actively and co-operatively involved in
school planning (Clark & Callow, 1998). From
the literature examined above, it seems likely
that exceptionally gifted students may require
diferentiated music programs tailored to their
individual learning styles, the engagement in
speciic music genres and styles, and their need
to work in a collaborative learning environment
that is responsive to and supportive of socio-
cultural diference.
Methodology
By choosing a single case study method, the
subject of this study, Cassie, was studied over
two years, using a combination of the Gagné
and the Maker models, and a social interaction
theory whereby the student was studied in the
context of a rich “milieu” of networks, resulting
in a thick description. In-depth interviews of
parents, teachers and mentors were conducted.
The interview questions used for the subject
are included in the appendix. Networks studied
included the more supportive ones of teachers
(both classroom and one-on-one tuition provided
by tutors, coaches or mentors) and peers; ixed
networks of curriculums, subjects or courses of
study (including professional courses ofered
Australian Journal of Music Education
at tertiary level); and inally, diverse groups
(including groups of musicians and bands) and
community music involvement: choirs, orchestras,
church ensembles, and other activities. Steiner
and Carr (2003) emphasize that the collaboration
of all stakeholders (students, parents, teachers
and community groups) is at the hard end of the
socio-cultural model and this is the framework for
investigation in this case study.
Questions and research goals corresponded
to each other (Merriam, 1988; Yin, 2003). This
approach to case study ensured the questions
in interviews and issues raised in analysis were
linked to the overall problem investigated, the
fundamental conceptualization of the case
(Abramson, 1992; Bassey, 1999). The intent-
question-problem match was also veriied
by Cassie and other informants who read the
analysis of the data. Therefore, the criteria for
internal and external validity were met. Grounded
theory and triangulation of data was the basis of
the research, in which implicit theories guiding
research from early stages were challenged
(Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Additional data-gathering
strategies such as diary entries of observations
and conversations, school reports and
Eisteddfod comments, were also used to provide
triangulation and corroboration, ensuring that
reliable references were made from reliable data.
The researcher gathered all data.
The transcripts and analysis of data was also
carried out by the researcher using a process
of critical analysis involving data reduction,
data display and conclusions. A review of multi-
variable, complex and causal explanations was
made through interactive synthesis of the data
throughout the process (Huberman & Miles,
1994). Principles of “fuzzy logic” were also applied
where “everything is a matter of degree…
multivalence. It means three or more options
instead of just two extremes. It means analog
instead of binary, ininite shades of grey between
black and white” (Kosko, 1994, pp. 18-19). For
example, in Cassie’s socio-cultural environment,
91
Tomlinson
diferent motivations and learning styles
were seen operating within this ongoing rich
marketplace of ideas and opportunities. Cassie
and her musical achievements were examined
in the light of inluences such as overlapping
professional networks and the ongoing dialogue
of communications emerging from these.
In an in-depth interview the subject was asked
if she saw herself as gifted, how her talents were
developed, how various facilities were used,
how and why she was selected for scholarships
and prizes as well as the efects of geographic
relocation of family and other signiicant life-
changing events (refer to appendix for questions).
A questionnaire was also completed and the
data sorted. By matching speciic narrative and
quantitative data, complex causal explanations
of factors such as motivation and achievement
were tested and analysed to throw light on
the question under investigation (Yin, 2003). A
constant comparison of data, with sampling of
diferent groups and individuals to maximize
similarities and diferences, contributed to
emerging categories and indings: a reinement
and interrelation of categories of information
(Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Selective coding of
data and the creation and use of memos were
processes used to cross-examine all the key
statements and domains to ensure all categories
were distinct and separate (Strauss & Corbin,
1990, p. 9). Problems were identiied and
alternative solutions proposed. In this paper,
some of these problems and solutions are
discussed.
The Maker (1982) model was used to further
analyse the data collected by questionnaires and
interviews to propose alternative curriculum
diferentiation appropriate for the socio-cultural
environment of this student. It was the most
appropriate model for a student who has
established a clear sense of identity (Zuo &
Cramond, 2001). This is because the Maker model
encourages independence and increased depth
of understanding for the resilient learner; it is
92
open, not closed; it is accepting and student-
centred and non-judgemental. The model
proposes four areas of curriculum development
that need to be modiied for diferentiation to
assist gifted students. They are:
• Content: increased emphasis on abstractness
and complexity of concepts, not facts
• Processes: higher thinking, group interaction,
variable pace and choice
• Products: evaluated with real life criteria;
deadlines are set purposefully. Real audiences
are presented with open-ended indings, not
solutions to problems
• A student-centred environment encouraging
independent work and movement,
interdisciplinary connections, visiting experts,
rich and complex tasks.
Discussion
Educational and musical settings
Cassie inished Year 12 during the period of this
study. She believed she possessed an inherent
gift for music, and her goal was to become a solo
‘cello performer or to participate in the ield of
professional orchestral performance. She had
successfully auditioned in music performance
at a prestigious tertiary music institution. In
her leisure time, she played in a string quartet
that undertook many engagements: concerts,
weddings and also backing pop bands to
support herself through University. In addition,
she joined in the Queensland Youth Symphony
and attended instrumental workshops in the
vacations. Her instrumental teacher, commenting
on her sense of purpose and motivation in
relation to future goals, relected:
She has a sense of purpose now. I have watched
her develop into a resilient and passionate
musician who is very focused on her music.
She expresses her whole personality through
music and loves giving others this pleasure. She
considers nothing else for a career but to perform.
From the age of two years, Cassie attended
Early Childhood music classes in Brisbane. She
2010, No. 2
 Development of musical understanding in gifted adolescents
commenced the ‘cello and choral activities while
in Grade Three at a private Girls’ School and
immediately began to perform in competitions
and prepare for exams. Her parents commented
on her “high level of musical interpretation
and sensitivity expressed in her playing at such
a young age.” Her primary school classroom
music teacher noted her ability to transfer
knowledge of musical concepts across a range
of musical rhythmic and melodic tasks, using
instruments and voice, in diferent genres. He
recalled her “outstanding ability to discriminate
pitch by identifying intervals and reproducing
melodies on recorder, piano and xylophone
with ease” when she was in Grades Three and
Four of school. She demonstrated “outstanding
improvisation skills when playing the xylophone,
and interesting rhythm improvisations on
the tambour.” The requirement of showing
understanding of complex concepts by applying
them in diferent ways, in open-ended tasks,
is found in Maker’s model of a diferentiated
curriculum.
As a successful performer on the ‘cello from
an early age, she undertook further study on
that instrument at a prestigious institution, from
Grade Five until the end of School, performing
in a number of symphony orchestral concerts
throughout the year. She was selected for the
State Honours program throughout secondary
school, participating in orchestral performances
at the State Conservatorium of Music with top
music students from schools in Queensland. Her
special talent was soon noticed by the director of
a state youth orchestra, and she was positioned
as principal ‘cello, a rank she held for the last four
years of school. The conductor noticed her rapid
improvement in her technique and musicianship
after this promotion. She said “it made her
want to practice more, because it added some
challenge and responsibility to the activity.” She
was also chosen for her “ability to sight read
music to a high standard, her one hundred per
cent focus and concentration, and her lovely,
Australian Journal of Music Education
well-projected tone.” She won trophies for String
Championships at Eisteddfods and performed
Sonatas and Concertos at Soirees held in school.
Her desire for independence and rich, complex
tasks compelled her to participate. This itted the
Maker model of giftedness.
While her initial two years were spent in a
state school, where she shone at music and
drama, Cassie moved to a private Girls’ School
for years three, four and ive before her family
relocated geographically, and consequently
experienced co-educational private schooling for
the remainder of her education. In senior years
of High School, Cassie performed a lead role in
the school musical. She sang in award-winning
choirs and played solo trumpet in the Stage Band
and Concert Band at school, where she held
leadership positions. She organised a pop group
and performed in Battle of the Bands, which was
won by her band. In her community, Cassie loved
singing in the Worship Ensemble and playing
in the band at her church, and was involved in
many social justice projects. Although ofered
an academic and music scholarship at another
private school in years ten, eleven and twelve, she
declined as it would mean leaving a close-knit
group of friends where she was already enrolled.
Her school matched her scholarship ofer, and
she chose to remain in her familiar environment.
In addition, in 2007 she was presented with the
performing arts award (scholarship) and trophy.
Unfortunately, in senior years her school was
unable to ofer suiciently challenging solo
music performance opportunities. Cassie, and
other peers who were outstanding performers,
felt the negative impact of curriculum changes
(the Queensland Studies Authority trial-pilot
Music Extension Senior Syllabus, 2007), allowing
students to submit recorded examples of their
‘performances’ for assessment without requiring
any live public performance, not even with a
single assessor in the room. Only a few students
chose to perform for each other, with a teacher
present. The removal of Aural Studies in addition
93
Tomlinson
to other changes allowed for an average overall
result where several students sat in the top
ranking and there was no signiicant spread of
results. However, the whole situation of change
and uncertainty in the assessment criteria of
classroom music caused added distress to all of
Cassie’s academic studies. Students, teachers
and parents prevailed on Education Queensland
to modify these changes. While successful in
achieving a fairer system for 2009, (the QSA
Music Extension Authority Subject), this did
nothing to assist existing students in providing
appropriate programs and assessment of musical
performance during the intervening senior years.
Cassie felt restricted in the development of solo
performance skills in the real world.
I missed opportunities to perform and be
assessed in small ensembles in conjunction
with others of similar ability. Also, I would have
loved to be challenged to study my instrument
in context with a thorough analysis of the
repertoire, and in particular, the harmonic
underpinnings, form, style, and melodic invention
of relevant repertoire.
Her parents added, “It was her own personal
quest for excellence which drove her to raise her
standard of technical and musical mastery of
repertoire far above that required for many others
in her music extension class, and to seek out
opportunities to perform.”
In Maker’s model of a diferentiated curriculum,
tasks should be related to real-world outcomes,
real-life audiences and be linked to community
and visiting experts in the ield. Interestingly,
Cassie achieved the highest grades possible for
music. She had displayed a mastery of a wide
range of repertoire in voice, brass and ‘cello, but
did so in a context of dialogue and collaboration
with other musicians in her community and at
school. She was commended not only for her
performance of a Shostakovich Cello concerto,
but also for her critical analysis of the work,
which synthesised a deep understanding of the
musical structure with the socio-political setting
of the period in which it was composed. Her
94
music teacher commented, “Cassie, it has been
an absolute pleasure to be part of your musical
development. Your enthusiasm, drive and energy
for all things musical will be missed. Thank you for
your amazing dedication to the extra-curricular
music program in bands, strings and choirs.
Congratulations on an outstanding inish.”
Alongside this achievement, she ranked in
the top six to seven per cent of students in
Queensland in her overall academic results,
with high achievements in physics, chemistry,
mathematics, English and music plus music
extension. Her chemistry teacher commented
that “Her bright personality and co-operative
attitude made her an asset to the class” and in
physics “You demonstrate a delight in physics
and your enthusiasm has been infectious.” In
English, “Cassie has made many intelligent
contributions to the class. She has a thorough
understanding of the way text construction is
inluenced by social and cultural contexts, and
has a command of language and critical thinking.
She is an articulate and conident speaker, able to
debate competently.” In overall comments from
the Care Group teacher, she was commended for
her “ability to build positive relationships within
the group. In her role as Cultural Captain she has
made outstanding contributions to all sporting,
cultural, academic and service activities. Her
bright, friendly and caring personality has been
appreciated and we will miss her.” The Principal
added “We are delighted with your success and
wish you every blessing for your future studies.”
Cassie gained entrance into nearly every course
ofered at any university. She knew exactly where
she wanted to be: studying music performance.
Her reasons were plain: “I want a real challenge
to undertake at university. Music provides that
challenge.”
Personal characteristics
Cassie was surrounded by music in the home
and in her community. Some of Cassie’s
personal values included belonging to a
2010, No. 2
 Development of musical understanding in gifted adolescents

church, family tradition and time spent with 3. Family and leisure activities
family and friends. Cassie described herself as
Cassie’s parents were both musical. Her mother
“creative, innovative, aware and keen to learn
taught both classroom music and instrumental
new things”. She saw herself as extroverted in
tuition and was director of music at a secondary
personality and analytical in her approach to
school. She remembered Cassie at a few weeks of
learning. Her love of learning and mastering
age being able to imitate in tune the vocalizations
new tasks made her aware of her need for
made by her mother. Her father, an academic, had
challenges, competition and research in areas
played brass for many years in a band and studied
of musical analysis and music history. One area
the piano when a young man. Cassie’s mother
of acquired skill was lacking in her early stages
had been very ill and this placed immense stress
of development: she “would have liked some
on Cassie. While learning coping strategies, she
earlier opportunities to play concertos with an
developed personal spiritual values that formed
orchestra” (Valdez-Guerrero, 2008). Later, her
her into a person who counted the costs of
personal goals included being able to make it
commitment. She realised that the diiculties in
into the advanced performance course in her
career choice, study, leadership tasks and home
second year at university. This would allow her to
life were overwhelming at times, along with the
maintain her focus and to achieve her goal of one
physical demands of performance. Her mother
day becoming a performer. Selection for AISOI
noticed “she responded to support in the home.
(Australian International Symphony Orchestra
We spent time with her as she practiced music
Institute) gave her invaluable experience in
or listened as she tried out her ideas for debates.
performance workshops at a national and
This built her conidence.” This observation its
international level.
Gagné’s model of a rich, supportive socio-cultural
She identiied science and music as her two
environment in the home as important for
main talents. In science she had scored in the
development of innate giftedness.
top ten per cent in a national competition. Some
Vygotsky (1978) identiied the importance
negative experiences in Cassie’s musical life
of social collaboration and transformative
emanated from her reluctance to practice in the
human relationships on the development
early years. This led to mistakes being made in
of metacognition. Cassie maintained close
performance and new strategies and approaches
friendships, loving “time out” with her peers. In an
being taken by her tutor in instrumental lessons.
Australian culture, it was considered important to
The experience motivated her to practice more
maintain a balance between work and play. She
and this, along with her selection for principal
loved ice skating, went to the movies or dinner,
‘cello, enabled her to excel. It taught her that
and organised days out with her friends at the
“everyone makes mistakes and also (that) practice
beach. She added, “Time alone reading in my
makes perfect”. She developed strategies to solve
room or watching a movie is really important. I
this problem and her relection on this diiculty
love playing computer games too, and chatting
deepened her understanding and made her
to friends on the internet.” A favourite hobby was
resilient. As Barry states, “Certainly, music has
painting, and she had some of her work displayed
much to ofer in terms of fostering creativity and
on the walls at home. Other interests included
critical thinking skills” (Barry, 2008). She now
sampling various dishes from cuisines around the
exudes conidence in her performance skills and
world and, with friends, experimenting in cooking
has the motivation to rally and become the best
these. However, she commented that on average
in her ield.
she would have preferred to spend a third of her
day practicing the ‘cello.

Australian Journal of Music Education 95

Tomlinson
4. Motivation and musical preferences
Cassie knew herself and managed change well.
She had an eclectic taste for music, including
rock and heavy metal as well as classical. She
had ability to “kick back and relax” to music,
and to live life with “lots of laughs” among a
wide circle of friends, and this also contributed
to her resilience. The present-day attribute of
connectedness among peers motivates students,
and this can be a positive learning tool (Cohen,
1998; Crocker, 2002). Many pop songs were
stored on her iPod, but the majority of music
was classical. Cassie also loved musical theatre.
In terms of ‘cello repertoire, she preferred
Shostakovich, Beethoven and Mahler. While
studying works of Shostakovich, her instructor
assisted with the use of metaphor. Stories relating
the hardships of Russian composers helped put
the music into a harsh context, and she was
inspired when the rhythmic igures were likened
to sounds of a marching army. “She performs with
passion, discernment and musical sensitivity”
concluded her ‘cello instructor and mentor,
“because music is her life.”
Although the study of music opened up
many opportunities for personal achievement
and global awareness, including a European
trip, Cassie found the study of music required
overcoming many obstacles. The personal burden
of inance, along with physical issues related to
practicing the instrument and transporting it,
made the journey a diicult one. When choosing
a career, she experienced diiculty because
equally she would have loved to study science.
Multiple potential is an identiied attribute of
gifted students and it needs to be managed
by various approaches taken by educational
institutions and career advisors (Willard-Holt,
2008). Signiicant adults surrounding her
had difering opinions on the worth of music
education beyond Grade Twelve of high school
and keenly debated the relative prestige and
success attached to music teaching or music
performance in comparison to bio-science,
96
medicine or architecture. Cassie’s possession of
critical 21st century skills such as self-direction,
critical thinking, problem solving, motivation
and collaboration assisted her when making inal
decisions.
5. Attributions of ability
Cassie and her parents attributed her success
in music largely to her innate ability, but added
that her early exposure to music made a real
diference to her capacity in aural perception. Her
parents observed her singing in tune by imitating
her mother’s vocalizations when she was three
weeks old. She continued to show interest in
any music played in the home and engaged
enthusiastically in music activities with other
children, improvising on drums and xylophones
when two, three and four years of age. Cassie
recalled “I had a solid upbringing in music with
my family.” With regard to her present studies she
relected:
I’m interested in what I’m doing. I have a passion
for that particular type of music and wanted to
do it justice. So I worked on it. But the enjoyment
and passion probably came from my musical
talents being nurtured as a child.
While her early childhood and primary school
music activities were positive, she felt her family’s
geographic relocation had a negative impact.
“My aural skills did not develop as I was unable
to strengthen them in classroom music activities.”
In terms of the middle school music program,
she lost interest as “it was not challenging” and
“activities had no relevance to the real world.
Having opportunities to conduct a band would
have been awesome.” Commenting on activities
in class that taught her something new, she
replied “I was mostly self-taught, except I
remember a unit in Year Ten. It taught me a lot
because it was challenging. It was on Twentieth
Century Australian Art Music: a comparison of
works by Peter Sculthorpe and Stephen Leek.
That was a challenge as we did score-reading
and identiied why it was called art music: it
2010, No. 2
 Development of musical understanding in gifted adolescents
painted pictures. We justiied the musical images
represented in the music by analysing the score.”
The need for complex tasks for motivation is
identiied by Gagné. Cassie relected on years
eleven and twelve, saying:
It had no signiicance to my music career. It was
all about rock music. I did enjoy the unit on music
theatre. There was not enough theory to apply
to my level of playing. History of music in middle
school was more interesting, as it put music into
a context.
In composition tasks, the aim was to write
for contemporary performances such as
the graduation song or “Battle of the Bands”
but “nothing too demanding”. “We worked
independently, but I would have liked the
opportunity to occasionally pool our ideas,
discuss alternatives, and come up with something
really good. There were three of us who could
have worked well together, and were at a
similar level.” Cassie chose to organise a musical
ensemble (trio) involving these students, a way
of enacting agency through collaboration with
her peers. She was involved in string ensembles
in senior years, but was not satisied with that
experience.
We played really silly music, arrangements of
pieces in four parts. We didn’t really get into it.
There was no exposure to the great repertoire of
string quartets, like Beethoven, Haydn or Borodin.
It wasn’t a challenge at all.
Findings
The indings of a similar recent case study
demonstrated that life experiences in diferent
cultural contexts can lead to distinctly difering
parenting beliefs, styles and practices (Ho &
Chong, 2008). This case study acknowledges the
role of cultural perspectives in Australia as being a
complex mix of parental and caregiver inluence;
community and peer support and expectations;
and educational provisions, philosophies and
curricula. Through analysis of information
gathered in interviews, a questionnaire, school
reports and comments from adjudicators, plus
Australian Journal of Music Education
the researcher’s own observations in diary entries,
a number of prominent trends have emerged. The
study has been useful in throwing light on how
a very gifted adolescent in music has interacted
with family, peers and the educational system in
order to develop and use these gifts for her own
beneit and for the enhancement of her social
and school environments.
In spite of limitations on her in terms of the
music curriculum and school administration,
Cassie achieved success in her study owing to
the resilience of her character in enacting agency
by collaboration with her peers and mentors.
Teachers commented on her “bright, caring
personality”, “infectious enthusiasm”, “intelligent
contributions” and “ability to build positive
relations in the group.” She displayed “drive,
energy and amazing dedication” as she pursued
opportunities in developing her musical ability.
Through close investigation into the quality of
support aforded her by signiicant persons, it
may be concluded that parental support and
early exposure to music in the home and in
other Early Childhood settings, were factors
that shaped her gifted behaviour. Strong traits
of inherent musical ability were evident in her
early development and in infants and primary
school years, as reported by parents and teachers.
Her overriding belief and conidence in herself
as a musician, her continued self-motivation,
determination and persistence through diicult
Middle School years, and her high ability in music
performance, were also evident from teacher
reports and interviews, parental feedback and
Cassie’s own responses to interview questions.
Because the impact of socio-cultural inluences
are so strong in music education, this case
study highlights possibilities for a diferentiated
curriculum based on individual case studies
in order to motivate and empower very gifted
musicians to achieve at the optimum level. As
outlined in the report on provisions in gifted
education,
The full range of capabilities and dispositions of
highly efective citizens cannot be easily staked
97
Tomlinson
out, nor can the full possibilities for motivation
to learn, proclivities for critical analysis and
novel combinations of ideas and techniques
that students can develop in school. That is,
what cannot be readily legislated, enumerated
or standardized are the kinds of learnings
that syllabuses cannot imagine in advance
as outcomes for a given age group in school
(Freebody et al., 2003, p. 67).
The study suggests there is a demand for a
diferentiated syllabus catering for student
specialization in areas of personal interest
and exceptional ability in the performing arts,
including real-life performance opportunities.
This would be lexible, open-ended and based on
individual case studies of highly gifted students.
Performance workshops and conducting
opportunities were of particular interest to
Cassie, in addition to challenging composition
tasks and small ensemble work with peers who
demonstrated similar gifts, learning styles and
motivation. Other musicians may choose music
industry and studio work or contemporary
improvisation.
Diferentiation of classroom music, therefore,
would be for the purpose of efectively catering
for individual abilities of highly gifted students
by developing ongoing case studies to support,
enrich and assess the appropriateness of
their learning experiences. The results of this
study reinforce the notion that individual case
studies based on the student’s social milieu
and educational environment are vital to the
ongoing assessment and curriculum planning of
gifted musicians. Deep musical understanding
in students is shown to be enhanced by such
planning. The educator is encouraged to provide
for transformation of dispositions through
challenging collaborative activities involving
higher order thinking and “taking things apart,”
questioning and extending ideas in composition
and analysis, rather than extrinsic motivational
orientations. The application and synthesis of
knowledge and ideas occurs as these students
enact agency in motivating learning experiences
that are relevant to their world(s) and personal
98
goals (Bargh & Ferguson, 2000; Flückiger,
2006). Cultural, social, linguistic and economic
circumstances afect resources students bring
to school, therefore educational provisions need
to be lexible and administrators aware of these
when planning diferentiated programs.
Rather than seeking solutions to problems by
generating conlict or resolving unmet needs
through competition, Cassie enacted agency by
working with the complexity of her situation,
initiating musical experiences that enriched her
life by organizing performances and ensembles,
supporting all musicians in her peer group. This
is the most signiicant inding of the study: the
overriding inluence of Cassie’s learning style,
her determination to pursue all opportunities to
continuously transform her disposition through
higher thinking, adjusting to limitations in her
environment and developing her musical ability
while enhancing the musical culture of the
school. If supported by diferentiated curricula,
exceptionally gifted students could achieve much
higher levels of productivity for themselves and
for the school community.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this study should be useful to
educators and curriculum policy makers, for
it illuminates some problems associated with
gifted musicians in education. It suggests the
need for planning in music education which
encourages skills that are multi-dimensional:
creative, critical and meta-cognitive. It goes
further by demonstrating that skills are not
enough. A disposition exists in highly gifted
adolescents, driving them to want and need
to develop practical and thinking skills, and to
synthesise information and practical application
through interaction with their peers, teachers
and mentors. Curriculum planners and educators
must develop an awareness of exceptionally
gifted musicians, and facilitate curiosity
and inquiry; thinking broadly and making
connections; being relevant to the real world
2010, No. 2
 Development of musical understanding in gifted adolescents
and thorough in reasoning; being organised and
planning ahead; and being willing to allocate
time and lexibility to think and to create (Maker,
1982). These strategies enhance understanding
in music. Problems raised by students may be
explored in depth without a “one right answer or
technique” approach, to enhance performance
outcomes and increase motivation. Motivation
and support of student dispositions will also
occur as teachers show greater lexibility in
working co-operatively with gifted students in
the selection of repertoire and other relevant
material for study across a wider base of genres,
related to their socio-cultural experiences and
preferences.
Teachers and administrators need to allow for
lexibility in the decision-making of these gifted
students, catering for autonomy and learning
styles as they choose to work with like-minded
peers and mentors. Further diferentiation could
occur by establishing links with experts in the
community or by video-conferencing linked
to master classes held at tertiary institutions.
Provision for placement of teachers with
experience in designing and implementing
diferentiated programs in music is a possible
consideration. Other suggestions from the
indings include the urgency for the formation
of an integrated, consistent national music
curriculum incorporating lexible pedagogy,
assessment and reporting appropriate to each
student, and quality ongoing music teacher
professional development, particularly in the area
of curriculum enrichment.
References
Abramson, P. R. (1992). A case for case studies: An
immigrant’s journal. Newbury Park: Sage.
Alexander, J. M., Carr, M., & Schwanenlugel, P. J. (1995).
Metacognition in gifted children: Directions for future
research. Developmental Review, 15, 1, 1-37.
Bailey, S. (2002). What is appropriate curriculum for the
gifted? Some suggestions. TalentEd, 20(3), 9-14.
Bargh, J. A. & Ferguson, M. J. (2000). Beyond behaviorism:
On the automaticity of higher mental processes.
Psychological Bulletin, 126(6), 925-945.
Australian Journal of Music Education
Barry, N. H. (2008). The role of integrated curriculum
in music teacher education. Journal of Music Teacher
Education, 18(1), 28-38.
Bassey, M. (1999). Case study research in educational
settings. Buckingham: Open University.
Braggett, E. (1997). Diferentiated programs for secondary
schools: Hawker Brownlow.
Brandstrom, S. (2000). For whom is this music intended?
Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education,
147, 36-39.
Butler-Por, N. (1993). “Undreachieving gifted students.”
In K.A. Heller., F. J. Monks., & A. H. Passow (Eds)
International Handbook of Research and Development of
Giftedness and Talent. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Clark, B. (2002). Growing up gifted: developing the
potential of children at home and at school. (6 ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall.
Clark, C. & Callow, R. (1998). Educating able children:
Resource issues and processes for teachers. London:
David Fulton.
Cohen, L. M. (1998). Facilitating the interest themes of
young bright children. In J. F. Smutney (Ed.), The young
gifted child: Potential and promise, an anthology. (pp.
317-339). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Crocker, T. (2002). Underachievement: Is our vision too
narrow and blinkered? TalentEd, 20(3), 1-9.
Emerick, L. J. (1992). Academic underachievement
among the gifted: Students’ perceptions of factors that
reverse the pattern. Gifted Child Quarterly, 36, 140-146.
Flückiger, B. R. (2006). Children’s cross-cultural literacies
in three worlds: Enacting agency. Unpublished thesis.
Griith University, Brisbane.
Freebody, P., Watters, J. L., & Lummins, S. (2003).
Expanding possible futures: A review of Education
Queensland’s policy on the education of gifted students
in Queensland schools. Brisbane, QLD. Queensland
Government Education, 1-75.
Gagné, F. (1985). Giftedness and talent: Reexamining a
reexamination of the deinitions. Gifted Child Quarterly,
29, 103-112.
Gagné, F. (2003). Transforming gifts into talents: the
DMGT as a developmental theory. In N. Colangelo & G.
A. Davis (Eds.), Handbook of Gifted Education (3 ed., pp.
60-74). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Gross, M. U. M. (1993). Exceptionally gifted children.
London: Routledge.
Higgins, L. (2008). The creative music workshop:
event, facilitation, gift. International Journal of Music
Education, 26(4), 326-338.
Hipkins, R. (2006). The nature of key competencies: a
background paper. Ministry of Education.
Ho, P. S. K. & Chong, S. N. Y. (2008). A study of factors
inluencing the talent development of a musically-
gifted student in Singapore using Gagne’s DMGT-
based analysis. Australian Journal of Music Education,
1, 7-17.
99
Tomlinson
Hollingworth, L. (1942). Children above 180 I.Q. Stanford-
Binet – Origin and development. Younkers-on-Hudson,
N.Y: World Book.
Huberman, A. M., & Miles, M. B. (1994). Data
management and analysis methods. In N. K. Denzin &
Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp.
428-444). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Johnsen, S. (2008). Developing talent in music. Gifted
Child Today, 31(3), 5-6.
Kaschub, M. (1997). A comparison of two composer-
guided large group composition projects. Research
Studies in Music Education., 8, 15-28.
Kosko, B. (1994). Fuzzy logic. New York: Flamingo.
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry.
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage
MacDonald, R. A. R., Meill, D., & Mitchell, L. (2002). An
investigation of children’s musical collaborations: The
efect of friendship and age. Psychology of Music, 30,
148-163.
Maker, C. J. (1982). Curriculum development for the gifted.
Rockville, MD: Aspen Systems.
Mehan, H. (1984). Language and schooling. Sociology of
Education, 57, 174-183.
Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case study research in education: A
qualitative approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Mills, J. (2001). Music and the arts: The quality of
provision in maintained schools in England. Bulletin
of the Council for Research in Music Education, Winter
2001(147), 128-132.
Porter, L. (2005). Gifted young children: A guide for teachers
and parents. (2nd ed.). Sydney: Allen and Unwin.
Queensland Studies Authority (2006). Trial-pilot senior
syllabus Music Extension. http://www.qsa.qld.edu.au/
yrs11_12/subjects/draft-syllabuses.html.
Queensland Studies Authority (2008). Music Extension
Senior Syllabus. 2008, Retrieved on 22/1/2009 from
http://www.qsa.qld.edu.au.
Reiss, S. M., & McCoach, D. B. (2000). The
underachievement of gifted students: What do we
know and where do we go? Gifted Child Quarterly, Vol.
44(3), 152-170.
Renzulli, J. S. (1994). Schools for talent development: A
practical plan for total school improvement. Mansield
Center, CT: Creative Learning Press.
Rigof, B. (1990). Apprenticeships thinking: Cognitive
development in social context. NY: Oxford University
Press.
Michelle Tomlinson is a PhD candidate at Griith University. She has taught in Primary, Secondary and Tertiary
settings over the past 30 years, and has experience in setting up music programs at various educational institutions.
100
Schultz, R. A. (2002). Understanding giftedness and
underachievement: At the edge of possibility. Gifted
Child Quarterly, 46(3), 193.
Silverman, L. K. (1993). Counseling the Gifted and Talented.
Denver: Love Publishing.
Steiner. H. H. & Carr, M. (2003). Cognitive development in
gifted children: Towards a more precise understanding
of emerging diferences in intelligence. Educational
Psychology Review, 15, 215-246.
Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Beyond IO: A triarchic theory of
human intelligence. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Sternberg, R. J. (1998). Ability testing, instruction and
assessment of achievement: breaking out of the
vicious circle. NASSP Bulletin, 82, 4-10.
Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of Qualitative
Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques:
Sage Publications.
Torrance, E. P. (1965). Rewarding creative behaviour.
Englewood Clifs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Valdez-Guerrero, H. H. (2008). Use of concepts in the
standard piano pedagogy literature for elementary and
intermediate students. Unpublished Work. \Baylor
University School of Music.
Van-Tassel-Baska, J. (1992). Planning efective curriculum
for gifted learners. Denver, CO: Love.
Van-Tassel-Baska, J. (1998). Excellence in educating gifted
and talented learners. Denver: Love.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development
of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA:
M.I.T. Press.
Waiser, N. (2008). Teaching twenty-irst century skills.
Harvard Education Letter, 24(5), 1-3.
Wiggins, J. H. (2000). The nature of shared musical
understanding and its role in empowering
independent musical thinking. Bulletin of the Council
for Research in Music Education., Winter 2000(143),
65-83.
Willard-Holt, C. (2008). “You could be doing brain
surgery”: Gifted girls becoming teachers. Gifted Child
Quarterly, 52(4), 313-325.
Yin, R. K. (2003). Case Study Research. Design and Methods.
Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Zuo, L. & Cramond, B. (2001). An examination of Terman’s
gifted children from the theory of identity. Gifted
Children Quarterly, 45(4), 251-259.
2010, No. 2
 Development of musical understanding in gifted adolescents

Appendix: Interview – Gifted musicians in education.

Learning style.
Rate on a scale of 1-5, 1 being the lowest and 5 being the highest, the answers to these 15 questions:
1. My school brings out the best in me.
2. I can grasp complex concepts at school.
3. My teachers make learning interesting.
4. I am self-disciplined about completing homework/practice/projects.
5. It is important for me to do well at school and university.
6. I like problem-solving which requires details, facts and structured practical solutions.
7. I like problem-solving which requires the judgement of ideas and values.
8. I prefer to work alone.
9. I prefer guided instruction with an organized person/expert in the ield.
10. I prefer to learn as part of a group.
11. I learn best through visual information.
12. I learn best through listening (e.g. to music).
13. I learn best through active participation (e.g. through performance in music).
14. How much have strong social support networks (e.g. family, peers, music groups, teachers, church) contributed
to your success in music?
15. How much do you think your success in music has been due to your inborn natural ability/talent?
Self-concept.
How would you describe yourself?
What do you like/dislike about yourself (strengths/weaknesses)?
What kinds of activities are important to you?
Personal inluences.
What makes you the person you are now?
(Name the inluences that have shaped your personality, your experiences, and your plans).
Start as far back as you can remember, and tell me about the inluences on your life, up to now. Take your time
thinking about this.
Motivation for goals.
Why did you did you come to see this as the most important goal/challenge for your future?
Talent development.
List the subjects in which you are talented.
Musical development.
What role will music play in your adult life?
Do others (parents, peers and teachers) see your involvement in music as important?
Do your parents feel you were born with special musical ability?
Do your music teachers feel you were born with special musical ability?
Did your regular classroom teachers support your involvement in music (Pre-school; Primary; Secondary)?
Did your parents support your musical ability?
Did your close friends support your involvement in music?
At what age did you irst sing or play for an audience?
How old were you when you received your irst award or recognition in music?
Musical Preferences.
Rate these eight musical styles in order of preference:
Opera Folk Classical Jazz
Rock Rap Soul Pop
Do you prefer
Heavy music (hard rock, heavy metal, rap)
Light music (pop, ballad, dance)
Eclectic music (balanced according to needs, mood, etc)

Australian Journal of Music Education 101

Tomlinson

Why do you listen to/play music? Please rate from 1-5 on the scale (15 questions).
1. To compete: I like competing with others.
2. To enjoy music
3. I’m good at it
4. It’s useful to earn a living
5. To be creative/use my imagination
6. To help get through diicult times
7. To relieve tension/stress
8. To be trendy/cool/impress people
9. To explore my emotions/feelings
10. To please my parents
11. To please my friends (I like their company)
12. To reduce loneliness
13. The satisfaction of improving/getting better at something
14. To relieve boredom – it’s interesting
15. It’s challenging, diicult
I like music that is … (rate on a 1-5 scale)
Romantic, dreamy/mild, quiet/sad, gloomy/peaceful, relaxing/serious, thoughtful/good natured/kind/upsetting,
protesting/tough, hard/loud, played at a great volume/wild, violent/played with many guitars or drums/played at a
fast tempo.
Time allocation.
Estimate the per centage of time spent in these ive areas in one normal week:
1. Time spent alone
2. Time spent with family – parents only; siblings only; parents and siblings.
3. Time spent with friends
4. Time spent with classmates/workmates
5. Time spent with musicians
Estimate the per centage of time spent doing these eleven activities in a week:
Outside employment/chores around the house/transportation/studying, school or uni/playing music/listening to
music/watching TV/DVD/playing sport or training/family activities/thinking activities/socializing.
There have possibly been bad times or experiences in learning music. Describe these.
How have these negative outcomes led to positive solutions?
How much has coincidence led to opportunities in music?
How has your ability in music served you well/been an asset?
(Socially; self-conidence; academic advantages)
How has your ability in music been detrimental or contributed to problems?
(Socially; anxiety/pessimism; cynicism/boredom; perfectionism – pushing self too hard; diiculty in choosing a
career)
Describe an experience of your own performance in music which you remember as remarkable or outstanding. How
did it make you feel?

102 2010, No. 2

 a u s t r a l i a n

s
a o c i e t y

f o r
s m u s i c

m
Gesture as a tool of communication
e d u c a t i o n

i n c o r p o r a t e d
e

in the teaching of singing

Julia Naisi

Monash University

Abstract
This article investigates the use of gesture as a pedagogic tool in the one-to-one singing lesson. A brief overview of
the main approaches of vocal pedagogy exhibits the longstanding dispute between advocates of a purely factual
teaching style and defenders of a more imaginative one and shows that imagery and metaphors have long played a
role in the teaching of singing. Arguing that gestures are a vital part of human communication and have the capacity
to visualize, illustrate and simplify complex matters the author suggests that they might also be used as pedagogic
tools in the singing studio. A video recorded observation of a number of Conservatorium level singing lessons, given
by ive diferent teachers, was carried out in order to clarify if gestures were used in the communication of singing
related concepts, if these concepts could be identiied and if the gestures could be categorized according to their
pedagogic intent? An analysis of the obtained video footage found that gestures were a vital tool for communicating
singing related concepts and that the observed gestures could be categorized according to the concepts they
communicated into Physiological, Sensation-related and Musical Gestures.

Key words: Gesture, movement, teaching of singing, communication of voice related concepts

Australian Journal of Music Education 2010:2, 103-16

Teaching Singing and emotions, the singer has to learn how good
singing sounds and feels. The teacher, on the
Eicient communication is unarguably a key
other hand, guided by ears and eyes as well as
aspect of all teaching, as a teacher’s knowledge,
knowledge and experience, has to be able to
skill and wisdom are only of help if they can
express the desired physiological functions,
be successfully put across to the student. The
sound concepts and sensations in a way that
nature of its subject makes the teaching of
is meaningful to the student. Imagery and
singing, and vocal tone production in particular,
metaphor play a vital part in the teaching of
singularly challenging: the vocal instrument relies
singing because “adequate verbal description
on a delicate mechanism that is substantially
for a sensory experience…is nearly impossible
internal, not readily seen, and poorly innervated
through strictly scientiic and mathematical
for sensory feedback. Moreover virtually all
terms as certain vocal qualities simply defy
organs used for singing have multiple and often
quantiication” (Bunch, 1995, p. 82). A lack of
vital other functions that compete with their
acoustical adjectives in the English (and many
singing function and can hardly be consciously
other) languages means also that sound is
controlled.
often described in terms borrowed from the
In order to inluence this elusive instrument,
worlds of spatiality (“broad”, “narrow”, “spread”),
which is also closely connected to our psyche

Australian Journal of Music Education 103

Naisi
temperature (“warm”), shapes (“round”, “lat”),
texture (“hard”, “velvety”) and color (“bright”,
“dark”, “white”).
Vocal Pedagogy (a brief excursion)
Publications under the broad heading ‘vocal
pedagogy’ cover all conceivable physiological,
acoustic and psychological aspects of the singing
voice as well as musical, linguistic and expressive
considerations. Whilst here are a few basic nations
whose validity is widely, the way these issues are
portrayed can vary enormously.
Vocal tone is produced through a voice source
(the vocal folds set into vibration by an air stream
from the lungs) and a resonator (the vocal tract).
Consequently, “breath low-to-larynx functions
and vocal tract acoustic inluences are crucial
to the creation of vocal qualities” (Thurman &
Welch, 2000, p. 517) that is the degree of vocal
fold closure and the shape of pharynx and mouth
are the main determinants of vocal quality.
Considerations regarding the quality of vocal
sound are closely related to the “somewhat hazy
notion of register” Although there is no generally
accepted description of the term, register means
basically “a phonation frequency range in which
all tones are perceived as being produced in a
similar way and which possess a similar voice
timbre” (Sundberg, 1987, p. 49). The views
on register vary dramatically amongst voice
pedagogues ranging from a “Two Register View”
to a “Ten Register View” (Caldwell & Wall, 2001,
p. 35) yet it is one of the main shared goals of
classical voice training to eliminate any audible
register changes in order to achieve a uniied
tonal quality throughout the singer’s vocal range.
Another core subject, and similarly
controversial, is the singer’s posture. It “determines
the alignment and balance of the body, and good
bodily alignment is the beginning of eicient
breathing and fundamental to healthy singing”
(Bunch, 1995, p. 24); consequently virtually every
recent larger publication on voice science or
vocal pedagogy (e.g., Bunch 1995; Miller, 1996;
104
Davis, 1998; Hemsley, 1998; Thurman & Welch,
2000; Callaghan, 2000; Caldwell, 2001; Kayes,
2004; Chapman, 2006; Nair, 2007; Smith, 2007)
dedicates a chapter or two to ‘posture’, ‘body
alignment’ or ‘postural alignment’ to facilitate
better tone production. Descriptions of the ideal
posture however vary considerably but methods
like Alexander Technique1, Pilates2, Yoga3, Tai Chi4,
and Feldenkrais5, are regularly commended as
helpful ways to increase body awareness.
If the basic facts of singing technique
constitute the foundation of what is to be
taught in a singing lesson, it is another question
altogether how knowledge and skill are best
imparted so that they are eventually owned by
the student-singer. Recent research into preferred
training styles in voice studios (in the US) strongly
underlines the notion that knowing what to train
does not necessarily translate directly to how
to train it (Helding, 2008) and it has been noted
that “learning science has not been applied with
any system or rigor to voice training whilst voice
science has become an integral part of vocal
pedagogy” (Verdolini, 2002, p. 47).
It would be diicult to argue against Bunch’s
(1995, p. 102) notion that there are basically
four factors that determine vocal quality: (1) the
physical structure of the head, neck and vocal
tract, (2) the co-ordination of the mechanism for
singing, (3) the imagination of the singer and
(4) the levels of health and energy”. However,
the inclusion of point (3) highlights a palpable
controversy between diferent approaches to
Notes
1. Educational discipline developed by F. Matthias Alexander in
the 1890s promoting the: “the good use of the self” through body
alignment and awareness.
2. Physical itness system developed by Joseph Pilates in the early
20th century focusing on strengthening core postural muscles.
3. Traditional physical and mental disciplines originating in India.
4. Traditional Chinese soft martial art technique rooted in philosophy
5. Educational system developed by Moshé Feldenkrais around the
middle of the 20th century centred on movement, aiming to expand
and reine the use of the self through awareness.
2010, No. 2

teaching singing, namely between advocates of
factual teaching and users of imagery.
The argument arises from the diferences in
weight assigned to the physiological facts of
the singing process versus importance given to
factors that lie outside the realm of science. There
is plenty of evidence that “for as long as they have
been singing, students, performers, and teachers
have read, heard, and coined igures of speech
and mental images relating to healthy vocal
habits … and the sensations felt in producing
a beautiful tone” (Patenaude-Yarnell, 2003. p.
185). And “the whole objective of learning to
sing is to improve the connection between the
emotional, poetic, and musical impulses, and the
body, which responds by producing appropriate
sound” (Hemsley, 1998, p. 7) whilst Ware (1968,
p. 17) maintains that “since singing involves the
mind’s ability to re-imagine and replay pitch,
rhythm, tone, word, and emotion, the power of
mental imagery in singing cannot be overstated”.
The use of visualization through images to help
singers develop a beautiful and lexible tone is
also advocated by Skoog (2004) and even Titze,
voice scientist on the fore front of advances in
acoustic analysis recommends the use of “images
that contain the right number of physiological
buzz-words” (1994, p. 77).
On the other hand there is the equally potent
angle that “voice is not an ethereal substance that
pours forth from the imagination” (Miller 2003,
p. 318) but “a physical instrument and obeys the
laws of physiology and the voice is an acoustic
instrument and obeys the laws of acoustics”
(Kiesgen, 2007 p. 261, quoting Miller). Arguably
one of the most inluential personalities in the
ield of vocal pedagogy in the last three decades
(Greschner, 2007; Kiesgen, 2007) Miller is adamant
that “today’s student wants not lowery imagery
but practical assistance” (Miller, 2004, p. 196) and
states:
Vague imagery is insuicient for adequate
communication. The teacher may well know
what a ‘’rounder’’ sound means to him or her,
but the term itself does not tell the student what
Australian Journal of Music Education
Gesture as a tool of communication
‘’rounder’’ means nor how to ‘’round’’ the sound.
Asking for more or less space in some particular
part of the vocal tract can produce a wide
variety of results, most of them not intended.
The reluctant student may be perfectly right to
resist the pedagogy being presented because it
is based on illogical verbiage. Putting the tone
‘’up the back of the throat wall and over into the
forehead,’’ ‘’into the masque,’’ ‘’down the back of
the throat,’’ ‘’out the chimney on the top of the
head,’’ or ‘’out the funnel at the back of the neck,’’
‘’singing on the breath,’’ and ‘’spinning the tone’’
are useless admonitions, inasmuch as none of
these things can be done. (Miller, 1998, pp. 41-42)
It is important to note that the two approaches
are not really exclusive of each other and that
the argument is purely about the way in which
knowledge is communicated to the student.
Thorough understanding of the physiological-
mechanical processes through which the singing
voice is produced might be justiiably deemed
indispensable for the teacher, but to ind a way
of presenting those concepts to students in a
way that they can understand is just as necessary
(Callaghan, 2000) and herein lies the real
challenge for the teacher.
Considering the possibilities of visualization
through gesture in the light of the evident
connection between music and movement
(Jacques-Dalcroze, 1921; Baney, 2002; Crosby,
2008) and recent psycho-linguistic research
(McNeil, 2000; Beattie, 2003; Kendon 2004),
this study grows from the notion that gesture
might be a useful tool for the communication
of vocal and musical concepts and asks about
role of gestures alongside or in place of verbal
metaphors, imagery and scientiic explanations
in the communication of the sensory experiences
that is singing.
Method of Investigation
There are primarily three alternative (or
complimentary) methods of data collection in
qualitative research: interview, self reporting
questionnaire and observation. An investigation
105
Naisi
into how gesture might be used in the practice
of voice teaching, posed several diiculties:
there is plenty of evidence (e.g., Beattie, 2003;
Goldin-Meadow, 2003; Kendon, 2004) that, even
in a situation of purposeful communication like
teaching, people are not always completely aware
of, and sometimes even perfectly oblivious to the
way their body communicates. An interview is
rendered meaningless when the subject matter
lies beyond the interviewee’s consciousness.
It is highly likely that in this case the teachers
would have been unsure in what way and when
they gestured and ind it virtually impossible
to accurately describe their movements.
Considering that the very nature of gestures
makes them curiously resistant to being put
into words (Kendon, 2004; McNeill, 2000) this
diiculty was particularly pronounced in this case
as, prior to this study, there was no system of
categorizing or naming singing related gestures.
Since it would have been virtually impossible
to word questions clearly, unambiguously and
in a way that their answers yielded meaningful
information neither interview nor self-reporting
questionnaire commended themselves as viable
research methods for this study.
Considering all possible methods of
investigation in the light of the research question,
the non-participant observation with video
camera (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006) ofered an
optimum yield of authentic data as well as the
technical possibilities to analyze and utilize this
data. Over the course of ive days, eighteen
university-level singing lessons given by ive
diferent singing teachers were observed and
ilmed; simple digital video editing software
made it possible to slow down and replay
relevant scenes ad libitum and to distill still
pictures of various gestures.
In this type of observation the observer is
in the room with the observed but does not
participate or interfere with the action in any way.
An unavoidable downside of this method was
that, by sitting in on the lessons, the researcher
106
inevitably intruded into an environment which
is normally characterized by its intimacy and
the inner freedom that comes just from being
unobserved. The so called “observer efect”
(Denscombe, 2003) resulting in participants
consciously or unconsciously altering their
behavior during an observation could be seen
as a marked disadvantage of this methodology.
However, the only way to avoid this efect would
have been to assume the role of a ‘hidden’
observer carrying out the observation with a
hidden camera and without the subjects being
aware of an observation taking place. This was
not an option for obvious ethical and practical
reasons. Apart from the ‘observer efect’, the
study might appear limited by its relatively small
scale. These negatives are however easily ofset
by the authenticity and great depth of the data
which allowed the author to answer all research
questions authoritatively.
The study was carried out to investigate
how gesture is used as a tool to communicate
pedagogic concepts in the one-to-one singing
lesson and whether it was possible to categorize
and code those gestures. Although there is a
great deal of material about vocal pedagogy on
one hand and gesture in a variety of contexts on
the other, virtually no research attention has been
directed to this particular area. The data obtained
through the course of the observation has
been analyzed in order to answer the following
research questions:
1.Did the teachers use gestures to aid the
communication of singing related concepts?
2.Which concepts were being communicated
through them?
3.Could the observed gestures be categorized
according to their pedagogic intent?
If it was possible to deine gestures that are
successfully used to convey certain complex vocal
and musical concepts, these gestures could be
adapted by other teachers as teaching aid. The
signiicance of this study lies in the attempt to
identify and describe such gestures.
2010, No. 2
 Gesture as a tool of communication

Gestures in the Singing Studio - an An analysis of the Technical Gestures however

Observational Study revealed an initially puzzling fundamental
diference between some gestures whose
The term gesture is generally deined as “a
pedagogic intent seemed rather similar. On
movement of part of the body to express an idea
one side there were gestures which were
or meaning or an action performed to convey
clearly representations of real physiological
one’s feelings or intentions” (Oxford English
mechanisms, that is gestures which mirrored the
Dictionary, 2007). The important point is that
teachers’ knowledge and perception of what
they are movements “intended to communicate”
was happening invisibly inside his/her body
(Argyle, 1975/1988, p. 1). Gestures have also been
when singing or preparing to sing. Although
called “physical metaphors” (Wis, 1993, p. 3). For
the mechanisms in question were necessarily
this study, the term is used to depict movements
presented in a rather simpliied way, the
of arms and hands with torso, head and neck as
pedagogic intention behind these gestures was
reference points, and with the speciic intention
clearly to make those very physiological actions
of communicating singing-related concepts.
known and understandable to the student. These
The greater part of the observed lessons
types of gestures have been named Physiological
dealt with the technique of singing, namely, the
Gestures.
mechanisms and concepts of breathing, tone
On the other hand there were gestures related
placement, support and phonation. Musical
to acoustic phenomena like vocal timbre and
issues like phrasing and articulation were also
tonal quality which did clearly not represent
addressed whilst aspects of expression and
real physiological mechanisms. Those gestures
performance were given less consideration.
invariably represented a particular sensation or
The types of gestures observed in this
a thought deemed helpful by the teacher for the
study have never before been described and
production of a particular tone or phrase. The
appreciated for their pedagogical content. With
types of gestures in which the hands were used
no pre-existing coding or categorization system
to give a visible form to a thought or sensation
the main task was to ind criteria that warranted a
have been called Sensation-Related Gestures.
coherent system of categorization.
Apart from the Technical Gestures, there were
gestures which communicated primarily musical
Types of Gestures concepts. The types of gestures in which the
The irst distinction between the observed hands were used to give visible forms to musical
gestures was rather obvious – they either stood in phenomena have been called Musical Gestures;
they are deliberately deployed by the teachers
relation to a technical or a musical phenomenon.
to communicate musical elements like phrasing,
Therefore, gestures which were employed to
emphases and articulation. Music being an
assist the explanation of a primarily physiological
inherently immaterial, abstract matter, these
mechanism or an acoustic phenomenon and
gestures have no reference point in the ‘bodily
which occurred during the warm-up and
world’ but symbolize pure thought-images.
technical phase of the lessons were named
In the following a number of such gestures are
Technical Gestures.
represented, their context in the lesson and the
In contrast to that, gestures which were
teacher’s intention is made clear. The vowels on
employed to communicate a primarily musical
which the exercises have been sung are given
concept and which occurred in the phase of the
both in what could be called ‘general phonetics’
lesson that dealt with a song were named Musical
as well as in the IPA (International Phonetic
Gestures.

Australian Journal of Music Education 107

Naisi
Alphabet) symbol. Quotes of the teachers or
other sources are set in quotation marks, whereas
terms belonging to the speciic language of voice
teaching have been set in ‘inverted commas’. The
pictures showing the described gestures have
been deliberately edited to disguise the identity
of the observed teachers whilst keeping the
gestures clearly visible.
Technical Gestures – Physiological Gestures
Technical Gestures in which the hands are used
to mime invisible but concrete physiological
mechanisms or actions
Physiological Gesture I: Inhalation and High
Palate
Context: In the warm-up phase, the teacher
demonstrates a ive tone scale downwards on “oo
– ee” ([u] – [i]). She makes the above gesture and
says “…breathe…open…” before the irst onset.
Onset follows immediately after gesture 1c.The
gesture recurs many times during the lesson.
Picture 1a: Both hands are used to illustrate two
activities that should coincide with inhalation
for singing and preparation for onset: one is the
lifting of the soft palate, accomplished by two
groups of muscles which simultaneously “elevate”
and “pull horizontally the soft palate” through
contraction (Bunch, 1995, p. 89). This action is
represented by the right hand arched above
the ear. Secondly there is the widening of the
space inside the throat accomplished through a
lowering of the larynx and a relaxed tongue and
1a 1b
108
pharynx wall; this is represented by the left hand
in front of the throat (with the open thumb not
visible from this perspective).
Picture 1b: The soft palate, illustrated through
the right hand, has reached its highest position
and the descending left hand shows the descent
of the diaphragm which facilitates inhalation
(Bunch, 1995).
Picture 1c: The right hand is still elevated so as
to ‘keep the palate in its high position’ whilst the
left hand moves further down to illustrate the
perceived ongoing descent of the diaphragm.
This is the moment directly preceding the onset
of tone.
Comment: The posture of the teacher is very
much part of the gesture, head and neck are in
alignment with the back; it may be noted that the
head is tilted forward-downward to a position
which would not be considered ideal for singing.
In this context however, it is a deliberate means to
further emphasize the stretch of the neck and the
sensation of an ‘inner and upward space’ which is
being illustrated by the right hand.
Physiological Gesture II: Diaphragm and Pelvic
Floor in Exhalation and Inhalation
Context: The student has just sung the irst part
of a contemporary song and shows confusion
regarding the use of the abdominal muscles
whilst singing and breathing. Prompted by
the teacher, the student says that she has – by
a previous teacher - been told to push the
abdominal muscles “out and down”. In the
1c
2010, No. 2

2a 2b
ensuing discussion regarding the role of the
diaphragm and pelvic loor in breathing for
singing, the teacher shows the above gesture.
Picture 2a: Teacher B maintains that the pelvic
loor should be “active in the sense that it should
have tension so you slow down the ascent of
the diaphragm.” She says that, as the pelvic loor
is a “voluntary muscle”, it could and should be
employed to “help control the involuntary muscle
that is the diaphragm”.
Picture 2b: Teacher B shows the ‘passive’ state
of diaphragm and pelvic loor saying: “if you
let it be passive it would just pop back up and
the diaphragm would go up with it”. There is a
notable parallel between the gestures shown in
1c and 2a.
Physiological Gesture III: Tongue Position
Context: In the warm-up phase, the singer is asked
3 4a
Australian Journal of Music Education
Gesture as a tool of communication
to sing a ive-tone scale downwards on “nyeh”
([njє]).The teacher uses the above gesture to
illustrate the most favorable tongue position for
this exercise.
Picture 3: The teacher demonstrates the
exercise and then explains that the tongue must
lie broadly in the mouth, curving down just
behind the bottom front teeth. She illustrates this
with the above gesture in which the left hand
represents the bottom teeth and the right hand
represents the tongue.
Comment: The objective of the exercise is
to enhance the so called ‘twang’, an extremely
‘forward placed’ tone (that is, a tone with a
strong sensation of vibration of the facial bones).
The “nyeh” ([njє]) is intended to be sung with
exaggerated brightness which is helped by a
high but broad tongue position. This position
enhances pharyngeal space and ensures that
the tongue is not retracted. Miming the desired
tongue position with the hands helps to make
the point very clear.
Physiological Gesture IV: Vocal Folds during
Onset
Context: The student is having diiculties with
her onset, the voice sounding slightly breathy,
tight and unclear. The teacher lets her hum
accentuated, detached [m] on a ive-tone scale
downwards and shows the above gestures as she
explains the action of the vocal folds.
Picture 4a: the gesture accompanies the words
4b
109
Naisi
“pulsing brings the folds together” referring to
the closing of the vocal folds to initiate sound
(the ‘onset’ or ‘attack’). Ideally the air “begins to
low gently” followed by “a precise momentary
closure of the vocal folds” (Bunch, 1995, p. 70).
Picture 4b: The gesture accompanies the words
“simultaneous onset makes an even vibration”,
referring to the “vibratory activity” which is
“initiated by the breath pushing against the
partially adducted (closed) vocal folds” (Bunch,
1995, p. 69).
Comment: The student inds the right [m]
sound through the suggestion to ‘think of
smelling something delicious’ which would have
most likely lifted the soft palate somewhat. The
visualization of vocal fold action worked well
and made a good point in neither attacking too
violently nor leaving the vocal folds open.
Physiological Gesture V: ‘Open Throat’ during
Breath Renewal
Context: The same situation as in Gesture III: as the
student carries on with the exercise the teacher
‘lives through’ each phrase with her, showing the
above gesture in between phrases as the student
renews breath and has an opportunity to release
and re-establish vocal tract muscle activity.
Picture 5:.This gesture refers the widening
of the throat (pharynx) accomplished through
a “yawn”: the “soft palate is high, the uvula
elevated, the tongue lies lat, the larynx is
lowered and the jaw hangs” (Miller, 1996, p. 58).
5 6a
110
Comment: Interestingly the gesture was
so brief that it was actually impossible to be
consciously seen by the student (or observer), but
only became visible when the ilm was slowed
down. Therefore the gesture’s objective cannot
have been to demonstrate and/or illustrate the
opening of the throat to the student but must
have been an integral part of the teacher’s body-
language as she intensely lived through what she
wanted the student to do and feel whilst singing
this exercise.
Technical Gestures – Sensation Related
Gestures
Gestures in which the hands are used to give a
visible form to a thought or sensation.
Sensation Related Gesture I: Tone Placement
and Forward Resonance
Context: in the warm up phase, Teacher A
demonstrates a ive tone scale downwards on “oo
– ee” ([u] – [i]), the same scale for the preparation
of which we have seen gestures 1a – 1c. The
above gesture is made as the phrase is sung.
Picture 6a: Both hands at cheek bone level with
rounded palms represent the elevated soft palate
whilst the forward-pointing ingers illustrate the
intended forward direction of the tone. ‘Forward
direction’ refers to both the sensations felt in the
facial bones and the movement of airlow.
Picture 6b: the right hand starts moving
forward as the phrase progresses. The teacher
6b
2010, No. 2

7a 7b
explicitly uses this gesture to emphasize the
forward low of air and direction of the phrase.
Sensation Related Gesture II: Tone Placement
and Forward Resonance
Context: In the warm-up phase, the student sings
a ive tone scale downwards on “mee – ah” ([mi]
– [a]). The teacher explains that the thought of
the “more focused [i]-vowel” could be a helpful
guide when singing the “more open [a]-vowel”. He
recommends to “think “ee” ([i]) whilst singing “ah”
([a]) and sings/demonstrates making the above
gesture.
Picture 7a: Whilst the teacher talks about the
greater focus of the “ee” ([i]) vowel, his hands
point to the forehead and bones and cavities
in the front part of the skull (around the eyes,
forehead and cheek bones) evoking a sensation
8a 8b
Australian Journal of Music Education
Gesture as a tool of communication
7c
of vibration in these parts sometimes referred
to as “singing in the mask” (Miller, 1996, p. 57).
This gesture could also be seen to be pointing
at the “nasal pharynx” which “ampliies nasal
consonants” and vowels of a speciic ‘twang’
quality (Bunch, 1995. p. 86).
Picture 7b: The ingers open as if to ‘release the
sound’; the right hand starts to move forward
illustrating the forward direction that the singer is
supposed to feel.
Picture 7c: The right hand continues on its way
in a forward movement.
Sensation Related Gesture III: Open versus
Covered
Context 8a: The teacher explains that the Italian
“ah” ([a]) vowel needs to be bright and open
making the above gesture as he demonstrates
the desired sound.
Picture 8a: the gesture of a raised open hand
with palm and ingers pointing upwards depicts
an independent, iconic image of ‘openness’.
Context 8b: In the warm-up phase, the student
sings an arpeggio on “ee – eh – ah – oh – oo” ([i] –
[e] – [a] – [o] – [u] – [o] – [a] – [e] – [i]). The “oo” ([u])
in the transition from “oh” ([o]) to “oo” ([u]) which
occurs on the highest note was picked up by the
teacher as “too dark” and “lacking in balanced
resonance”. He explained that it was “too cupo”
(covered) and demonstrates the phrase, making
the above gesture as he sings the undesirable
closed “oo” ([u]) sound.
111
Naisi
9 Pictures 10a – c: The right hand is half open as
Picture 8b: The downward pointing gesture
which refers here to the conscious darkening of
the vowel is an iconic gesture of ‘closed-ness’.
Sensation Related Gesture IV: Sensation of
Resonance
Context: The singer is asked to sing the ive-tone
scale described in Physiological Gestures III and V.
The teacher demonstrates and, with the above
gesture, says the students should feel “sensation
here”.
Picture 9: All ten rounded ingers point towards
the cheek bones and hard palate to indicate
where the vibration is supposed to be felt.
Comment: Although the ingers do not directly
point there, “the nasal pharynx” is most likely
included in the sensation of vibration because
it “ampliies nasal consonants” and vowels of
a speciic ‘twang’ quality as aimed for in this
exercise (Bunch, 1995. p. 86).
10a 10b
112
Musical Gestures
Gestures in which the hands were used to give a
visible form to a musical concept or idea.
Musical Gesture I: Legato
Context: The student sings a phrase of an Early
Italian aria. The teacher criticizes a tendency to
‘drop’ parts of the phrase and says “…why don’t
you just continue like…” inishing the sentence
with the above gesture.
if ingers and thumbs were holding or shaping
some delicate matter whilst it describes a
continuous horizontal movement.
Comment: This gesture is as expressive as it is
multi-functional. It captures the idea of an even
line which in this context refers to both a musical
and a vocal concept: evenness of tone and
continuity of vowels relate to the musical concept
of legato.
Musical Gesture II: Diferent Kinds of Phrasing
Context: The teacher sings the irst phrase of a jazz
song demonstrating diferent kinds of phrasing
which are accompanied by particular gestures.
Picture 11a: Short, accentuated of-beat
syllables are accompanied by vertical strokes
referred to by the teacher as “clips”.
Picture 11b: This gesture accompanies the same
phrase now sung with a ‘classical’ legato line, long
vowels and no accents.
Picture11c: This gesture also accompanies the
legato phrase.
10c
2010, No. 2

11a 11b
Musical Gesture III: Conducting
Context: Having worked through a song in great
detail, the student now sings the whole song
with the teacher guiding her solely through
movements of hands, arms and facial expression.
Picture 12a: The ‘shush’ emblem is used to make
the singer pause.
Picture12b: Both hands pulse in the beat giving
the shapes of the phrases as the singer sings.
Picture 12c: The pronounced pointing gesture
encourages an accent.
Picture 12d: The raised and open arms ‘produce’
a ‘happy’ forte.
Discussion
Collecting data for this study through
observation and video recording gave the
researcher the opportunity to see irsthand
and in great depth if, how and to what efect
12a 12b
Australian Journal of Music Education
Gesture as a tool of communication
11c
gestures were being utilised in the observed
lessons. The relatively limited scale of the study
on the other hand, meant that the indings can
only be generalized to a point. Despite the huge
body of material dealing with gesture, the study
yielded a lot of information that had as such not
been available before and showed that gesture
played indeed a crucial role as a pedagogic- and
communication-tool in the singing studio.
The irst thing that was immediately notable
during the observation was that four out of the
ive observed teachers used surprisingly little
‘random gesticulation’ (or ‘beats’: that is, hand(s)
moving along with the rhythmical low of the
speech without carrying any speciic meaning
(Goldin-Meadow, 2003). Whilst the general
inclination to gesticulate and produce ‘beats’
varies from individual to individual, it is here that
the ‘observer efect’ is likely to have also played
12c 12d
113
Naisi
a role: Beattie (2003) suggests that awareness
of being observed tends to result in a certain
guardedness and self-consciousness, which again
tends to suppress random movements.
On the other hand there were many often
quite elaborate and deliberate gestures that
clearly stood in relation to what was being
communicated. The irst research question
could therefore be conidently answered in the
airmative: gestures were deinitely present in
the communication of voice related concepts
- albeit to varying degrees amongst the ive
observed teachers. Some gestures were directly
linked to words, others were executed without
words but their meaning became clear from
the context or through an explanation that the
teachers had given previously.
In view of a terminology that can be confusing
and contradicting, the researcher needed to
ind a coding system that was wide enough to
integrate diferent types of gestures (as coded
by the psycho-linguists) under a new common
denominator and to ind a coherent criterion of
distinction that was meaningful in the context of
the present study. This criterion was found in the
pedagogic meaning transported by the gestures.
In answer to research question No 2, it was
found that a large part of the observed gestures
were used to illustrate a technical phenomenon
like a physiological process or an acoustic
phenomenon. Whilst some of these gestures
mimed an actual mechanism, others appeared to
visualize a particular thought or sensation. Apart
from technical gestures there were others again
which were used to illustrate a musical idea.
Having identiied the gestures’ pedagogical
intent thus gave us coherent criteria to categorize
the gestures as Physiological Gestures, Sensation-
Related Gestures or Musical Gestures. Therefore
also research question No 3 could be answered in
the airmative.
One must note however that, although the
observed gestures fell relatively clearly into one
or the other category, the gestures usually also
114
included some elements of another category.
When looking at Sensation Related Gesture I for
instance (see Picture 6a) we see that, although
its primary purpose and intention was, as was
very clear through its context, to illustrate tone
placement and forward resonance, the irst part
of the gesture (both hands held at cheek bone
level with rounded downward facing palms,
seen above) is actually, according to the above
deinition, also a physiological gesture - because
the hands could also be seen as representing the
elevated soft palate.
Similarly one could argue that Musical Gesture I
(see Pictures 10a, 10b and 10c) includes also a mix
of physiological and sensation-related elements
as the gesture can also be interpreted as referring
to and illustrating even airlow – a technical
prerequisite for any legato line.
It is important to note that the above system
of categorization leans largely on the pedagogic
intention in which a gesture has been employed,
which depended on the context in which a
particular gesture has occurred in the singing
lesson. The fact that most gestures will under
close scrutiny show also some elements of other
gesture-types relects the phenomenon that
physiological, sensation-related and musical
concepts often intertwine in singing.
The fact that gestures featured so prominently
in the observed voice lessons, conirms that they
are very potent tools in the communication of
certain singing related concepts; their capacity to
capture the essence of a mechanism or concept
vividly and directly seems at times even superior
to verbal explanation.
It is however a diferent question altogether
if gestures like the above can be taught, learned
and adopted by anyone as a tool of expressing
particular voice related concepts. There is a lot
of evidence that styles of gesturing are “highly
individual and characteristic” to particular
persons (Argyle 1988, p. 200). And the observed
gestures were, despite some similarities, still
largely characteristic to the person who used
2010, No. 2

them. A separate study could be conducted to
show if particular gestures could be learned and
adopted as usable teaching tools by aspiring
voice teachers.
A comprehensive investigation into the role of
gesture in the teaching of singing would naturally
also include considerations about the efect of
gesture and movement as an activity by the
singer/student. Thus the present study is only
one part in an exciting ield of study. However,
in view of the quite substantial evidence in
favour of speciic gesture use yielded by a
comparatively small scale study, it appears only
a question of time until gestures will become
an acknowledged tool in the explanation and
communication of certain singing related
concepts. If done consciously and deliberately,
‘talking with one’s hands’ should not be despised
nor underestimated in a context that depends on
intuition, visualization and what could be dubbed
a deep physical understanding.
References
Argyle, M. (1975/1988). Bodily communication (2nd ed.).
London: Methuen & Co Ltd.
Baney, C. E. (2002). Wired for sound: The essential
connection between music and development.
Exelligence Learning Corporation. Retrieved from
http://www.earlychildhood.com/Articles/index.
cfm?FuseAction=Article&A=69
Beattie, G. (2003). Visible thought: The new psychology of
body language. London: Routledge.
Bunch, M. (1995). Dynamics of the singing voice (2nd ed.).
Wien: Springer Verlag.
Callaghan, J. (2000). Singing and voice science. San Diego,
California: Singular Pub. Group
Caldwell, R., Wall, J. (2001). Excellence in singing: Multilevel
learning and multilevel teaching (Vol. 1). Redmond, WA:
Caldwell Publishing Company.
Chapmann, J. (2006). Singing and teaching singing. San
Diego: Plural Publishing.
Crosby, A. (2008). Dalcroze’s Eurthymic techniques for
choral rehearsal: Moving to “O Magnum Mysterium”.
Choral Journal, 48(11), 30-41.
Davis, R. (1998). A beginning singer’s guide. Lanham,
Maryland: Scarecrow Press, Inc.
Dayme, M. B. (2006). An argument for whole body and
holistic approaches to research and singing. Journal of
Singing - The Oicial Journal of the National Association
of Teachers of Singing, 63(1), 59-64.
Australian Journal of Music Education
Gesture as a tool of communication
Denscombe, M. (2003). The good research guide.
Maidenhead, Philadelphia: Open University Press.
Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, & Norman E. (2006). How to design
and evaluate research in education. Student mastery
activities to accompany How to design and evaluate
research in education (6th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Goldin-Meadow, S. (2003). Hearing gesture: How our
hands help us think. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of
Harvard University Press.
Greschner, D. (2007). Bookshelf: [Books by Richard Miller].
Journal of Singing - The Oicial Journal of the National
Association of Teachers of Singing, 63(3), 349-352.
Helding, L. (2008). Voice science and vocal art, Part
Two: Motor learning theory. Journal of Singing - The
Oicial Journal of the National Association of Teachers of
Singing, 64(4), 417-428.
Hemsley, T. (1998). Singing and imagination: A human
approach to a great musical tradition. Oxford: Oxford
University Press
Jaques-Dalcroze, E. (1921 (1967, 1973)). Rhythm and
music education (H. F. Rubenstein, Trans.). Aylesbury:
The Dalcroze Society.
Kayes, G. (2004). Singing and the actor (2nd ed.). London:
A&C Black Publishers Limited.
Kendon, A. (2004). Gesture. Visible action in utterance.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kiesgen, P. (2007). How Richard Miller changed the
way we think about singing. Journal of Singing - The
Oicial Journal of the National Association of Teachers of
Singing, 63(3), 261-264.
McNeill, D. (2000). Languages and gesture. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Miller, R. (1996). The structure of singing. California, USA:
Wadsworth Group.
Miller, R. (1998). The reluctant student. Journal of Singing
- The Oicial Journal of the National Association of
Teachers of Singing, 54(3), 41-43.
Miller, R. (2003). Voice pedagogy: (1) The unique teacher;
(2) Holistic singing. Journal of Singing - The Oicial
Journal of the National Association of Teachers of
Singing, 59(4), 317-318.
Miller, R. (2004). Solutions for singers. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Nair, G. (2007). The craft of singing. San Diego. Oxford,
Brisbane: Plural Publishing Inc.
Patenaude-Yarnell, J. (2003). The private studio:
Sensations of singing: A look at time honored maxims,
descriptions, and images. Journal of Singing - The
Oicial Journal of the National Association of Teachers of
Singing, 60(2), 185-189.
Skoog, W. (2004). Use of image and metaphor in
developing vocal technique in choirs. Music Educators
Journal, 90(5), 43-48.
Smith, S., W. & Chipman, M. (2007). The naked voice.
A wholistic approach to singing. New York: Oxford
University Press.
115
Naisi

Sundberg, J. (1987). The science of the singing voice.
Dekald, Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press.
Thurman, L. & Welch, G. (2000). Bodymind and voice:
Foundations of voice education (2nd ed. Vol. 1, 2, 3).
Collegeville, Minnesota, Iowa City, Iowa: The VoiceCare
Network, National Center for Voice and Speech,
Fairview Voice Center, Centre for Advanced Studies in
Music Education.
Titze, I. R. (1994). Principles of voice production.
Englewood Clifs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Verdolini, K. (2002). On the Voice: Learning Science
Applied to Voice Training: The Value of Being “In the
Moment”. Choral Journal, 42(7), 47-51.
Ware, C. (1968). Basics of vocal pedagogy. Boston/New
York: McGraw Hill.
Ware, C. (2004). Adventure in singing. A process for
exploring, discovering, and developing vocal potential.
New York: McCraw Hill
Wis, R. M. (1993). Gesture and body movement as physical
metaphor to facilitate learning and to enhance musical
experience in the choral rehearsal. Unpublished Ph.D.,
Northwestern University, United States -- Illinois.

Julia Naisi began her voice training in her hometown Munich/Germany and continued her studies in Vienna/Austria,
inishing with the Bühnenreifeprüfung (Final Stage Examination) in Opera. She has appeared as a solo performer in
opera, oratorio and recitals across Europe and in Australia. Having cooperated for many years with renowned Viennese
Prof. Ellen Müller-Preis in her pioneering breathing, posture and movement classes (e.g. at the International Salzburg
Summer Academy), Julia has a special interest in the ways mind and body learn. She holds a MMusStud in Vocal
Pedagogy from the Sydney Conservatorium of Music and is currently completing her PhD at Monash University.

116 2010, No. 2

 a u s t r a l i a n

s
a o c i e t y

f o r
s m u s i c

m
Trauma-related dissociation as a
e d u c a t i o n

i n c o r p o r a t e d
e

factor afecting musicians’ memory

for music: Some possible solutions
Inette Swart and Caroline van Niekerk

University of Pretoria

Woltemade Hartman

The Milton H. Erickson Institute of South Africa

Abstract
An investigation of the inluence of trauma on musicians revealed concentration and memory problems as two of the
most common symptoms hampering the performance of afected individuals. In many instances where the causes
of these problems were related to trauma sequelae, these could clearly be linked to dissociative symptoms. The
following sequence of topics is discussed: the nature of memory function in the musician; optimal performance and
focus; trauma and dissociation and the resultant ways in which it interferes with memory. The efects of trauma on
the unconscious mind, nature of associations, working memory, as well as similarity of states of optimal concentration
and pathological dissociation are discussed to enhance understanding of how trauma sequelae can, theoretically,
negatively afect musicians’ memory. Observations of teachers as gleaned from an extensive qualitative research
survey, including that of students as well as teachers’ self-reports, are discussed, and narratives of three musicians
participating as case studies explicated and compared to the literature. In the search for efective solutions, promising
intervention strategies are identiied. These include Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprogramming, Eye
Movement Integration, hypnosis, body therapies, and the role of movement. Some suggestions for further research
are made.

Key words: associations, dissociation, lashbacks, memory, musicians, sensory perception, trauma

Australian Journal of Music Education 2010:2, 117-34

Introduction any form of musical activity. The possibility of

Handling the demands of complex mental
processing of musical material is essential
for any musician. The requirement of highly
developed memory skills applies most evidently
to performers, but also to music teachers,
researchers and composers.
Regardless of whether a performance is done
entirely ‘from memory’1, processes that require
highly specialized memory skills are involved in
memory failure is a common cause of anxiety
amongst musicians. Therefore it is not surprising
that many musicians will go to great lengths to
attain what they believe to be the best method
Notes
1. The phrase ‘performance from memory’ refers to playing a music
instrument or singing in public without sheet music. This practice is
conventional amongst especially professional pianists and singers, as
well as amongst some other instrumentalists.

Australian Journal of Music Education 117

Swart et al.
of preparation as well as the optimal mental
and physical states to maximize the chances
of achieving secure performances. The authors
of this paper regard adequate preparation as
the most important prerequisite for successful
performance. Yet they postulate that not all other
aspects impacting on performance quality are
fully understood. This article explores trauma-
related dissociation, identiied as a factor
contributing to memory problems in an extensive
study about the inluence of trauma on musicians
(Swart, 2009). Memory diiculties experienced
by participants in this study included examples
of these on stage, during practice and lessons,
as well as temporary amnesia for music due to
severe trauma.
In what follows, a few characteristics of the
nature of memory function in the musician are
discussed before exploring the complex ways in
which trauma can inluence memory for music.
Aims
The aim of this article is to shed light on the
impact of trauma on aspects of musicians’ music-
making, particularly on its efects on memory
during music performance and study. Efects on
musicians’ memory are considered, explicated
and discussed in the light of the rapidly
expanding body of knowledge about factors
involved in the trauma response, most notably
that of dissociation. A further aim of this article
is to increase awareness of possible efective
therapeutic intervention strategies among
performers and teachers.
Methodology
This study presents research indings that formed
part of a larger study – a qualitative research
survey on the inluence of trauma on musicians
(Swart, 2009). Ashworth (2003, p. 4) proposes that
behind each diferent approach to qualitative
psychology is “a concern with human experience
118
in its richness”. He further states that some
qualitative researchers attempt to describe a
person’s experience within the realm of what they
term the personal ‘lifeworld’, all facets of which
may be speciic but share universal features
(Ashworth, 2003, p. 4, 23).
The study is also exploratory in nature.
According to Marczyk, De Matteo, and Festinger
(2005, p. 151), naturalistic observation is useful
for exploratory purposes. As regards this study,
the wealth of existing literature on the subject of
trauma, as well as personal accounts of musicians
who have experienced trauma, strengthens its
empirical roots.
Questionnaires were sent to music teachers as
well as healthcare professionals who indicated
that they have worked with musicians, and case
studies were conducted. The results relevant to
the efects of trauma on memory are extracted
and presented in this paper. This constitutes
responses of teachers to the questionnaires,
self-reports of teachers, as well as three of the
case studies in which information was given
about the efects of trauma on memory. Possible
therapeutic solutions that featured most
prominently in the research survey were selected
and discussed.
This paper relects the same approach as that
of Swart’s (2009) investigation of the efects of
trauma on musicians, but narrows the scope to
efects on memory speciically. As orientation to
the topic, relevant concepts are explicated and
discussed in light of a literature survey.
Memory function in the musician
The exact nature of memory for music is not
completely understood. Many writers stress the
importance of involving all memory systems,
namely visual, acoustic/aural, kinaesthetic,
motoric and analytical, in the memorization of
music (see for example, Sándor, 1981, pp. 192-
197; Ahrens & Atkinson, 1955, pp. 80-83). Jensen
(1996, p. 205) categorizes retrieval systems
2010, No. 2
 Trauma-related dissociation afecting musicians’ memory
slightly diferently, namely as categorical/
semantic, procedural, contextual/episodic and
sensory and synaesthetic2 memory. Regardless
of categorisation, encoding and retrieval could
be inluenced if any one or more of the memory
systems are afected by dissociation.
Corsini (2002, p. 581) deines memory irstly as
the “[a]bility to revive past experience, based on
the mental processes of learning or registration,
retention, recall or retrieval, and recognition;
the total body of remembered experience” and
secondly as “[a] speciic past experience recalled”.
For instance, at a given point in time a musician
can be playing a piece of music ‘from memory’
– in other words, be recalling the music – while
many other pieces may be stored in memory,
available for future recall. The degree of accuracy
of recall may vary depending on the solidity of
consolidation processes and the relative recency
of past revision of material, but the music is
indeed stored and available for retrieval.
In order for learning to take place, alterations in
synaptic connectivity are necessary. Thus learning
requires plasticity and leads to change in cortical
maps. Memory of learnt material constitutes the
stabilization and maintenance of these changes
over time – short-term memory resulting from
functional change, and long-term memory from
anatomical change (LeDoux, 2002, p. 134; Kandel,
2006, p. 218). Music performance requires both
short-term and long-term memories. When
performing, all technical passages as well as
interpretative aspects have to be executed in
real time. This could be described as time-based
sequential memory. The relentless expectations
that previously consolidated material be exactly
rendered distinguish memory required of
Notes
2. Synaesthesia is deined by Corsini (2002, p. 972) as “[a]n
experience in which stimulation of one sensory modality also arouses
sensations in another; for example, words or sounds (and sometimes
tastes and odors) may be experienced as colors. Musical notes may
yield speciic colors. Or numbers are experienced as sounds.”
Australian Journal of Music Education
performing artists from memory for other kinds
of previously learnt information. This may be the
reason why changes in and interference with
short-term memory (also referred to as ‘working
memory’) are more noticeable in the performing
arts than in other occupations. Such interference
is in many cases the result of concentration
deicits due to trauma.
Both implicit and explicit memory are required
for learning and performing. Scaer (2005, p. 38)
deines explicit or declarative memory as memory
utilized in the “speciic process of conscious
learning” and distinguishes between episodic
(used to guide our immediate activities) and
semantic (for learning or gathering information)
declarative memory. Implicit/non-declarative/
procedural memory is intrinsically unconscious,
is employed to acquire sensorimotor skills, and is
relected in many aspects of outward behaviour
and inner life (Scaer, 2005, p. 40; LeDoux, 2002,
p. 116). In music, what was learned by using
declarative memory later becomes automatic
– in other words, part of procedural memory.
However, a musician is conscious of and can
perhaps later recall many or even most aspects of
the performance that were previously contained
in working memory (also known as short-term
memory).
A basic knowledge of memory systems is
important to facilitate an understanding of how
memory for music and memory of trauma could
mutually inluence (or interfere with) each other.
It will be seen that emotion, emotional reactions,
memory and associations are integral aspects of
the experience of traumatic encounters.
Optimal performance and focus
The hallmark of successful artists, performers,
sportspeople and other categories of high
functioning individuals is their capacity for
focused states of attention. These states of
optimal concentration are necessary in order
to function at high levels and are described by
119
Swart et al.

many writers. One of the noted and often quoted could interfere with each other and increase
authors in this area is Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. the possibility of lashbacks for the traumatized
Farmer (1999), for instance, uses a description of musician.
this state by Csikszentmihalyi that is applicable to
musicians:
Dissociation and trauma
Csikszentmihalyi accounted for this feeling of
being consciously outside of the creation as due The term ‘trauma’ originates from the Greek
to the psychological limits of consciousness, trauma (“wound”). Peichl (2007b, p. 23) deines
that at higher levels of consciousness the more trauma as a toxic condition, a mixture of intense
mundane aspects become subconscious in order anxiety, absolute helplessness and a loss of
to restrict conscious attention to the number of control3. Traumatic experience constitutes an
items it can manage. So a pianist described not
event/events, leaving an imprint that remains
noticing the room, his hands, the keys, the score,
unresolved and continues to cause negative
but rather being conscious of only “being one
with the music and expressing emotion”. (Farmer, efects in the sensory, emotional and cognitive
1999, p. 1) systems. It is associated with helplessness and
a sense of loss of control over parts of one’s
Van der Hart, Nijenhuis, Steele, and Browne (2004,
mind, including that of identity, memory and
pp. 906-908) limit the concept of dissociation
consciousness (Spiegel, 2008; Beaulieu, 2003, p.
to structural dividedness of the personality. It is
28; Levine, 1997, pp. 128-129).
important to note that psychological absorption,
Dissociation, commonly employed as a
deined as “total attention that involves a full
psychological defence mechanism to mentally
commitment of available perceptual, motoric,
survive devastating events, is linked with the
imaginative and ideational resources to a uniied
freeze response. The risk for this is greatest when
representation of the attentional object” (Decker,
the victim is unable to ight or lee – reactions
2004, p. 2), is a related but non-dissociative
irst described by Walter Cannon in 1929
phenomenon. Decker (2004, p. 4) argues that
(Cannon, 1929, pp. 195-197; Bracha, Ralston,
dissociative ability could be a personality trait
Matsukawa, Matsunaga and Williams, 2004, p.
that assists people in surviving traumas, while on
448). Nevertheless, Van der Hart et al. (2004,
the other hand helping untraumatized people
p. 909) come to the conclusion that structural
to excel. Musicians themselves refer to music’s
dissociation should be more aptly considered
capability to induce quasi-hypnotic states.
not so much as a defence, but rather as a deicit
Fleisher remarked (2004, p. 2): “The two Bach
resulting from a lack of integrative capacity.
pieces, to me, are like mantra music. They serve
Scaer (2005, p. 177) deines dissociation as “a
to get us into the ‘zone’.” Gorrie (2009, pp. 22-
subjective experience, a continuum of abnormal
26) refers to this heightened state of awareness
perceptions and behaviours that occur in
when performing as ‘playing in the zone’ and
people subjected to a traumatic event or even
explains that it is attained when the ideal level
to an intense period of stress”. A block occurs
of performance arousal is attained. This state is
between the amygdala and hippocampus,
important for performing musicians. However,
which causes the resulting disruption of
there are factors that can negatively impact states
of optimal concentration. Unresolved trauma
is but one causative factor. Later in this article Notes
the question will be addressed how heightened 3. In Peichl’s own words (2007b, p. 23): “Trauma, so wissen wir, ist
ein toxischer Zustand, eine Mischung aus Todesangst, absoluter
attention and the pathological dissociative state Hillosigkeit und Kontrollverlust.”

120 2010, No. 2

 Trauma-related dissociation afecting musicians’ memory

Figure 1: The Dissociative Spectrum as assimilated by Hartman (2009b) from the work of Peichl (2007a, p. 162),
Nijenhuis et al. (2004) and Watkins & Watkins (1997, p. 32)

consciousness, memory, identity, and perception spectrum of dissociation (Figure 1).

of the environment, potentially altering any
of these states and functions (Scaer, 2005, p.
177; Huopainen, 2002, p. 103). Van der Hart et
al. (2004, p. 906) view it as “a lack of integration
among psychobiological systems that constitute
personality”. This is maintained by integrative
deicits and phobic avoidance that can have
psychoform and/or somatoform components.
Dissociation exists on a continuum, ranging
from adaptive diferentiation to pathological
dissociation. Hartman (2009b) synthesized the
models of Peichl (2007a, p. 162), Nijenhuis, van
der Hart, and Steele (2004), and Watkins and
Watkins (1997, p. 32) into a representation of the
Nijenhuis et al. (2004) describe structural
dissociation of the personality from primary
through secondary to tertiary dissociation. This
model holds that primary structural dissociation
is characteristic of acute stress disorder (ASD)
and simple post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Unable to integrate the traumatic experience into
his or her everyday experiences, the individual
splits of parts of the traumatic experience from
the mainstream of consciousness. Symptoms
such as lashbacks, nightmares, intrusive
thoughts and partial amnesia may then occur.
Secondary dissociation becomes evident in the
manifestation of disorders such as PTSD. Hartman

Australian Journal of Music Education 121

Swart et al.
(2009b) notes that secondary dissociation is a
manifestation of either a smaller or wider range
of defensive subsystems (referred to as ego-
states) that were not suiciently integrated. Often
associated with childhood trauma, symptoms
can include out-of-body experiences, changed
perception of time and pain, re-experiencing
of traumatic memories, or responding to cues
that are salient reminders of recalled events.
Tertiary structural dissociation is associated with
dissociative identity disorder (DID). This does not
necessarily occur during trauma, but may emerge
when inescapable aspects of daily life become
associated with complex past trauma experiences
(Hartman, 2009b; Nijenhuis et al., 2004).
Dissociation can play an important role in
the manifestation of various forms of attention
deicit and concentration problems that can be
observed by teachers in their students – and
perhaps not adequately understood, such
as where intrusive memories are concerned.
Throughout his book, Scaer (2005) illustrates that
the manifestation of dissociation can be multi-
faceted, including physical and mental symptoms
and ranging from normal adaptive dissociation
to personality disorders and psychosomatic
symptoms. Fourie (2009) points out that
according to Levine’s model (1992, pp. 85-108),
dissociation can be a “fragmentation of diferent
dimensions of experience” as well as “over-
association or over-coupling where experiences
are joined together in manners that cannot be
integrated” (Fourie, 2009, p. 19).
From data obtained during doctoral research
(Swart 2009), the authors have come to the
conclusion that those aspects of the trauma
response which involve dissociative phenomena
can have the most profound impact on musicians.
Trauma sequelae as factors
negatively afecting memory
Roth and Friedman (1998, p. 12) postulate that
traumatic memories may difer from ‘ordinary’
122
memories: sensory overload occurs and
overwhelming traumatic events cannot be fully
and meaningfully processed and integrated
without proper intervention and assistance.
Potential diferences include more pronounced
activation of implicit and explicit memories and
elevations of stress hormones accompanying
such experience, causing traumatic memories
to become more deeply engrained in neural
pathways than ordinary memories. However, they
(Roth & Friedman, 1998, p. 12) also attest that in
cases of extreme levels of arousal a number of
mechanisms, including dissociation and state-
dependant learning, may interfere with encoding.
This greatly increases the probability that a
traumatic event, although belonging to the past,
will continue to inluence an individual and his or
her music-making. Deeply engrained memories
open the possibility for stronger associations
to be formed between more benign events
reminiscent of the original trauma and memories
of the trauma itself.
Traumatic memories can continue to haunt
individuals in primarily two ways, avoidance and
re-experiencing, both of which can be described
as dissociative in nature and can alter memory.
In the Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental
disorders (DSM IV-TR, APA, 2000, p. 468) the
former is described as eforts to avoid thoughts,
feelings, people, places, etc. associated with the
trauma. When, as a method of self-protection,
dissociation is used as a coping mechanism, the
consequences can be serious for the musician
and both emotional expression and memory
function could be afected. The full extent of
its inluence – also applicable to musicians – is
underlined by Van der Hart et al.’s (2004, p. 910)
assertion (which, they admit, runs contrary to
most of the literature), that, once the personality
is structurally divided, no part thereof can
be described as non-dissociated. On closer
investigation it would appear that dissociation
is the primary causative factor of trauma-related
memory diiculties in musicians.
2010, No. 2
 Trauma-related dissociation afecting musicians’ memory
The unconscious mind
It is the role of the unconscious4 mind to
protect us from danger, keep us alive and store
and process everything that we experience with
our ive senses (Gray, 2009). Hartman (2009a)
describes the unconscious mind as the core of the
personality, the deep self and ‘inner fountain of
resources’, communication received from which
includes phenomena such as ‘gut feelings’ and
the ‘sixth sense’. When certain parts of a piece of
music for any reason become associated with
a traumatic event, the unconscious mind may
want to avoid re-experiencing such a threatening
situation and escape by means of a light
reaction. Under these circumstances it is possible
for a freeze response to cause the experience
commonly known as ‘striking a blank’ on stage,
or for dissociation from feelings to occur, leading
to ‘automatic playing’ (performance devoid of
emotion).
Other factors, such as the fear of public
performance and associated criticism, could also
cause sudden blanking of memory. A particularly
important factor for sensitive individuals is
their awareness that others whom they might
associate with their trauma, such as parents or
teachers, are present in the audience. Southcott
and Simmons (2008, p. 32) indeed identiied
the performer’s perception of the audience as
particularly signiicant in determining levels of
performance anxiety. Maladaptive as a memory
slip might seem, it could in some cases be an
efort of the unconscious mind to protect the
individual against perceived danger.
Associations
Association can trigger recall in normal
everyday memory tasks, memory for music as
Notes
4. Term in some sources used interchangeably with subconscious
mind, deined by Corsini (2002, p. 956) as “[a]n aspect of the mind not
in immediate awareness, but which afects behavior, and is available
to consciousness under a variety of circumstances.”
Australian Journal of Music Education
well as memory of trauma. Cady, Harris, and
Knappenberger (2008, p. 157) conclude that
music is a valuable cue to evoke autobiographical
memory. Their indings were not related to
trauma per se, but they rated degrees to which
music brought back feeling and participants felt
emotional in response to these recollections. In
addition, Houston and Haddock (2007, p. 201)
have found a link between mood and memory for
music, postulating that whilst in a mood similar to
that of the music, melodies were better recalled.
Any triggered associations with trauma can
lead to dissociation in a susceptible individual.
Osborne and Kenny (2008, p. 447) found that
aversive performance incidents play a role in the
development of some music performance anxiety
disorders through forming negative associations.
In the same vein, it could be argued that any
association of traumatic incidents to the practice
and performance of music could have a similar
efect.
Regarding integration of sensory information
and associations formed, particularly pertaining
to fear reactions, LeDoux (2002, p. 229) explains
the processes involved as follows: “[W]orking
memory integrates sensory information about
the immediately present physical stimulus
with memories from past experiences with
such stimuli and with the current emotional
consequences of those stimuli.”
While this article is mainly concerned with
memory, the association between memory and
emotion needs to be acknowledged. Emotions/
afects/feelings involved in music processing can
stimulate memory function and vice versa, whilst
avoiding the recollection of either can have the
opposite result, afecting recall and ultimately
musical performance and expression. Levitin
writes about the importance of connections in
the brain’s involvement with music (Levitin, 2006,
p. 192):
It involves a precision choreography of
neurochemical release and uptake between
logical prediction systems and emotional
123
Swart et al.

reward systems. When we love a piece of music, The efects of trauma on working memory
it reminds us of other music we heard, and it
activates memory traces of emotional times in Neurobiological research underscores Jean-
our lives. Martin Charcot’s hypothesis that traumatic
experiences impair the brain’s ability to process
Throughout Cutting’s book Memory Slips (1997)
emotions (Huopainen, 2002, p. 103). It follows
it is clear how pieces of music can become
that impaired ability to process emotions will
associated with life events in musicians’ minds.
inevitably have a negative efect on musicians for
Her accounts of playing pieces from Schumann’s
whom an integral part of their job is processing
Kinderszenen for her fellow patients while she
and communicating diverse emotions. In this,
was hospitalized for the treatment of trauma
working memory plays an important role.
are a moving statement of the personal nature
Abnormalities in the functioning of brain
of memories associated with a piece, and the
networks associated with working memory were
value attached to particular music by listeners.
illustrated by Weber, Clark, McFarlane, Moores,
The emotional meaning she derived from the
Morris and Egan (2005) in patients with PTSD.
particular situation served to help her remember
They (2005, p. 41) linked these abnormalities to
the pieces although she had not practised in a
common PTSD symptoms and demonstrated
long time.
that, even when presented with trauma-neutral
Another example of how memory of events
words, patients experienced diiculty attending
and dates could give rise to new meanings
to new information and integrating this into
becoming associated with abstract music for the
working memory. As working memory is crucial
individual performer or listener is Stein’s (2007,
for musicians both whilst practising and during
p. 452) explanation for Wladyslaw Szpilman’s
performance, its abnormal functioning could
decision to play Chopin’s posthumous Nocturne
have far-reaching efects.
in C-sharp minor when asked to present
Revisiting memories is one way of working
proof of his occupation to a German WWII
through and integrating traumatic experience.
guard who eventually helped him to survive
In the aftermath of trauma, this may be a higher
(Szpilman, 1999, p. 22, 217). Apart from the
priority for the brain than integrating newly
obvious restrictions of choice due to his physical
learned material which is acquired under less
condition at the time and lack of practice, Stein
threatening conditions than the event that
proposes that Szpilman’s motivation for choosing
is higher up on its list of survival priorities. If
the abovementioned Nocturne could have
the brain’s priority is working through trauma,
constituted a “reparative act, the attempted
integrating, understanding or changing a
continuation of a life-giving dialogue that
traumatic situation, this could obviously hamper
had been precipitously and catastrophically
and interfere with working memory involved in
interrupted” (Stein, 2007, p. 452). Szpilman
the processing of music and the consolidation of
himself summarized the situation as follows
learned information.
(1999, pp. 177-178): “So this time, for a change, I
Cutting’s autobiographical portrait, Memory
had to buy my life by playing the piano!”
Slips (1997), is a personal testimony of a way in
Most associations are irst made at the
which traumatic memories can interfere with
unconscious level, requiring insight and analysis
performance on stage. She experienced severe
as the only route for the musician to arrive at an
incest during childhood and adolescence,
understanding of the mechanisms involved, their
perpetrated by her father while she received no
meanings, and inding better ways to handle
protection from her mother (Cutting, 1997, p.
efects of and interference caused by past trauma.
14). Her account of what she calls the fourth type

124 2010, No. 2

 Trauma-related dissociation afecting musicians’ memory
of memory slip, the type she does not tell her
students about, is highly relevant to this article.
She describes this as “when one memory slips,
another intrudes, and you don’t ind your way
back for a very long time” (1997, p. 6).
Concentration and attention, closely linked
to working memory skills, are of the utmost
importance to performers. Bartlett (1996, p. 178)
refers to diferences in the ability of individuals
to remember, identifying stimuli that compete
for attention as an important factor causing
diiculties in sustaining attention. He further
elaborates that during a stressful performance
situation, competition exists between internally
created stimuli (generated by what he calls
the “involuntary autonomic nervous system”)
and the task of retrieving stored information.
As mentioned before, a momentary lapse in
concentration during music performance can
have a more immediately observable impact
than in most other professions and could be
precipitated by numerous factors, including
traumatic stress.
Similarity of states of optimal
concentration and pathological
dissociation
Some traumatic memories may be retrieved
only when a person is in the same state as
when the memories were initially encoded.
Roth and Friedman (1998, p. 13) refer to this as
“state-dependent learning”. Perry (1999, p. 15)
writes: “Indeed, it is likely that many ‘states’ of
distress are activated by accessing state or afect
memories without any clear cognitive or narrative
associations to a speciic trauma or experience.”
Again it is seen that by accessing the same afect
as that experienced during trauma, residues
of and associations with distressing memories
can be unwittingly activated. When a musician
performs, the brain is in a hyper-aroused state
and adrenaline is coursing through the veins. This
is closer to the state in which traumatic memories
were encoded than to the normal state. If
Australian Journal of Music Education
instead of entering the optimal concentration
zone (related to the dissociative state yet a
non-dissociative phenomenon) the musician
enters a pathological dissociative state on stage,
memory and emotion disintegrate. The chances
of unwanted lashbacks are elevated, particularly
during performance, but can potentially also
cause interference during practice. This efect is
more pronounced in individuals with PTSD, which
is a chronic condition with positive and negative
dissociative symptoms (memories are constantly
either being suppressed or re-experienced).
This is a physiological brain response and has
nothing to do with failure to obtain optimal focus.
However, it should still be seen in the light that
increased arousal during performance is normal
and, if channelled correctly, should facilitate
optimal ability in the normal individual.
Various types of trauma and the efects of
resulting dissociation on memory function are
described in the case study examples below.
Instances of complete recovery, partial recovery,
and recovery-in-progress were encountered.
Identiied instances of trauma
afecting memory
A qualitative research survey was done amongst
music teachers and healthcare professionals as
part of Swart’s (2009) study about the inluence of
trauma on musicians. Teachers’ responses about
ways in which they observed trauma inluencing
the memory of students include comments
about memory lapses, hampered capacity for
concentration, shortened attention span or
wandering attention, extreme unpredictability
during performances, making repeated mistakes
and vulnerability to distractions. Some teachers
working with students who were previously
disadvantaged due to coming from a background
afected by family living under the Apartheid
regime5 identiied concentration diiculties,
Notes
5. Apartheid: the oppressive system of racial segregation prevailing
in South Africa before 1994.
125
Swart et al.
frequent breakdowns during performance, lower
achievement levels and poor concentration.
Others observed that the most noticeable efects
were seen in students from dysfunctional homes.
One such teacher stated that in cases where
interference was caused by dysfunctional family
set-ups which were not temporary, stable or
optimal performance was never witnessed.
Some teachers speciically wrote that
memory is negatively inluenced not only during
performance, but also during practice and in
lessons. A piano teacher wrote that one of her
students sufered from a “camera lash memory”
on stage during a national competition, blanking
memory. Other teachers respectively stated that
traumatized students exhibited many memory
lapses caused by interrupted thoughts, that
extra tension leads to memory lapses and that
“parasitic thoughts break down concentration”.
A student who had not previously experienced
memory diiculties had unexpected lapses
during a recital: the teacher only learnt of the
trauma after the performance. A minority of
teachers were of the opinion that trauma had no
efect on memory.
An important comparison was made by a
teacher who observed that traumatized students
often have many memory lapses while – provided
they are of average or above average intellectual
ability – those from stable, loving and disciplined
homes seldom sufer from emotional or mental
incompetence.
Trauma interfered by leading to poor
memory and repeated lapses during the same
performance. Teachers noticed that interference
in the form of emotional lashbacks is more
prevalent during stressful situations such
as Eisteddfod/competition performances,
hampering concentration with the possibility
of memory lapses. Such observations support
the hypothesis that performing states which
are by their nature similar to those during
which traumatic memories were encoded are
likely to activate recall of traumatic material
126
due to association. The literature supports the
observations regarding concentration problems
and attention deicit reported by teachers as
witnessed in traumatized students. In writing
about the diseases of trauma, Scaer (2001, p.
13) states: “Fluctuating symptoms of cognitive
impairment especially related to attention and
memory would be common in many of these
conditions.”
Teachers’ self-observations in connection with
problems related to memory for music include
struggling to focus and concentrate when
playing from memory, as well as playing that
“was full of memory lapses”. In total, four teachers
mentioned memory problems experienced in the
aftermath of traumatic experience. This excludes
the overwhelming number who mentioned
problems related to the functioning of accurate
memory retrieval and the functioning of working
memory such as concentration problems and
inaccurate playing. One teacher described
experiencing memory and/or technical problems
during performance, paired with a concurrent
deepening of musical expression, understanding
and sensitivity.
An interesting observation was made by a
teacher who struggled to play from memory
while also losing the natural and lowing
qualities of playing, stating that during this
time she “played very mechanically”. A possible
interpretation of such a scenario is that
mechanical playing is due to emotional numbing
which then adversely afects being ‘fully present’.
This can cause concentration slips, which in
turn lead to memory diiculties. Emotional
numbing is closely associated with PTSD, in turn
closely associated with changes in the normal
functioning of memory. In many instances,
trauma’s efects on concentration can be at the
root of memory problems. This includes the
dissociative nature of intrusive re-experiencing
and the splitting of of feelings.
While the focus here is on memory, it was
also evident that trauma afected various – and
2010, No. 2
 Trauma-related dissociation afecting musicians’ memory
in severe cases most – aspects of people’s lives.
Traumatic experiences of a female organist in
her ifties who holds a Master’s degree in Music
participating as case study (Swart, 2009, pp.
151-154) include being married to a violently
abusive husband for over thirty years, an incident
involving the arrest of her husband, as well as
various losses. She mentioned intrusive thoughts
– memories of words and arguments – as a cause
of interference whilst performing, leading to
impaired recall. Since organ playing is mostly
done from the score and not from memory,
other related aspects that were afected are
also highlighted here. A signiicant distinction
was noted between the efects of abuse by her
husband and the efects of losses. The former
trauma resulted in dissociative symptoms
manifesting as concentration deicits and
intrusive thoughts, while in contrast, the latter led
to a deepening of afect in her playing. This was
clearly audible and observed by herself as well
as others, and illustrated repeatedly throughout
her life. She received brief psychotherapeutic
intervention for trauma. Her very stable and
happy childhood was identiied as the reason
for her apparent resilience when traumatized
in later life. The latter observation is consistent
with Scaer’s (2005, p. 262) contention that prior
childhood trauma is the most important predictor
of dissociation when confronted with subsequent
life trauma (compare to Participant 2 as referred
to hereafter).
The organist reports her pianist daughter
saying that under the inluence of a violently
abusive father it became impossible for her to
memorize new music. Case study participant
1 (for the purposes of this article, numbered
diferently than the usage of “Participant A, B,
etc.” in Swart, 2009, pp. 154-157) also related
circumstances harrowed by abuse in which
memorization became laborious. Participant 2,
a pianist in her forties who used to perform but
currently teaches full-time and holds a Master’s
degree in music in addition to various licentiates,
Australian Journal of Music Education
survived incest perpetrated by a parent spanning
more than a decade. Additional traumatic
experiences include various losses, smash and
grab incidents, motor vehicle accidents resulting
in whiplash, back injuries and concussion. The
clinical scales of the Trauma symptom inventory
(TSI, Briere, 2005) identiied, amongst others,
very high levels of depression and dissociative
symptomatology. Victimization, emotional
blackmail and the fear of punishment and
violence by her abuser ensured that she would
not talk out. Trauma caused severe anxiety before
and during performance. Like the daughter of
the organist, she battled to concentrate whilst
memorizing music. In addition, she frequently
had memory lapses under stress. She attributes
this to sensory overload. The extent of sensory
perception becomes important in such survivors
of severe trauma who, prior to intervention,
cannot be expected to be fully integrated. Van
der Hart et al. (2004, p. 907) explain that no such
individuals possess the breadth of consciousness
that can exist in the fully integrated individual,
and which is of the utmost importance to high-
level performers.
Participant 2 found psychotherapeutic
treatment incorporating aspects of cognitive
behavioural therapy (CBT) and attending a
depression and anxiety support group very
helpful. During her early treatment various
inaccurate diagnoses were made, even leading
to unnecessary treatment with anti-psychotic
medication afecting memory on various
levels. After an accurate diagnosis was made,
additional time elapsed before stabilizing on
medication which worked and did not have
these side-efects. Marked improvements in
memory and decrease in dissociative symptoms
were experienced; however, treatment already
spanned a number of years and is still in progress.
Temporary amnesia due to traumatic
circumstances was reported by a conductor who
is currently enjoying a successful international
career, hereafter referred to as Participant 3
127
Swart et al.
(Swart, 2009, pp. 159-163). Following a motor
vehicle accident, he describes an out-of-body
experience during which he noticed aspects of
the environment that were impossible to observe
from the position in which he lay. This experience
so intrigued him that he later called eye witnesses
for conirmation about these details. For him
this experience raised many questions. He was
paralysed for three months – he even says that
his thinking patterns had frozen. His memory
for music was severely afected: the moment he
heard music it would “evaporate” again. There
was ‘not one single melody’ in his head. In his
quest to regain his memory, he used drumming
as a means to attain integration and that he
subsequently recovered his memory to the extent
that neither his professional functioning nor the
Trauma Symptom Inventory (Briere, 2005) showed
any remaining adverse symptoms.
Drumming, described by the conductor as an
activity during which “every part of your body,
every limb is making a sound”, played an integral
role in his recovery. It felt as if he immediately
“came to life” when initially playing drums. For the
irst time after the accident, his body and brain
started to move and respond to what he was
hearing. Within weeks after starting drumming,
all functions returned, including being able to
remember scores learnt previously. He actually
played the rhythms of music by Mozart and Bach
on the drums to enable him to connect melodies
to the rhythm again. He reported expansion of
right-brain activity due to his use of drumming
in his own recovery process. This helped his
perceptive skills as well as interpersonal and
communication skills. Altenmüller (2004, p. 6)
states that musicians generally process rhythms
and metre in the right side of the brain, while
the opposite hemisphere seems to be involved
in the processing of rhythm by non-musicians.
Since this participant experienced post-accident
pain that had no physical explanation, it could
be argued that the pain itself was a somatoform
dissociative symptom associated with the
128
memory of the impact of the accident and that
drumming assisted in resolving such dissociation.
While the pain necessitated administration of
morphine, this was not needed during periods
when he was playing drums. It can be concluded
that music assisted in integrative function and
also had beneicial anxiolytic efects. The value of
anxiolytic properties of music is also noted in the
literature by others such as Spintge (1991, p. 65).
It is noteworthy that in this case music’s role in
re-integration as well as in relieving pain appears
to conirm that music can be efective in resolving
diferent aspects of trauma-related dissociative
manifestations (amnesia representing negative
symptoms and pain positive symptoms).
When an individual performer is identiied
as having been exposed to trauma and signs
of dissociation are detected, the type of
dissociative mechanisms (positive or negative,
psychoform or somatoform) and extent of the
structural dissociation of the personality should
be ascertained and steps taken for this to be
addressed. Interventions sought should be
aimed at minimizing the negative impact of the
maladaptive response and assisting the musician
to achieve integration.
Possible therapeutic solutions
After exploring ways in which trauma-related
dissociation can afect memory in musicians it
is important to identify possible solutions to the
problem. It is clear that more detailed research
is needed, but efective ways of resolving
dissociation identiied in the literature survey and
by participants in Swart’s (2009) study are briely
discussed here.
Overview of techniques useful for
resolving dissociation
There are many intervention strategies available
for the treatment of trauma sequelae. While
well-known treatments such as pharmacological
2010, No. 2
 Trauma-related dissociation afecting musicians’ memory
intervention and CBT can be of great value,
this paper focuses on those treatments that
speciically address dissociative symptoms.
Techniques to resolve dissociation include
Nijenhuis’s action-oriented three-phase
approach (Van der Hart, Nijenhuis, & Steele,
2006) and Levine’s method of transformation
and renegotiation, by accessing memories
through the felt sense, which he calls Somatic
Experiencing (SE) (Levine, 2005 and 1997).
Scaer (2005, pp. 265-7) recommends the use of
touch (including acupressure and craniosacral
techniques) and induced movement (including
drawing, sculpting and dancing). In her work
with ive female adult survivors of childhood
sexual abuse, Fourie (2009, pp. 100, 120-121, 372)
found that hypnotherapy – in itself a dissociative
phenomenon – can play a very important role
in resolving dissociation. This includes using
hypnosis to access, re-associate, integrate
and resolve traumatic material. On the other
hand, music therapists often employ means
of controlled re-enactment of the traumatic
encounter, providing clients with opportunities to
assert their own inluence in the situation (Sutton
2002, p. 31). This aids in diminishing feelings
of helplessness and can play a role in resolving
the ‘freeze’ response. The importance of social
support and restorative experiences should not
be underestimated, as Van der Hart et al. (2004,
p. 911) warn that structural dissociation can be
partially maintained by lack thereof.
A form of movement that was identiied by
Swart (2009) as being potentially helpful to
traumatized musicians is Dalcroze Eurhythmics.
Participant 3 also identiied drumming as having
played a central role in his healing process, as
briely discussed in the previous section.
EMDR and EMI
Originally developed by Francine Shapiro, Eye
Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing
(EMDR) is an efective psychotherapeutic
Australian Journal of Music Education
intervention strategy for the treatment of a
range of trauma symptoms, including post-
traumatic anger (Winkel, 2007, p. 19). The
EMDR Institute (2004) explains that this is an
information processing therapy using an eight-
phase approach. Fast lateral movements are
used, similar to those encountered in rapid eye
movement (REM) sleep. This technique helps
to eliminate emotional distress associated
with traumatic memories and it can obtain
comprehensive results within a brief period of
time.
According to Brenner (2004, pp. 253-254),
newer research on EMDR shows that inter-
hemispheric stimulation is responsible for its
integrative efect. Indeed, Amendolia (1998,
p. 1) states that EMDR transfers data from the
right cortical hemisphere to the left hemisphere.
Emotionally charged information from the right
hemisphere can then be analyzed and integrated
by the cognitive function of the left hemisphere.
Winkel (2007, p. 19) identiies EMDR as being a
therapeutically eicient intervention strategy for
reducing post traumatic anger, underlining its
multi-faceted efectiveness.
While EMDR utilizes rapid eye movements,
Eye Movement Integration (EMI) uses smooth
pursuit eye movements (SPEM) in multiple
directions (Beaulieu n.d., p. 8), guided by slower
hand movements. This technique helps the
client’s brain to form linkages between traumatic
memories and more adaptive information.
In addition, it facilitates access to emotional
memories retained in implicit memory. Beaulieu
(2003, pp. 69-113) explains how eye movements
relate to brain function, cognition, and memory,
noting how guided eye movements facilitated
by a therapist can lead to the integration of
traumatic memories. Beaulieu (2003, p. 25)
regards EMI as an efective mode of intervention
for distressing and repetitive memories of any
kind that impact adversely in any area of a
person’s life, regardless of how such memories
manifest their inluence.
129
Swart et al.
Hypnosis
Amendolia (1998, p. 1) describes hypnosis as
structured dissociation and states that the goal
of Ericksonian hypnotherapy is to recontextualize
the memory, the efect of fear, and physiological
hyperarousal. O’Brien (2004) explains that Milton
Erickson (1901-1980) used suggestion and
post-hypnotic suggestion to tap into people’s
inner consciousness where they can access their
own resources to improve the quality of their
lives. The Ericksonian perspective on trauma
emphasizes the innate tendency of the organism
to heal itself and views lashbacks and recurrent
dreams as attempts to problem-solve that can
be better facilitated by the use of hypnosis
(Amendolia, 1998, p. 1). Van der Hart and Spiegel
(1993, p. 199) assert that for treatment with
hypnosis to be successful, all aspects, including
the physical sensations experienced during
the trauma, must be integrated. They caution
that without cognitive integration of afective
memories and enhanced control over memories,
treatment can reinforce trauma instead of aiding
symptoms to subside. Hartman (2009c) notes
that, while hypnosis is a state of relaxation, it is
simultaneously a state of focused attention.
Body therapies and the role of movement
A high rate of success in the treatment of trauma
is claimed by advocates of ‘body therapies’. The
two most relevant as emerged from the research
are discussed here, namely Levine’s Somatic
Experiencing (SE) and Dalcroze Eurhythmics. SE is
a naturalistic approach to the healing of trauma,
an intervention speciically developed for trauma
victims. Levine (2009) describes SE as follows:
Therapeutically this “instinct to heal” and self-
regulate is engaged through the awareness of
body sensations that contradict those of paralysis
and helplessness, and which restore resilience,
equilibrium and wholeness.
His theory is based on the premise that healing
is achieved by accessing trauma-induced
130
feelings and thoughts through the felt sense and
resolving them through letting them take their
natural course (Levine, 1997, p. 128). Therefore SE
addresses all bodily dissociation.
Levine (1997, p. 128) explains that healing
will begin when a person can trust the arousal
cycle and (again) become able to low with it.
He advocates that the healing process requires
becoming aware of physical and mental signs
of arousal, acknowledging them, letting them
peak and thereafter diminish and resolve. To
the authors of this article it is obvious that
to facilitate this it will be necessary that such
individuals create ‘dress rehearsals’ to allow
them adequate time for the completion of this
perhaps unpredictable process. In addition, both
psychoform as well as somatoform aspects of
dissociation would need to be addressed. When
this process is completed, individuals may ind
that they are more frequently able to perform at
their optimal level. Levine calls this “low”: this is
not unlike the “low” experience described earlier
by Csikszentmihalyi.
Dalcroze Eurhythmics was developed by Emile
Jaques-Dalcroze (1865-1950). Dalcroze Australia
(2009) describes this method as based on the
assumption that the human body is the source
of all musical ideas and provides a concrete
approach to abstract music. This source states
that it is speciically for music students and
incorporates Eurhythmics (“Good Rhythm”),
Solfège (the study of pitch) and Improvisation
(presenting musical ideas instantaneously). In
response to teaching that did not succeed in
giving students a living experience of music,
Dalcroze set out to develop his system that
coordinates music with bodily movements
(Spencer, 2009).
Dalcroze developed his method with the aim
of cultivating musicianship skills and not with any
therapeutic goals in mind. However, it is possible
that incorporating music and movement may
have the additional beneits of integrating the
‘whole person’, of ‘centering’, reducing stress in
2010, No. 2
 Trauma-related dissociation afecting musicians’ memory
trauma victims (pointed out by respondents to
the research survey) or of reaching unconscious
emotional responses (as described by Peters,
1987, p. 129). She (1987, p. 129) states that
activities centered on movement to music
can reach the level of unconscious emotional
response and aid therapists to help clients in
whom emotional expression is hampered. She
suggests that Dalcroze Eurhythmics can be
useful in clinical settings where music therapists
operate.
Future directions
While this article was written from both a musical
and psychological perspective, additional
areas are now highlighted in which further
research by the disciplines of neuroscience and
psychology/psychiatry would be most beneicial
to enhance understanding of the manifestation
of dissociative phenomena in musicians and its
impact on memory:
• Numerous authors mention changes in
hippocampal volume associated with trauma
and especially with complex trauma. Such
changes have implications for limiting a
person’s capacity to encode, store and retrieve
memories and manage associated emotions,
and have been linked to dissociation (eg.
Spiegel, 2008; Scaer 2005, p. 75; Bremner 2002,
pp. 60-62; Robertson, 1999, p. 236). The authors
of this article can only speculate on what
particular inluence decreased hippocampal
volume could have on the various components
of musicians’ memory for music.
• For an estimation of the extent of dissociative
symptoms responsible for memory lapses
during performance, extensive questioning
and perhaps even scanning would be required
to gain insight into exactly what occurs in the
brain and thoughts of musicians thus afected
(during performance).
• Weber et al. (2005, p. 41) illustrated
abnormalities in the functioning of working
Australian Journal of Music Education
memory in patients with PTSD, speciically
implicating changes in verbal processing.
The extent to which such abnormalities
are relevant to the functioning of memory
processes of musicians and their speciic
trauma responses should be investigated,
perhaps with speciic focus on afected singers.
• Bartlett (1996, p. 178) states that researchers
have moved their attention to examining
voluntary cognitive activity in their search
for reasons why memory breaks down, since
interference caused by the involuntary
nervous system is now better understood than
previously. The authors would suggest that,
although the role that the autonomic nervous
system plays in memory breakdowns may
seem obvious, it is still worth investigating the
extent of alterations in the normal functioning
of the autonomic nervous system due to
unresolved trauma as a factor contributing to
memory and concentration breakdown as well
as to the efect fear has on memory.
Conclusion
An imperative need has been identiied for
further investigation into the inluence of trauma
on musicians and others in the creative arts.  The
research on which this article is based served
to conirm from the perspective of most of the
participating musicians that when Levine (2005,
p. 83) states that “[t]raumatic experiences are an
unavoidable fact of life”, he is echoed by many
others, including musicians and music teachers.
In addition to speciically musical aspects,
taking the general complexity of the human
brain, sensory perception, associations,
and positive as well as negative (traumatic)
experience into account, it is evident that there
may be hidden factors afecting the quality
of music performance and memory for music.
An understanding of the phenomenon of
dissociation is central, as it can so profoundly
afect performing artists. Any art form is in
131
Swart et al.
itself a representation of experience. It is thus
vitally important for musicians to understand
how traumatic experience is processed and
dealt with, as well as what its long-term efects
are, in order for this not to hamper optimal
performance. On the positive side, the research
identiied promising intervention strategies
and solutions.
Andrzej Szpilman eloquently writes in the
foreword to his father’s book (Szpilman, 1999, p.
7) that in Poland his father would be described
as “‘a man in whom music lives’”. From this it
can be inferred that something as signiicant as
traumatic experience(s) encountered in life surely
also afect other important aspects of people’s
‘personhood’ or ‘selfhood’. Not only are trauma
and music integral to human existence and
important realities thereof and therein, but they
can impact each other in remarkable ways. These
include music’s capacity of expressing what is
diicult to formulate in words, as well as its role in
facilitating healing.
References
Ahrens, C. B., & Atkinson, G. D. (1955). For all piano
teachers. Ontario: The Frederick Harris Music Co.
Altenmüller, E. O. (2004). Music in your head, Scientiic
American Special Edition Jan 14 (1), 24-31.
Amendolia, R. (1998). A narrative constructivist
perspective of treatment of PTSD with Ericksonian
Hypnosis and EMDR, The American Academy of Experts
in Traumatic Stress. Retrieved April 2008 from www.
aaets.org/article32.htm.
APA (American Psychiatric Association). (2000).
Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders.
Fourth edition: Text revision (DSM–IV-TR). Washington,
DC: American Psychiatric Publishers.
Ashworth, P. (2003). Chapter 2: The origins of qualitative
psychology, in: J. A. Smith, (Ed.). Qualitative psychology:
A practical guide to research methods. (pp. 4-23).
London: SAGE.
Bartlett, D. L. (1996). Tonal and musical memory, in: D.
A. Hodges. (Ed.). Handbook of music psychology (2nd
ed.). (pp. 177-195). San Antonio, TX: Institute for Music
Research Press.
Beaulieu, D. (2003). Eye Movement Integration Therapy:
The comprehensive clinical guide. Carmarthen: Crown
House Publishing.
132
Beaulieu, D. (n.d.). Eicacy of Eye Movement Integration
Therapy: A novel therapy for rapid, ecological
integration of traumatic memories’, Retrieved July
2008 from http://www.psykosyntesforum.se/uploads/
EMI-paper.pdf.
Bracha, H. S., Ralston, T. C., Matsukawa, J. M.,
Matsunaga, S. M., Williams, A. E., & Bracha, A. S. (2004).
Psychosomatics 45:448-449, October. © The Academy
of Psychosomatic Medicine. Retrieved March 2009
from http://psy.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/
full/45/5/448.
Bremner, D. (2002). Does stress damage the brain?
Understanding trauma-related disorders from a mind-
body perspective. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
Brenner, I. (2004). Psychic trauma: Dynamics, symptoms,
and treatment. New York, NY: Jason Aronson.
Briere, J. (2005). Trauma symptom inventory (TSI, TSI-A).
Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Cady, E. T., Harris, R. J., & Knappenberger, J. B. (2008). Using
music to cue autobiographical memories of diferent
lifetime periods, Psychology of Music 36: 157-177.
Cannon, W. B. (1929). Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear
and rage: An account of recent research into the function
of emotional excitement, (2nd ed.). New York, NY:
Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Corsini, R. J. (2002). The dictionary of psychology. New
York, NY: Brunner-Routledge.
Cutting, L. C. (1997). Memory slips: A memoir of music and
healing. New York, NY: Harper Collins.
Dalcroze Australia. (2009). Retrieved August 2009 from
http://www.dalcroze.org.au/.
Decker, M. E. (2004). Comparing dissociative ability
of musicians and non-musicians. Department of
Psychology, Missouri Western State University, USA.
EMDR Institute. (2004). A brief description of EMDR.
Retrieved April 2008 from http://www.emdr.com/
index.htm .
Farmer, D. (1999). “Flow” & Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi.
Retrieved April 2000 from http://www.austega.com/
education/articles/low.htm.
Fleisher, L. (2004). CD cover notes to the recording: Two
hands. New York, NY: Vanguard Classics.
Fourie, G. (2009). An integrated Ericksonian and ego
state intervention for the treatment of survivors of
childhood sexual abuse. (Doctoral thesis). University of
Johannesburg, South Africa.
Gorrie, J. (2009). “Just another day at the oice…”:
How to get better results in auditions and other ‘high-
pressure’ situations, Retrieved June 2009 from www.
thezonebook.com.
Gray, S. (2009). The power of the subconscious mind.
ArticleBiz.com. Retrieved March 2009 from http://www.
articlebiz.com/article/87945-1-the-power-of-the-
subconscious-mind.
2010, No. 2
 Trauma-related dissociation afecting musicians’ memory
Hartman, W. (2009a). Personal communication on 24
February.
Hartman, W. (2009b). Unpublished teaching material.
Directed: Milton H. Erickson Institute of South Africa,
ailiated with the Milton H. Erickson Foundation in
Phoenix, AZ.
Hartman, W. (2009c). Personal communication on 25
November.
Houston, D., & Haddock, G. (2007). On auditing auditory
information: the inluence of mood on memory for
music, Psychology of Music 35:201-212.
Huopainen, H. (2002). Freud’s view of hysteria in
light of modern trauma research, The Scandinavian
Psychoanalytic Review 25: 92-107.
Jensen, E. (1996). Brain-based learning. Del Mar, CA:
Turning Point Publishing.
Kandel, E. R. (2006). In search of memory: The emergence
of a new science of mind. New York, NY: W.W. Norton.
LeDoux, J. (2002). Synaptic self: How our brains become
who we are. London: Macmillan.
Levine, P. A. (2009). Welcome to SomaticExperiencing.
com: Nature’s lessons in healing trauma.
Retrieved September 2009 from http://www.
somaticexperiencing.com/.
Levine, P. A. (2005). Healing trauma: A pioneering program
to restore the wisdom of your body. Boulder, CO: Sounds
True.
Levine, P. A. (with A. Frederick) (1997). Waking the tiger-
healing trauma. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books.
Levine, P.A. (1992). The body as healer: A revisioning
of trauma and anxiety, in M. Sheets-Johnstone (Ed.).
Giving the body its due, (pp. 85-108). Albany, N.Y.: State
University of New York Press.
Levitin, D. (2006). This is your brain on music:
Understanding a human obsession. London: Atlantic
Books.
Marczyk, G., De Matteo, D., & Festinger, D. (2005).
Essentials of research design and methodology.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Neurogenesis. (n.d.). Neurotransmitters overview.
Retrieved April 2009 from http://www.neurogenesis.
com/Neurotransmitters/neurotransmitters-overview.
php.
Nijenhuis, E. R. S., van der Hart, O., & Steele, K. (2004).
Trauma-related structural dissociation of the
personality, David Baldwin’s trauma information pages.
Retrieved August 2008 from http://www.trauma-
pages.com/a/nijenhuis-2004.php. O’Brien, D. (2004).
History of Ericksonian hypnosis. Frequently asked
questions. Retrieved June 2009 from http://www.
ericksonian.com/milton-erickson.html.
Osborne, M.S., & Kenny, D. (2008). The role of sensitizing
experiences in music performance anxiety in
adolescent musicians, Psychology of Music 36:446-462.
Australian Journal of Music Education
Peichl, J. (2007a). Die innerin Trauma-Landschaften.
Borderline, Ego-State, Täter-Introjekt. Stuttgart:
Schattauer.
Peichl, J. (2007b). Innere Kinder, Täter, Helfer & Co: Ego-
State-Therapie des traumatisierten Selbst. Stuttgart:
Klett-Cotta.
Perry, B. D. (1999). Memories of fear: How the brain stores
and retrieves physiologic states, feelings, behaviours
and thoughts from traumatic events. Retrieved June
2008 from http://www.childtrauma.org. Originally
published in Splintered relections: Images of the body in
trauma (Edited by J. Goodwin and R. Attias). New York,
NY: Basic Books.
Peters, J. S. (1987). Music therapy: An introduction.
Springield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
Robertson, I. (1999). Mind sculpture: Your brain’s untapped
potential. London: Bantam Books.
Roth, S., & Friedman, M. J. (1998). Childhood trauma
remembered: A report on the current scientiic knowledge
base and its applications. The International Society for
Traumatic Stress Studies.
Sándor, G. (1981). On piano playing: Motion, sound and
expression. New York, NY: Schirmer.
Scaer, R. C. (2005). The trauma spectrum: Hidden wounds
and human resiliency. London: W.W. Norton.
Southcott, J. E., & Simmons, J. G. (2008). Performance
anxiety and the inner critic: A case study, Australian
Journal of Music Education 1: 32-37.
Spencer, P. (2009). Dalcroze Method, Grove Music Online.
Retrieved September 2009 from http://0-www.
oxfordmusiconline.com.innopac.up.ac.za/subscriber/
article/opr/t114/e1784?q=Dalcroze&source=omo_
t237&source=omo_gmo&source=omo_
t114&search=quick&hbutton_search.x=23&hbutton_
search.y=7&pos=5&_start=1#irsthit.
Spiegel, D. (2008). Coming apart: Trauma and the
fragmentation of the self, The Dana Foundation.
Retrieved April 2008 from http://www.dana.org/news/
cerebrum/detail.aspx?id=11122.
Spintge, R. (1991). The neurophysiology of emotion
and its therapeutic applications in music therapy and
music medicine, in: C. D. Maranto (Ed.). Applications
of music in medicine, (pp. 59-72). Washington, DC: The
National Association for Music Therapy.
Stein, A. (2007). Music and trauma in Polanski’s The
pianist (2002), Psychoanalytic Inquiry 27(4) Sept-Oct:
440-454.
Sutton, J. P. (Ed.). (2002). Music, music therapy and trauma:
International perspectives. London: Jessica Kingsley.
Swart, I. (2009). The inluence of trauma on musicians.
(Doctoral thesis). University of Pretoria, South Africa.
Szpilman, W. (1999). The pianist: The extraordinary true
story of one man’s survival in Warsaw, 1939-1945. New
York, NY: Picador.
133
Swart et al.

Van der Hart, O., Nijenhuis, E. R. S., & Steele, K. (2006). The
haunted self: Structural dissociation and the treatment of
chronic traumatization. New York, NY: W.W. Norton.
Van der Hart, O., Nijenhuis, E. R. S., Steele, K., & Browne, D.
(2004). Trauma-related dissociation: Conceptual clarity
lost and found, Australian and New Zealand Journal of
Psychiatry, 38:906–914.
Van der Hart, O., & Spiegel, D. (1993). Hypnotic
assessment and treatment of trauma-induced
psychoses: The early psychotherapy of H. Breulink
and modern views, International Journal of Clinical
Experimental Hypnosis XLI(3) July: 191-209.
Watkins, J. G., & Watkins, H. H. (1997). Egostates: Theory
and therapy. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
Weber, D. L., Clark, C. R., McFarlane, A. C., Moores, K. A.,
Morris, P., & Egan, G. F. (2005). Abnormal frontal and
parietal activity during working memory updating
in post-traumatic stress disorder, Psychiatry Research:
Neuroimaging 140:27-44.
Winkel, F. W. (2007). Post traumatic anger: Missing link in
the wheel of misfortune. Nijmegen, NL: Wolf.

Inette Swart obtained a DMus degree from the University of Pretoria in April 2010. Her other qualiications include
a Master of Music degree from the Eastman School of Music, the Postgraduate Artistic Training Certiicate from
Frederic Chopin University in Warsaw, and the Fellowship of the Royal Schools of Music. She is a pianist who performs
and teaches and has been invited to speak about her thesis topic, The inluence of trauma on musicians, at various
international conferences. Her debut CD, Chopin Plus, was recently released.

Caroline van Niekerk is Professor of Music Education at the University of Pretoria, South Africa. Her book publications
are mostly in the ield of music theory teaching. Recent articles published have focused more on aspects of musical
identity.

Woltemade Hartman (PhD) is a clinical and educational psychologist in private practice in Pretoria, South Africa. He
received his training as an Ericksonian psychotherapist at the Ericksonian Foundation in Phoenix, Arizona. He is a past
member of the Board of Psychology of the Health Professions Council of South Africa and is the founding director of
the Milton H. Erickson Institute of South Africa. Dr Hartman lectures internationally. He is the recipient of the 2009 Jay
Haley Early Career Award for Innovative Contributions to Hypnosis from the International Society of Hypnosis.

134 2010, No. 2

 a u s t r a l i a n

s
a o c i e t y

f o r
s m u s i c

m
Dalcroze Eurhythmics: Interaction
e d u c a t i o n

i n c o r p o r a t e d
e

in Australia in the 1920s

Joan Pope

Dalcroze Australia

Abstract
Although musical, rhythmical and aural training aspects are at the heart of the Dalcroze approach it was physical
educators rather than music educators in Australia who showed more interest. Lillian Mills and Ella Gormley, inaugural
supervisors of physical training in WA and NSW respectively, contributed to the awareness of its beneits. Curiously,
no similar initiatives have been found linking Dalcroze Eurhythmics and music supervisors in State Education
Departments, although several musicians spoke highly of it. Lindley Evans, following a demonstration he observed
at Frensham School in 1920, thought that for young people contemplating musical study it would be invaluable.
Professor J. J. Findlay, of Manchester University, asserted that if the child learned ‘to embody music and thus unite
in one subject of the curriculum all that is needed at this stage for physical training, voice and ear training, musical
notation and the delight of song,’ a universal reform in the curriculum of young children would be achieved. In the
Australian Musical News of 1923, Thorold Waters feared that ‘as in Australia music still has to beg to be fully admitted
into education it will not be easy for it [the Jaques-Dalcroze system] to ind a way past the barriers of oicial stupidity.’
What might Waters have commented eighty-ive years further later?

Key words: Dalcroze Eurhythmics, physical education, music education, historical research

Australian Journal of Music Education 2010:2, 135-47

In Australia, the interaction between Dalcroze
Eurhythmics, physical education, movement
and dance as well as music teaching in the years
before and after World War I is puzzling. Although
musical, rhythmical and aural training aspects
are at the heart of the Dalcroze approach it was
physical educators rather than music educators
in Australia who showed more interest in it.
International sources such as The School Music
Review and The Times Education Supplement
carried descriptive material by and about Jaques-
Dalcroze for many years and subscribers could be
relatively well informed of overseas educational
ideas and. For example, Kathleen O’Dowd,
the irst certiicated British Dalcroze teacher,
translated a lengthy article for The School Music
Review (Jaques-Dalcroze, 1910, p. 209) about
Jaques-Dalcroze’s 1906 publication, Gymnastique
rythmique. Australian educational journals and
gazettes frequently reproduced articles from
Great Britain by eminent educators such as
Professor J. J. Findlay, a supporter of the work of
Jaques-Dalcroze. Findlay (1917, p. 8) asserted that
if the child learned ‘to embody music and thus
unite in one subject of the curriculum all that is
needed at this stage for physical training, voice
and ear training, musical notation and the delight
of song, a universal reform in the curriculum of
young children would be achieved’.
Oicial interest in Dalcroze Eurhythmics
in Australia was considerable. The Director
of Education in Western Australia (WA), Cecil

Australian Journal of Music Education 135

Pope
Dalcroze Summer School,
Melbourne 1924
Participants during the irst Dalcroze Summer School in Australia conducted by London visitor Ethel Driver, in
1924, in the grounds of the Carlton Teachers’ College, Melbourne.
Andrews, spoke at the irst public demonstration
in Australia of ‘The Eurhythmics of Jaques-
Dalcroze’, in June, 1919. The patronage of the
State Governor and the high level Education
Department support for a ‘novel educational
method’ must have pleased Irene Wittenoom who
presented it (“Demonstration at Govt. House”,
1919). Mr. F. L. Gratton, Supervisor of Music in the
South Australian Education Department, spoke
at a recital given by Heather Gell, in Adelaide in
1921, noting that ‘the London County Council
schools had introduced eurhythmics, and in WA
good work was being done’ (Gell Scrapbook,
1921). During the 1923-24 Australasian Tour by
staf and graduates of the London School of
Dalcroze Eurhythmics (LSDE), which commenced
in Perth, before visiting Adelaide, Melbourne,
136
1
Sydney, Hobart and Christchurch (NZ), Andrews
drew parallels with the work of Jaques-Dalcroze
and the educational ideals of the ancient Greeks.
He quoted Michael Sadler, later Sir Michael, Vice-
Chancellor of Leeds University, and applauded
the vision of Jaques-Dalcroze (“Nymphs of
1923”, 1923). On the other hand, Thorold Waters
discussing the tour in The Australian Musical News
noted that, whilst ‘some exponents of the Jaques-
Dalcroze system’ had recently arrived in the
country, and that a number of enquiries about
the topic had been received from as far aield as
the Northern Territory, he feared that it ‘will not
be easy for it to ind a way past the barriers of
oicial stupidity, as in Australia music still has to
beg to be fully admitted into education’ (Waters,
1923, pp. 5-6).
2010, No. 2

Promotional photo for 1924 tour to Australia by the London School of Dalcroze Eurhythmics.
Group improvisation to show strength and tension in fortissimo progression.
Ethel Driver and Heather Gell (front row L-R) Unknown, Irene Wittenoom, Cecilia John (back row L-R).
The level of oicial interest was matched
by more theoretical work. Professor Meredith
Atkinson, Editor of Stead’s Review in Melbourne,
reprinted an article about the principles and
philosophy of Jaques-Dalcroze, and mentioned
he had interviewed ‘the man himself’ in
Switzerland in 1922 (Atkinson, 1924, p. 29).
The English Dancing Times (Einert, 1923, p. 87)
concluded that
Dance must be linked with music and the link
that joins them is Rhythm … just as the games
coach strives for agility, and the music teacher
demonstrating eurhythmics aims at a remarkable
measure of co-ordination, so the physical trainer
teaching rhythmic dance encourages the child
to think with his muscles on dance ideas, rather
than steps, though with ideas under guidance
and the imagination harnessed.
This article was one of many in this informative
English magazine on the beneits of attaining
rhythmic sensitivity in students of the dance.
In Sydney, A. L. Kelly, Lecturer in Music at the
Teachers’ College, wrote a series of articles for
Withrow’s Studio of Physical Culture about the
Australian Journal of Music Education
Dalcroze Eurhythmics
Dalcroze approach which he described as a
‘system of complete musical training which has
music as its basis, and the body, the whole of the
body, as its instrument.’ He continued:
There exist excellent systems of physical training
which employ exercises in rhythm, and yet they
are by no means Dalcrozian. There should be no
confusion of these with Eurhythmics. At once it
will be seen that is it more than dancing, and it is
more than gymnastics. It embraces both of these
though not in the conventional sense, not for
purposes of athletics, not the professional stage,
not the stereotyped movements of the ballroom.
(Kelly, 1923, pp. 7-8)
This is an insightful exposition of the Dalcroze
approach and demonstrates signiicant interest
from a physical culture viewpoint.
Lindley Evans, well-known pianist, composer
and accompanist on the staf of the Sydney
Conservatorium, attended a demonstration of
Dalcroze Eurhythmics given by English-born Mary
Whidborne at Frensham School, Mittagong, NSW
in 1920. Whidborne had been impressed by a
137
 Pope

demonstration given by Jaques-Dalcroze in Berlin

in 1910 and became a passionate supporter of
his work. Whidborne had migrated to Australia at
the end of WWI (Pope, 2006a, pp. 7-18) and her
demonstration in the amphitheatre at Frensham
was a revelation to Evans. In the Frensham
Chronicle he praised the developed rhythmic
sense and muscular control of the students,
and perceptively singled out a key principle of
Dalcroze Eurhythmics whereby students have to
think out and work out their own ideas.
There can be no such thing as copying others, or
pretence, or insincerity. If you wait to see what
someone else is doing it means a loss of time
and puts you out of rhythm. Absolute attention
is essential for the immediate ‘realisation’ of the
mental efect produced by the rhythmical sounds
from the accompanying piano. The brain must
receive the message and send it with lightning
speed to the various muscles of arms and legs.
A feature of the demonstration was the mental
alertness of the girls and the speed and ease
with which they carried out various commands.
Portrait of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze and his signature.
(Evans, 1920, pp. 15-17)
The photo was available for decades as a postcard
Evans concluded that for young people from the Institut in Geneva and was in the 1912

Emile Jaques-Dalcroze (1865-1950)

contemplating musical study it would be book The Eurhythmics of Jaques-Dalcroze published
by the Ingham family.

Emile Jaques-Dalcroze (1865-1950)

invaluable. With all this enthusiasm the question
arises: why did Dalcroze Eurhythmics not become
a priority for music educators?
Émile Jaques-Dalcroze
Émile-Henri Jaques, born to Swiss parents in
1865 in Vienna, assumed the name Émile Jaques-
Dalcroze in the late 1880s. His musical training
was variously in Vienna, Geneva and Paris.
Following various engagements, including one
as conductor with a touring opera company, he
became Professor of Harmony at the Geneva
Conservatorium in 1892. As a composer he took
particular interest in the folk songs of the Suisse-
Romande, and was involved in numerous original
choral-theatrical pageants. He became known
as a witty cabaret composer and improviser,
and tried his hand at string quartets and other
formats. In 1899 he married soprano Nina Faliero
3
and wrote a number of songs for her and later,
3
some hundreds of ‘action songs’ for young
children. International audiences became aware
of him around the turn of the twentieth century,
not however, as a composer, but as a highly
original presenter of a new approach to music
and movement education. (Pope, 2008, pp. 63-68)
Jaques-Dalcroze was inluenced by
contemporary educators. He was attracted to
the writings of Swiss piano teacher and theorist,
Mathis Lussy who explored the nature of rhythm,
and the relationships to be articulated between
space and time. The views of François Del Sarte
on the categories of gesture and use of space,
together with acting lessons from ‘Talbot’ in Paris,
awakened his interest in gestures with meaning.

138 2010, No. 2


He was interested in the work of psychologist
Edoarde Claparède, founder of the Institut
Jean-Jacques Rousseau. These varied inluences
provided a well-informed basis for Jaques-
Dalcroze’s teaching. One might describe him as
a borrower, but he was also a thoughtful blender
who possessed the creative facility of taking
known ideas and making new concepts. That he
was no dancer or gymnast himself is clear from
innumerable anecdotes and memoires from his
students (Pope, 2008), yet he evolved movement
challenges that produced both intellectual and
physical feelings of delight and discovery in his
adult students, and provided learning with joy
and humour, in his classes for children.
Teaching adult performance students led
Jaques-Dalcroze to consider aspects of musical
training such as their rhythmic problems and
lack of ‘inner hearing.’ Interested in movement
studies, functions of the nervous system and
the psychology of teaching and learning, he
commenced experimental classes based on
natural movement responses to the elements
of music. Jaques-Dalcroze proposed that as
movement is instinctive to everyone, it should be
the starting point for the study of music. Walking
steps, being the ‘natural model of measure’ could
interpret the diferent duration of notes, while
head and arms could ‘keep order’ and analyse the
measures and pauses. He advocated regulated
breathing to introduce the study of phrasing,
and an understanding of muscular contraction to
develop subtleties of expression. ‘Doubtless’, he
said, ‘all this appears very simple, and so I myself
thought at the beginning of my experience’
(Jaques-Dalcroze, 1910, p. 209).
Simple or not, its basic value was soon
recognized, notably by an invitation, in 1910,
from the Dohrn brothers to establish a College
of Music and Rhythm, Arts and Education, Die
Bildungsanstalt, at their factory producing
high quality wood craft, in the new ‘garden
city’ of Hellerau near Dresden, which led to an
extraordinary burst of artistic and educational
Australian Journal of Music Education
Dalcroze Eurhythmics
endeavour (Pope, 2005, pp. 117-125). The term
‘eurhythmics’ was coined by British Professors J. J.
Findlay and J. H. Harvey, who attended Hellerau in
1911; they felt that it would be a way to describe,
to English-speaking teachers and musicians,
what they had observed. Until that time it was
known as ‘rhythmische gymnastik’ in German
or ‘la rythmique’ in French. Sir Michael Sadler,
Vice Chancellor of Leeds University, observed
after a visit to Hellerau in 1911 that, ‘Dalcroze
has hit on something which will inluence all
educational ideas, just as Pestalozzi did 120
years ago’ (Sessions, 1988, p. 32). In 1913, George
Bernard Shaw made his second visit to Hellerau
and subsequently wrote letters (Dent, 1952)
mentioning the classes and ‘metric games’, and
the performances of Gluck’s Orfeo, with Appia’s
and Salzmann’s remarkable theatrical lighting
installations. Professor Findlay in 1923, gave a
more academic assessment in the Journal of
Education (cited in The Record, 1943, p. 15).
With teachers in Great Britain the term
eurhythmics has come to stand for the special
mode of treating music invented by Monsieur
Jaques-Dalcroze. While the world outside the
school is seeking for expression in the arts, our
curricula are still concerned with the processes
and products of reason. Life to the artist is
movement, the expression of the inner self
through the bodily organs. M. Dalcroze has
invented a system which turns children’s dance
into a serious study, using limbs and trunk as an
instrument by which music may enter the mind
with lively but also ordered expression.
The problem of perception identiied by Findlay
was to be important in Australia because it
hindered the growth of the work in musicianship
and creative general education.
Bringing the news to Australia
State Directors of Education and Teachers’
College Principals, from time to time, attended
overseas and interstate meetings. Lillian de Lissa,
inaugural Principal of the Adelaide Kindergarten
Teachers’ College (KTC), on one such overseas
139
Pope

Emile Jaques-Dalcroze directing a rehearsal of Gluck’s Orpheo at Hellerau in 1911.

Picture from The Eurhythmics of Jaques-Dalcroze published by the Ingham family.

trip, speciically mentioned the work of Jaques-
Dalcroze, noting the ‘very scientiic and many-
sided system of musical and rhythmic training’
(Lissa, 1915, p. 3). She stated that:
One of the most inspiring institutions visited was
in Hellerau near Dresden, where Jaques-Dalcroze,
a Swiss, has his world famous Eurhythmic School.
I spent some time there studying and I saw the
work of some of his teachers on my return to
England.
As a result of this visit to London, it appears that
Agnes Sterry, a triple medallist graduate of the
Royal Academy of Music (London, RAM Archives,
1900-1916) with knowledge of the Dalcroze
method was invited to Adelaide where she
became a signiicant teacher.
In addition to distinguished educators in senior
positions, there was considerable movement of
Australian school teachers taking advantage of
their ‘long leave’, to undertake study trips abroad.
4
An example from WA will suice, although a
similar pattern is found in other States. Jessie
Horton (WA State Records) wrote about her 1913-
1914 trip in the WA Teachers’ Journal, and held
meetings with colleagues about eurhythmics,
folk dance, physical culture and the educational
beneits deriving from such activities. These
views were welcomed at Highgate School in
North Perth, where she was the deputy principal,
and able to cultivate a responsive climate for
such initiatives. Some ten years later, in 1922-
23, Horton was one of two WA teachers to be
awarded a year-long exchange position in Great
Britain, through the League of Empire. Once
again, on her return, she presented displays
of the latest rhythmic work she had observed
in England. The author’s mother, Ethel Venus,
teaching at the Claremont Teachers’ College and
Practising School recalled these vividly many

140 2010, No. 2


Study of crescendo by Paulet Thevanez, a student
of Jaques-Dalcroze, circa 1914 and irst published
in 1916. The series was commonly available as
postcards at the Institut in Geneva and published in
the Jaques-Dalcroze manual Plastique Animees
decades later (Personal communication to author,
1956).
As well as general educators voicing
their support, there were opportunities for
contemporary physical educators to explore
the work of Jaques-Dalcroze. The International
Physical Education Conference in Paris in March,
1913, (L’Illustration, Paris, 1913) invited him to
present several lecture-demonstrations where
he pointed out that in his view (Jaques-Dalcroze,
1913, no page numbers), education ‘for rhythm
and through rhythm’ was an indispensable
complement to all gymnastics and sport:
Probably, some of you who are specialists in
corporal movement do not perceive the diference
that exists between the really inspiring music
that I use, and the merely ‘accompanying’ music
which is irrelevant to so many choreographic
presentations and modern calisthenics. Many fail
to notice the value of rhythmic exercises where
each according to my method (and I sincerely
hope, according to all those pedagogues who will
not fail to develop it in the future, and who are
anxious to link the corporal and the intellectual),
Australian Journal of Music Education
Dalcroze Eurhythmics
will ill the gap which exists today between
calisthenic and athletic sports, mental and
physical development.
His work was visually appealing and the
photographs of striking movement studies, and
the range of reviews appearing in journals and
magazines of the time, generated much interest.
Edith Clarke, (1886-1984) a full-time lecturer in
dance and games at the Bergmann-Oesterburg
College of Physical Education, Dartford, England,
became convinced that such training in music
through movement would help her own work
(Clarke in Tingey, 1973, pp. 4-8). Clarke found
it an exhilarating experience. The freedom
5
of expression eliminated posturing and self-
conscious gestures, and she was impressed by
the concentration and alert listening demanded,
and the high standard in both music and bodily
movement. In the ensuing years, she and others
who studied with Jaques-Dalcroze were active
in educational and inspectorial positions, and
generated a wave of change. Graduates from the
Oesterburg training system were quickly engaged
by new specialized physical training centres
being established in England and overseas. There
were dramatic changes in women’s physical
education from the stilted 1909 Drill Curriculum
used in English, Australian and New Zealand
schools, to the syllabus in use several years later
where lowing, musical, rhythmic movement was
promoted.
An Oesterburg inluence in Australia is
provided by Miss Heyford-Smith who arrived
in Melbourne in 1915, after training at Mme
Bergmann-Oesterburg’s College (School Staf
Archivist Records, accessed 2007). Photographs
of students from Merton Hall (now Melbourne
Church of England Girls’ Grammar School) under
the direction of Heyford-Smith, show a natural
style of movement and the choice of music
described suggests a classical musical taste
(“Eurhythmics girls”, 1923, p. 19). These images
are in marked contrast to other newspaper
photographs of the same years where rigid,
‘squad-like’ drill formations, or posed nymphs
141
Pope
and fanciful fairies costumed like a stage show,
were also proclaimed to be showing eurhythmics.
Heyford-Smith could well have had contact
with Clarke during her training and it would be
interesting to locate other such examples of the
transmission of particular physical education
ideas and practice.
The spread of music education and movement
education to Australia and New Zealand in the
early decades of the twentieth century through
exchange of staf between schools within
Australia, and from the British Isles, was beneicial.
For example, Cernon (1992, p. 3) records that at
St Margaret’s Girls’ High School near Devonport,
Tasmania, Mrs. Margaret Walpole joined the
staf in 1910-11 and taught Grecian dancing and
‘eurythmic [sic] movement’ although, as Petersen
(1967) noted the work can not be identiied
speciically as Dalcroze Eurhythmics, and is more
likely to have been the interpretative dance form
favoured by Isadora Duncan. In 1923-24 Sylvia
MacConkey, a music teacher at a private school
in Melbourne was on exchange at this Tasmanian
school, and on her return, she incorporated
rhythmic movement in her teaching. Such
interchange indicates the attraction of including
something seen to work elsewhere, into one’s
own teaching.
Two high proile teachers, Lillian Mills and
Ella Gormley, albeit without formal Dalcroze
Eurhythmics qualiications, contributed to the
spread and general awareness of the beneits of
Dalcroze Eurhythmics in Australia. Mills, originally
from Broken Hill, NSW, had been teaching in
WA, at Highgate School, since 1902 and was a
skilled physical educator (WA State Records). She
experienced practical Dalcroze Eurhythmics with
Perth-based Irene Wittenoom, who gave adult
classes attended by a number of school teachers
(Pope, 2008, pp. 106-116). Mills was also the
instructor at the Claremont Teachers’ College for
women students, and the WA Teachers’ Journal
(1913, p. 152) records that:
The new Physical Culture, with its dancing and
organized games should have a pronounced
efect on the physical and mental development of
142
children. The Dance and Games are the natural
impulse to play and imitation in all thing young,
and the children throw themselves heartily into
the new work.
Mills became the inaugural Physical Instructress
for the WA Education Department in 1919
(Stewart, 1957), and is credited by Rikkers,
(c. 1985, p. 6) with ‘spreading the work of
eurhythmics far and wide’ during her years of
considerable inluence throughout WA.
Ella Gormley, a New Zealand-born graduate
of Sydney University, was inluenced by the New
York Dalcroze School, as well as the London
School of Dalcroze Eurhythmics. She had entered
the service of the NSW Board of Public Instruction
in 1904 and by 1916 was Instructress of Physical
Training for girls and women (NSW State Records).
In 1919 she applied for, and received permission
to study for a higher degree in Physical Education
in New York. Whilst attending prestigious
Columbia University she became convinced of
the value of the Dalcroze work, and attended
as many short courses as possible at the New
York School of Dalcroze Eurhythmics. Gormley
supported her letters to the NSW education
authorities with others from, for instance, the
Commonwealth High Commissioner in the
USA, who stated that ‘out of her own money
she is taking an extra course in the Dalcroze
method which has a very high repute here. In
fact, it is the system that is recognized as being
superior to anything else existing in the country.’
Successfully completing a Masters degree in
Physical Education, and a Diploma in Health and
Hygiene, Gormley travelled to England in 1920 to
gain a taste of Dalcroze Eurhythmics there, and
gather additional experiences and resources. In
requesting approval to stay away a short time
longer, she wrote from London that:
The Dalcroze System in Physical Education is
very excellent and far reaching and is the most
valuable asset to my work that I have come into
contact with. It can be graded to suit all ages
and in visiting some children’s classes I have
seen wonderful work and results through its
operation.’
2010, No. 2
 Dalcroze Eurhythmics

Undated photo formerly in the Claremont Teachers’ College collection but now, it seems no longer catalogued
by its successor Edith Cowan University. The ladies are not students but teachers with, most probably,
Emily Ware and Elli Hinrichs (and very likely, my mother!) Teachers’ Instruction Course conducted at the WA
Claremont Teachers’ College in the mid 1920s.

Her request was grudgingly approved by the
NSW Board of Public Instruction.
Upon her return to Sydney in late 1920 she
resumed her duties, but found herself working
at the same salary level as previously, less than
that of a full-time high school teacher. This, she
pointed out, was unrealistic given her prestigious
overseas MA qualiication and experience, and
the fact that she was preparing entirely new
curriculum material and syllabus content to
beneit teachers in the entire State, in addition
to her teaching role. She was unsuccessful in her
appeal, but for some time continued planning
and delivering intensive six-week teachers’
courses covering folk dance, rhythmic movement
and gymnastics in NSW. In 1921, her services
were requested by no less than the Acting Prime
Minister, E. J. Russell, to conduct a special national
course for selected interstate physical education
women teachers to be held in November and
December in Sydney. Amongst them, Rosalie
Virtue, Physical Instructress of the Victorian
Education Department, and ive other Melbourne
teachers including Vera Hopton, Nida Cheeseman
and Jessie Burnett. Two women were selected
from South Australia, May Cleggett, soon to be
appointed to a similar position there, and Annie
Berrigan. From Western Australia, the two chosen
to attend were Lillian Mills and Emily Ware, Mill’s
successor. There were two from Tasmania, one of
whom was a Miss Buckney.
No information has yet been found regarding
attendees from Queensland. Returning to their
home States they conducted similar intensive

Australian Journal of Music Education 143

Pope

It certainly made a hit! Cartoon from the Claremont Teachers’ College student magazine, The Trainee,
after the visit of the Dalcroze teachers in 1923. December 1923, sourced from the Battye Library collection
Perth, Alexander Library.
7

courses for their fellow teachers. One of them
(Hopton, in Haywood, 1995, p. 18) spoke
afterwards about learning ‘the new craze of
eurhythmic dancing from Miss Gormley, an
American Dalcroze-trained physical culturist’,
but this created an erroneous impression
that Gormley was American, as well as being
a somewhat unfortunate description of the
Dalcroze work!
Unsurprisingly, the employment and
remuneration diiculties put in Gormley’s way,
including some reimbursement for new books
she had purchased for the Teachers’ College
Library, quickly led to her resignation. The loss of
such a well qualiied person was a major set back
for the development of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in
Australia. A comment from a senior government
bureaucrat, to the efect that in the future it
would be unwise to allow any provision for
females to receive assistance for study-travel
purposes makes astonishing reading today
(Physical Education File, NSW State Records).
Thorold Water’s earlier remark about ‘the barriers
of oicial stupidity’ was only too well exempliied
in Gormley’s treatment.
The signiicant initiatives in Dalcroze
Eurhythmics taken by enthusiastic physical
education teachers were not matched by similar
initiatives by music supervisors in the various
State Education Departments of the early 1920s.
Although it is clear that all the descriptions
involve women there is one instance of a well
qualiied male school teacher, a former lecturer
at a Teachers’ College, who wished to pursue

144 2010, No. 2


the Dalcroze training course overseas. His
name was Claude Maximilian Rutter, (Max) an
active member of music societies and cultural
organizations in Perth and a well- known pianist
and choral conductor (WA State Records). Rutter,
a Claremont College graduate of 1905, had been
granted leave to accompany the WA Young
Australia League boys choir on a 12-month tour
of Australia and the United States. He almost
certainly had attended the evening Dalcroze
classes given in Perth by Wittenoom in 1919 and
1920 and, with Mills, had presented examples of
eurhythmics to fellow teachers. A letter from Irene
Wittenoom in 1920 (Institut Jaques-Dalcroze,
Archive) addressed to Percy Ingham, Director of
the LSDE, introduces Max Rutter, and states that:
he is thinking of taking up eurhythmics. I have
several times heard him improvize for improvized
exercises and his playing is exceptionally good
and his teaching ability above the average. One
of my students has been applying Eurhythmics in
her physical work but was unable to play so Mr
Rutter was her pianist.
His application to the London School was
supported by a glowing reference from the
Director of Education, Cecil Andrews (WA
Education Department, 1920). Rutter included
some of his musical compositions, and began
arrangements to take his long service leave to
pursue this study.
The reply from London was disappointing.
Ingham (Institut Jaques-Dalcroze, Archive) stated;
‘We are unable to accept him here owing to the
fact that in our present building we have no
facilities for men students. I have explained the
situation carefully to M. Dalcroze who is willing
to accept Mr Rutter at Geneva.’ Sadly, Rutter did
not take up the ofer in Geneva and resigned
from the Department in 1924 at the end of his
leave. He continued ‘outside’ the Department,
as a visiting teacher of eurhythmics, singing
and music at several Loreto Convent schools
(P. Why, personal comment, October 30, 2006,
and unpublished memoir, E. Holland). As an
experienced school administrator, a highly
Australian Journal of Music Education
Dalcroze Eurhythmics
regarded teacher, a composer and conductor, the
musically experienced Rutter would have been
an ideal head of a Dalcroze training school ‘down-
under’. What an opportunity lost! A keen musical
man, accustomed to collaborating with women
in physical education, he would surely have made
a diference to the future training of teachers in
Australia. In comparison with the bureaucratic
treatment received by Gormley in NSW, Rutter
seems to have received every encouragement
from the Education Department in WA, but the
inability of the LSDE to consider a male student
inhibited the advancement not only of his own
musical career but that of the work itself in
Australia.
Dalcroze Eurhythmics enjoyed ‘in principle’
support in oicial education circles, and
signiicant practical exploration by physical
educators in the early 1920s in Australia. Similar
initiatives, however, were lacking in the music
education ield. Why this regrettable situation
pertained invites further investigation. Was
the length of time, and the cost, needed to
obtain Dalcroze qualiications, by overseas
study in England or Europe, a major inhibiting
factor? Were music teachers in schools of the
day hampered by prevailing expectations and
conditions suitable for static massed choral
singing, and not for movement, while the physical
culture teachers at least had some access to
spaces for folk dance and gymnastic movement
as well as conidence in managing large groups of
active children? Yet even if Australian universities
and teacher training colleges had wished to
include Dalcroze Eurhythmics, there was, at the
time, a lack of suitably qualiied staf, world-wide,
to meet such demands. Regrettably, a similar
situation pertains today, a century after the
Dalcroze approach gained so much admiration
and attention.
Acknowledgement is made to the specialist
holdings from which material has been sourced:
• Archives of the Institut Jaques-Dalcroze.
Geneva.
145
Pope
• Archives of the London School of Dalcroze
Eurhythmics (1913-1956). Held at the National
Resource Centre for Dance, University of
Surrey.
• Gell, H. (1921-1923). Student notebooks, later
journals, diaries, photos in author’s possession.
• Kirsner, N. (1926-1960). Student and class
notebooks, journals, photos, in author’s
possession.
• Wilson, J. (1924-27). Student notebooks,
photos, letter précis books, in author’s
possession.
This paper was delivered, by invitation, to the
Australian Society of Music Education (ASME)
XVII Conference, Musical Understanding, at
Launceston, Tasmania, 10-14 July 2009 on the
occasion of the presentation of the Callaway
Award for a Doctoral Thesis to the author. Her
thesis was entitled Dalcroze Eurhythmics in
Australasia: The irst generation from 1918.
References
Andrews, C. Director of Education, Correspondence iles,
1910-1925, Perth: Battye Library.
Atkinson, M. (1924). The principles and philosophy of
Jaques-Dalcroze. Stead’s Review. March 23, 29.
Brunet-Lecomte, H. (1950). Jaques-Dalcroze: sa vie – son
oevre. Geneva: Edition Jeheber.
Cernon, F. (1992). Memories of St Margaret’s Girls’ High
School, Devonport Tasmanian Historical Research
Papers 39: 3 September. Excerpt reprinted in NSW
Dalcroze Society Newsletter, March 1993, 4-6.
Comte, M. & Ferris, J. (1990). An interview with Nancy
Kirsner. Australian Society for Music Education
Newsletter. Victorian Chapter, 16 (2), August, 6-10.
Dent, A. (Ed.). (1952). Bernard Shaw and Mrs. Patrick
Campbell; their correspondence. New York: Knopf.
Demonstration at Government House. (1919, June 27).
West Australian, p. 4e.
Einert, M. (1923). Rhythmic dancing. Dancing Times.
October, 87.
Eurhythmic girls. (1923, November). Argus, [Melbourne].
p. 19.
Evans, L. (1920). The Eurhythmics Demonstration.
Frensham Chronicle, 15-17.
Findlay J. J. (1917). Eurhythmics: an address. Liverpool:
Liverpool Booksellers.
Gell, H. D. (1920 – c.1957). Scrapbook news cuttings.
Unpublished. Adelaide: Mortlock Library.
146
Gibbs, D.G. (1978). John Thomas Lawton; an educational
and social reformer. MA Thesis. University of
Melbourne.
Haywood, L. (1995). An insight into calisthenics- a unique
Australian sport. Melbourne: Author.
Histoires: La rythmique Jaques-Dalcroze. (1981). (English
translation) Stories: Yesterday and today. Geneva:
FIER (Federation Internationale des Enseignants de
Rythmique).
Hulbert, H. H. (1921). Eurhythm: Thought in action: the
principles and practice of vocal and physical therapy.
London: Novello.
Ingham, P. E. (1912). The Eurhythmics of Jaques-Dalcroze.
Foreword by Michael Sadler. Illustrations by Fred
Boissonnas. London: Constable.
Jaques-Dalcroze, E. (1910). On education by rhythm. The
School Music Review, 19, 214, March, 209-210, 218.
Jaques-Dalcroze, E. (1913). Manuscript of lecture; Paris
International Physical Education Conference, March.
(Archive, Institut Jaques-Dalcroze).
Kelly, A. L. (1923). The Dalcroze approach to an
understanding of Rhythm. Withrow’s Physical Culture
Magazine, January, 7-9.
Kirsner, N. (1973). Rhythm: The essence of life and music.
Australian Journal of Music Education. 13. October, 44-45.
Leeper, A. (1909). A report on physical culture in the UK
and continent of Europe. Education Gazette, [Victoria].
May.
L’Illustration. (March, 1913). Paris.
Lissa, L. de. (1915). Education in certain European
countries; report by Miss L. de Lissa. South Australian
Government Paper. No. 75. House of Assembly,
September.
Macpherson, S. E., & Read, E. (1912-1914). Aural Culture
based upon Musical Appreciation. Volumes 1, 2, 3.
[Appendix: Salt, M. ‘The realization and expression of
music’ in Volume I]. London: Joseph Williams.
Martin, F., Denes, T., Berchtold, A., Gagnebin, H., Dutoit,
C-L., & Stadler, E. (1965). Émile Jaques-Dalcroze:
l’homme, le compositeur, le créateur de la Rythmique.
Neuchatel: Edition de la Baconnière.
New South Wales State Records. Gormley
correspondence and service record. Physical
Education, Folder 1948/ 010993.
Nymphs of 1923. (1923, October 26). Daily News [Perth],
p. 9f.
Odom, S. (1991). Dalcroze Eurhythmics in England: History
of an innovation in music and movement education. PhD
Thesis. University of Surrey.
Petersen, R. C. (1967). Experimental schools, 1906-1948.
PhD thesis, University of Sydney.
Pope, J. L. (1994). ABC school broadcasts in Western
Australia, 1938-1946: an investigation into radio
programmes for early childhood, featuring music and
movement, dance and drama. MEd thesis, Edith Cowan
University.
2010, No. 2
 Dalcroze Eurhythmics

Pope, J. L. (2005). Wretched victims in singlets: A Jaques-
Dalcroze music examination. Proceedings of the XXVII
Annual Conference, AARME. Sydney.
Pope, J. L. (2006a). Mary Whidborne: The irst teacher of
Dalcroze eurhythmics in New South Wales? Ausdance,
Brolga.24, June.
Pope, J. L. (2006b). Taking Dalcroze to the Dominions: Did
they miss the boat? Proceedings of the 27th ISME World
Conference, Kuala Lumpur.
Pope, J. L. (2008). Dalcroze Eurhythmics in Australasia:
The irst generation, from 1918. Ph.D. Thesis. Monash
University.
Rikkers, J. (c.1985). An outline of WA pre-school education,
1871- 1980. (unpublished) Perth. Battye Library.
Salt, M. see Macpherson & Read.
Sessions, W. (1988). The lasting spring. Hall School,
Weybridge: Wincanton Company.
Spector, I. (1990). Rhythm and life: The life and work of
Émile Jaques-Dalcroze. New York: Pendragon Press.
Stewart, D. (1957). A short history of physical education in
WA 1894-1920. Claremont Teachers’ College Project.
Tingey, N. (1973). A record of the London School of
Dalcroze Eurhythmics and its graduates at home and
overseas. London: Dalcroze Teachers’ Union.
The record of thirty years 1913-1943. (1943). W. R. Hourd.
London: The London School of Dalcroze Eurhythmics.
Victorian Public Records Oice. Staf Service Files/
Education Department.
Waters, T. (1923). Rhythm and the zest of life. Australian
Musical News, 13(5), 5-6.
WA State Records. Education Department service record
iles of Jessie Horton, Lillian Mills, Claude Maximilian
Rutter, Ethel Venus, Emily Ware. Acc. 1036, 1901-1933.
WA Teachers’ Journal. (1913). WA Teachers’ Union. Perth:
Battye Library.
WA Education Circular (1900-1933). Education
Department of WA. Perth: Battye Library.
WA Kindergarten Union, and College records, reports,
prospectus. Perth: Battye Library.

West Australian Joan Pope is one of the few practising Dalcroze Eurhythmics teachers in Australia and regularly
invited to conduct courses in Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, Japan, UK and Switzerland. She completed her PhD
(Monash) with a survey of the pioneering teachers of the method in Australia and New Zealand. Earlier degrees
include the Licentiate & Diplôme Supérieur (Institut Jaques-Dalcroze, Geneva), MEd, BE, (ECU); BA, Dip Ed., (UWA),
LRAM [ Mime] LRAM [Speech & Drama] (London) and qualiications in Dance, Ballet, Art and Design. Joan is
well-known in Australia for her dynamic approaches to community arts, creative children’s holiday arts festivals,
participatory recreational activities for all ages from playgroup toddlers to seniors’ relections, and part-time lecturing
in a range of educational institutions in WA and interstate. She has served on numerous festivals, theatres, arts and
education boards, panels and committees and in 2001 was honoured with the Medal of the Order of Australia and the
Medal of the Centenary of Federation. A former Warden of the Convocation of UWA she received the UWA Chancellor’s
Medal in 2006. Dr. Pope is a Fellow of ACHPER and Hon. Life Member of AUSDANCE, ASME (WA) and Dalcroze Australia,
of which she is the current President.

Australian Journal of Music Education 147

 a u s t r a l i a n

s
a o c i e t y

f o r
s m u s i c

m
Musical Futures in Victoria
e d u c a t i o n

i n c o r p o r a t e d
e

Neryl Jeanneret

The University of Melbourne

Abstract
Musical Futures is a music learning program that was established in the United Kingdom in 2003. It aims to make
secondary classroom music more relevant to young people through engaging them in the informal learning
practices of real world musicians, recognising that the way in which popular musicians learn is quite diferent from
the pedagogy of the traditional music classroom. This article reports on research that investigated the impact of
the Musical Futures approach on music teachers and students in ten pilot government schools in Victoria, Australia
(including a primary school). The research replicated aspects of the Hallam, Creech and McQueen (2010) UK research
and data was collected through a survey of the teachers and two case study schools where the teachers and students
were interviewed. After only two terms of implementation, the impact of the program on both the teachers and the
students has been quite profound.

Key words: musical futures, music education, primary, secondary, informal learning, engagement, social learning,

Australian Journal of Music Education 2010:2, 148-64

Background young people through engaging them in the

Numerous academics, reports and teachers
have noted that music in secondary schools as
a school subject is frequently not a popular and
stimulating element of the curriculum: in fact, it
seems to be of little interest or relevance to many
students (for example, Ross, 1995; Plummeridge,
1997; Green, 2002; National Review of School
Music Education, 2005; Hutchinson, 2007; St
George, 2010). On the other hand, numerous
teenagers have their own bands; invest in mp3
players and their current chart favourites; and
they go to local gigs like The Big Day Out, as well
as dances and parties where music features. There
seems to be no problem with involvement in
music outside of school but there has long been
a disconnect between school music and what
happens outside the formal school environment.
Musical Futures is a music learning program
based in the research of Lucy Green (2005, 2006,
2008a, 2008b) and others that was established
in the United Kingdom in 2003. It aims to make
secondary classroom music more relevant to
practices of real world musicians, recognising that
the way in which popular musicians learn is quite
diferent from the pedagogy of the traditional
music classroom. Research from the Institute of
Education, University of London (Hallam, Creech
& McQueen, 2010) has reported favourably on
the impact of the program in UK schools. With the
support from the Paul Hamlyn Foundation (which
has funded the Musical Futures Project in the
UK) and the NAMM (National Association of Music
Merchants) Foundation (USA), the Australian
Music Association (AMA), in collaboration
with the Soundhouse and the Department of
Education and Early Childhood Development
(DEECD), has piloted the program in 10 Victorian
government schools in 2010. The teachers
involved completed an intensive two day
workshop with David Price from Musical Futures
in the United Kingdom prior to implementing
the program. This article reports on research
that investigated the impact of Musical Futures
approach on the music teachers and students in
these ten schools.

148 2010, No. 2


Method
The research aimed to investigate two questions:
• Has Musical Futures had an impact on teachers’
conidence, pedagogy and professional
satisfaction? and
• What impact has the Musical Futures approach
had on students?
The research methodology replicated aspects of
the Hallam, Creech and McQueen (2010) research
with teacher questionnaires for each of the ten
pilot schools. The questionnaires were adapted
slightly for the Victorian context with items
relating to the following areas:
• background information about the teachers;
• how Musical Futures has been implemented;
• the impact on teaching;
• the impact on students;
• the integration of Musical Futures with the
VELS and the e5 instructional model;
• diiculties and constraints relating to the use
of Musical Futures;
• the level of support from senior management
teams;
• the impact on take-up of elective music; and
• the impact on take-up of extra-curricular
instrumental and vocal activities.
Two schools were selected as case study schools
in consultation with the Soundhouse. Two
members of the research team visited these
schools to undertake recorded interviews with
the music teachers, a focus group interview
with students, and two class observations. The
case study schools were also measured against
an adaptation of the National Review of School
Music Education’s success factors for school music
programs used to examine best practice music
education in Victorian primary schools in 2009
(Jeanneret, 2009).
Findings from the survey
Ten teachers from seven of the schools completed
the questionnaires representing a selection of
metropolitan and provincial schools. The majority
of the schools had been implementing Musical
Australian Journal of Music Education
Musical Futures in Victoria
Futures for two terms at the time of the data
collection and over 1,000 students, mostly middle
school, had been involved in the program. The
investment in the equipment varied from nil
to $15,000 depending on what already existed
in the school. Table 1 provides a summary of
information about the schools involved.
The questionnaire asked teachers how
well Musical Futures worked within the state
mandated curriculum and pedagogical direction.
They were very positive about how well Musical
Futures integrated with the Victorian Essential
Learning Skills (VELS), mainly commenting that
creating, making, exploring and responding were
facilitated easily by the approach. Two teachers
noted that personal learning and communication
were also supported. Five teachers chose to
make comments about connections between
Musical Futures and the recently implemented
e5 instructional model which contains a variety
of levels of teacher classroom practice related
to engaging, exploring, explaining, elaborating,
and evaluating (DEECD, 2009). They noted that
student involvement in engaging and exploring
was particularly pertinent.
There were few diiculties encountered by
the teachers in implementing the program and
where problems arose, they were diferent in
each school. While one teacher found reluctance
in the instrumental staf to become involved,
another teacher found the program ran smoothly
thanks to the support from the instrumental staf.
Another teacher noted that he would be looking
for ways to ofset the costs in the future. There
were only minimal adjustments and adaptations
to the program model that appear to be minor
tailoring to the individual needs of classes and
students.
Impact on teachers’ conidence,
pedagogy and professional
satisfaction
The teachers reported that since implementing
Musical Futures, they felt more conident about
facilitating student learning in a range of musical
149
Jeanneret

Table 1: School information

Musical Futures

% of school

Investment
population
Population

Equipment
Returned

Students
Duration
Location

Involved
involved
Started
Region

Survey
School

School

Years
Northern A 597 metropolitan Yes 2010 2 terms 7-12 260 43.55 $2,243
Metropolitan

B 1713 metropolitan Yes 2010 1 term 8/9 175 10.21  $14,972

C 711 metropolitan Yes 2010 2 terms 8 75 10.55  $5,689
Southern D 910 metropolitan Yes 2010 2 terms 8/9 180 19.78  $15,441
Metropolitan
Western E 1577 metropolitan Yes 2009 2 terms 7/8 250 15.85 0
Metropolitan
F 266 metropolitan No 2010 2 terms - - -  $899
Gippsland G 316 provincial Yes 2010 2 terms 5/6 102 32.28  $12,651
Loddon H 567 provincial No 2010 2 terms - - -  $5,080
Mallee
I 597 provincial Yes 2010 2 terms 9/10 45 7.54  $5,633
J 890 provincial No 2010 2 terms - - -  $14,051
Total number of students: 1087

Table 2: Impact of implementing Musical Futures on teachers

MY TEACHING
Since implementing Musical Futures: Strongly Agree Don’t Disagree Strongly n
Agree Know Disagree
I am a more efective teacher. 60.0% (6) 30.0% (3) 0 10.0% (1) 0 10
I am more conident about teaching music. 60.0% (6) 30.0% (3) 0 10.0% (1) 0 10
I enjoy teaching music more than previously. 70.0% (7) 30.0% (3) 0 0 0 10
I am more conident about facilitating 40.0% (4) 20.0% (2) 30.0% (3) 10.0% (1) 0 10
singing.
I am more conident about teaching 44.4% (4) 33.3% (3) 11.1% (1) 11.1% (1) 0 9
instrumental skills.
I have become more aware of the music that 56.6% (5) 44.4% (4) 0 0 0 9
students engage in outside of school.
I am more conident about facilitating 20.0% (2) 60.0% (6) 10.0% (1) 10.0% (1) 0 10
student learning in a range of musical genres.
I have adapted Musical Futures to it with my 40.0% (4) 60.0% (6) 0 0 0 10
personal approach to teaching and learning.
I have adapted Musical Futures to meet the 50.0% (5) 50.0% (5) 0 0 0 10
individual needs of my students.

150 2010, No. 2


genres, teaching instrumental skills and teaching
music in general (Table 2). The least change in
conidence was reported in relation to facilitating
singing that mirrors the UK indings. Nine of the
ten respondents felt they had become more
efective teachers and were enjoying teaching
more as a result of implementing Music Futures. It
was agreed unanimously that they had been able
to it Musical Futures with their own approach
to teaching and learning as well as being able
to adapt Musical Futures to meet the individual
needs of students.
There were a number of statements that
generated unanimous agreement on the part of
the teachers (Table 3). They all felt that Musical
Futures was useful, had changed and improved
their teaching, had changed music teaching
in the school, integrated successfully with the
VELS and helped students demonstrate their
musical potential. They also agreed that Musical
Futures helped integrate students’ informal music
learning with classroom activities and could
be implemented successfully in other schools.
There was very strong agreement that they had
observed a positive response from students
and an engagement of previously disinterested
students.
All the teachers reported that Musical Futures
would have a long-term impact on their music
teaching (Table 4). They commented that the
approach was more engaging for students and
that working and learning alongside the students
was an important aspect. Noting the positive
impact of the approach on students, one teacher
is looking for ways to implement the pedagogy
throughout his teaching.
Impact on Students and Program
Beneits
Given the Musical Futures program had only
been running in all but one of the schools for two
terms, the teacher perceptions of the student
outcomes were overwhelmingly positive (Table
5). The teachers indicated that Musical Futures
had a positive impact on students’ attitudes
Australian Journal of Music Education
Musical Futures in Victoria
towards music, self-esteem in relation to music,
love of music, group work, on-task behaviour,
and general behaviour in class. Students created
better musical performances than previously, had
developed a greater range of musical skills, were
able to demonstrate higher levels of attainment
than previously, had enhanced listening skills,
instrumental skills and strategies for composition,
as well as developing a better understanding
of a range of musical genres. Overall, teachers
indicated that the improvement in musical skills
of their students had exceeded their expectations
and that students had a better chance of
fulilling their musical potential. It should be
noted that one teacher added the comment that
she responded to a number of the items listed
with either “Don’t Know” or “Disagree” “because
these criteria were already working quite well
and it’s diicult at this stage to assess further
development”.
The same teacher noted above was again
cautious about commenting on the beneits
of Musical Futures, feeling it was too early to
assess but all the other teachers noted a variety
of beneits that included greater engagement,
improved motivation, independent learning skills,
greater task focus, better behaviour and greater
enthusiasm (Table 6). Most notable was one
teacher’s comment that “the behaviour issues are
gone”.
The teacher responses varied to the question
Has Musical Futures been more successful with some
groups of students than with others? (Table 7). On
the one hand, a number of teachers felt there
were no notable diferences between students
while others felt that a lack of musical knowledge
was a hindrance for some students. One teacher
noted gender diferences and another felt that
students with lower independent skills struggle a
little with the emphasis on self-directed learning.
Another commented that there were some
diiculties with students who lacked social skills,
in particular, those with Asperger’s syndrome.
There were a variety of responses when the
teachers were asked about whether there was an
151
Jeanneret

Table 3: Musical Futures statements

MUSICAL FUTURES
Strongly Agree Don’t Disagree Strongly n
Agree Know Disagree
Musical Futures helped me to improve my 50.0% (5) 50.0% (5) 0 0 0 10
music teaching.
Musical Futures was very useful. 70.0% (7) 30.0% (3) 0 0 0 10
Music teaching in the school has changed 50.0% (5) 50.0% (5) 0 0 0 10
as a result of Musical Futures.
Musical Futures has been integrated with 40.0% (4) 50.0% (5) 10.0% (1) 0 0 10
previous musical activity in the school.
Musical Futures has successfully 50.0% (5) 50.0% (5) 0 0 0 10
complemented the VELS
Musical Futures has changed the way that I 40.0% (4) 50.0% (5) 0 10.0% (1) 0 10
teach music.
Musical Futures will have a long-term 70.0% (7) 20.0% (2) 10.0% (1) 0 0 10
impact on my music teaching.
The impact of Musical Futures on my music 60.0% (6) 30.0% (3) 10.0% (1) 0 0 10
teaching is sustainable in the long term.
Musical Futures would be able to be 70.0% (7) 30.0% (3) 0 0 0 10
implemented successfully in other schools.
I would welcome further support for 50.0% (5) 40.0% (4) 10.0% (1) 0 0 10
implementing Musical Futures.
I found Musical Futures diicult to use in 0 10.0% (1) 0 50.0% (5) 40.0% (4) 10
my school.
The students in my classes responded well 50.0% (5) 40.0% (4) 10.0% (1) 0 0 10
to Musical Futures.
Musical Futures was more suitable for some 30.0% (3) 40.0% (4) 10.0% (1) 20.0% (2) 0 10
groups of students than for others.
Musical Futures helped to integrate 30.0% (3) 70.0% (7) 0 0 0 10
students’ informal music learning with
classroom music activities.
I found the Musical Futures initiative 0 30.0% (3) 20.0% (2) 30.0% (3) 20.0% (2) 10
challenging to use.
Musical Futures is innovative. 60.0% (6) 20.0% (2) 10.0% (1) 10.0% (1) 0 10
Musical Futures has helped students to 40.0% (4) 60.0% (6) 0 0 0 10
demonstrate their musical potential.
Musical Futures has helped to engage 40.0% (4) 40.0% (4) 20.0% (2) 0 0 10
previously disinterested students.
Musical Futures supports student 50.0% (5) 40.0% (4) 10.0% (1) 0 0 10
progression in music.

152 2010, No. 2

 Musical Futures in Victoria

increase in students taking instrumental music
and/or electing more classroom music (Tables
8 and 9). Some were cautious, saying it was too
early to comment while others noticed a dramatic
increase.
The teachers reported that there was nothing
but positive support from the school leadership
that manifested itself as time for Professional
Learning, provision of funds and improved
facilities. When asked what support in the future
would be most useful, further professional
learning and networking as well as more new
resources and resource sharing featured in the
responses.
Case Studies
The purpose of the case study school visits was
to explore the impact of Musical Futures on the
students beyond the teacher perceptions elicited
by the surveys.
School E is situated 22 kilometres from the
Melbourne CBD. It is a co-educational, P–9
school with an enrolment of approximately
1700 students. It has a well-resourced and
supported music program and partnership with
the Soundhouse, which ofers guitar, keyboard
and singing lessons. The College director and
principal of this campus strongly support the arts
and Musical Futures at all levels. The director had
invested in a small bus to transport the students
and their equipment to community performances
and appointed a Creative Arts Manager (a
senior management position) to oversee and
support arts education in the school. The
school emphasizes personal development and
leadership capacity, and Individual Learning Plans
are prepared each term for all students. Musical

Table 4: Teacher comments about the long-term impact of Musical Futures on their teaching.
Teacher Comments
1 More students are engaged creating positive environment to work. Need to regularly ind new resources
for songs – could be time consuming.
2 We as a faculty believe that the program will support our current practices as we see this program as a
vehicle to integrate all students to be involved in a band setup.
3 Musical Futures allows for self-realisation and more intense engagement on the students’ behalf. This
facilitates greater enjoyment
4 It seems to me that Musical Futures is the (emphasised) way to teach music – engaging more students
and giving them the experience of playing (emphasised) music, and without proper tuition
5 It will impact because I am inally teaching music in a way that works for myself and the students.
6 Falls in line with what we have done previously and will continue to do so
7 Musical Futures will deinitely have a long-term efect on my teaching. I have learnt many skills
throughout the last year of delivering these classes. When beginning Musical Futures, I had previously
been using an 18 century model of teaching, which was teacher driven and directed. By undertaking
Musical Futures I have discovered that by relinquishing responsibility to the student to determine
individual learning goals, powerful and relevant learning occurs. Students seem more inspired as they
have more control over what they learn and how they learn it. My teaching has also developed due to
learning alongside the students to achieve common goals. I have previously believed that the teacher
was in the position to know everything in the classroom about the content being taught. This year, I
have spent much of my time learning alongside the students where students become teachers and
teachers become students.
8 It is more a natural way of teaching. This is really the way I learnt and feel it is the best way to learn
9 Seeing how students have responded positively to the program encourages me to ind ways of
implementing the pedagogy throughout my teaching.
10 Yes, it will have a sustainable long-term impact to teach kids informally in an engaging, hands on way.

Australian Journal of Music Education 153

Jeanneret

Table 5: Teacher perceptions of student outcomes

STUDENT OUTCOMES
Since implementing Musical Strongly Agree Don’t Disagree Strongly n
Futures, my students: Agree Know Disagree
enjoy their music lessons more. 44.4% (4) 44.4% (4) 11.1% (1) 0 0 9
enjoy singing more. 30.0% (3) 40.0% (4) 10.0% (1) 20.0% (2) 0 10
have learnt to play at least one 50.0% (5) 50.0% (5) 0 0 0 10
musical instrument.
are more conident in their music 50.0% (5) 40.0% (4) 11.1% (1) 0 0 10
lessons.
take part in more extra-curricular 33.3% (3) 44.4% (4) 11.1% (1) 11.1% (1) 0 9
musical activities.
have developed a greater range of 50.0% (5) 40.0% (4) 11.1% (1) 0 0 10
musical skills.
have developed a greater range of 10.0% (1) 70.0% (7) 20.0% (2) 0 0 10
strategies for composing.
have developed a better 11.1% (1) 66.7% (5) 11.1% (1) 11.1% (1) 0 9
understanding of a range of musical
genres.
create better musical performances 40.0% (4) 50.0% (5) 10.0% (1) 0 0 10
demonstrate improved listening skills. 30.0% (3) 60.0% (6) 10.0% (1) 0 0 10
have more positive attitudes towards 60.0% (6) 40.0% (4) 0 0 0 10
music.
are generally better behaved in music 40.0% (4) 50.0% (5) 0 10.0% (1) 0 10
lessons.
are better able to stay on task. 30.0% (3) 60.0% (6) 0 10.0% (1) 0 10
work together more efectively in 30.0% (3) 70.0% (7) 0 0 0 10
music tasks.
attend music lessons more regularly. 50.0% (5) 20.0% (2) 10.0% (1) 20.0% (2) 0 10
have improved their musical skills 50.0% (5) 30.0% (3) 20.0% (2) 0 0 10
more than I would have expected.
seem to be more motivated in music 50.0% (5) 40.0% (4) 0 10.0% (1) 0 10
lessons.
generally have improved levels of 30.0% (3) 50.0% (5) 20.0% (2) 0 0 10
self-esteem in relation to music.
demonstrate higher levels of musical 40.0% (4) 50.0% (5) 10.0% (1) 0 0 10
attainment than they did previously
are more likely to fulil their musical 60.0% (6) 30.0% (3) 10.0% (1) 0 0 10
potential.
are more likely to demonstrate that 60.0% (6) 20.0% (2) 20.0% (2) 0 0 10
they love music.

154 2010, No. 2

 Musical Futures in Victoria

Futures was implemented in 2009 with Year 7
and in 2010 extended to Year 8. With the success
of the program, the intention is to broaden the
program in 2011 to include Years 5, 6 and 9.
School G is a primary school 112 kilometres
from the Melbourne CBD in the south Gippsland
area and has an enrolment of approximately
320 children. The school has an ailiation with
the Soundhouse and strongly supports the
performing arts with about 200 children involved
with instrumental, speech and drama, dance and
singing lessons. This is the only primary school in
Australia and the United Kingdom to implement
the Musical Futures program.
Three major themes emerged from the analysis
of the case study data. The implementation
of the Musical Futures program has had the
greatest impact on student engagement, social
learning and the development of musical
knowledge and skills. While it was important
to evidence the impact of the Musical Futures
program on student outcomes, it was also
important to examine what it is about the this
approach that creates the conditions to support
such outcomes (see Tables 10, 11 and 12). One
of the most striking aspects of the school visits
was the high level of enthusiasm shown by
the staf and students alike for Musical Futures.
Everyone was eager to share their experiences
and observations with the researchers and
there was an unmistakably positive “buzz” in the
classrooms observed. These visits brought to life
and reinforced the information provided by the
teachers in the surveys.

Table 6: Teacher perceptions of the beneits of Musical Futures

Teacher Comments
1 We hope to see positive improvements in all of these areas but it is too early to assess.
2 Independent learning skills certainly improved and students that generally ‘goofed around’ were
proactive in groups. Musical students had an opportunity to liaise with students that struggled and were
on occasions able to assist them with arrangements.
3 Yes
4 Students focus more on tasks at hand, engaged in music that they enjoy etc
5 A close to 100% participation level in all of my classes. Students experiencing Musical Futures forming
bands, buying instruments and becoming involved in music outside the classroom.
6 They all learn their parts. They are enthusiastic about songs they pick and we have very good attendance
and motivation across all year levels. This leads to many performances.
7 School E is located in the Western Suburbs of Victoria. It is a middle-low socio economic area where
previous to this year, had no practical music lessons ofered to the Middle Years students. Musical Futures
has been life changing for the students. Some of these students had never had the opportunity to play
any instrument before, let alone playing contemporary rock instruments like the drums, guitar, bass and
keys. Due to this, I have noted that students are better behaved in class and are focused on the tasks they
need to achieve and are more motivated to learn. Evidence to support this is that on Musical Futures
days, attendance is far stronger than any other day throughout the week.
8 Students are excited and more passion is shown, they are wanting to do more in class and externally as
well.
9 Behaviour issues are gone, only diiculty is keeping students motivated, not just chatting in groups;
allows students to develop skills in areas they have chosen; huge improvement in attitude towards music
– massive increase in elective enrolments.
10 Improved attitude toward music; increase in extra-curricular music activities; improved teamwork skills;
improved awareness of learning styles in students; independent learning skills and motivation to learn
independently.

Australian Journal of Music Education 155

Jeanneret

Table 7: Responses to Has Musical Futures been more successful with some groups of students than with others?

Teacher Comments
1 SEAL and Extension (academically extended classes) and classes with well developed ‘self learning or
independent learning’ skills are doing well. Classes with poor/weak work ethics – lower independent skills
struggle with the emphasis on self-learning.
2 Deinitely – it wasn’t so much about gender but more to do with overall ability musically. Students with
limited musical knowledge really struggled and didn’t excel with the program
3 No all students seem to more engaged than usual
4 No, not that I’ve seen
5 I have had success with a range of students. Due to Musical Futures being a gradual process, it enables
diferent groups to succeed in their own time.
6 It’s great for all levels (ability, gender, cultural etc). It brings in those students who play mainly by ear.
7 I have found that at times that Musical Futures is more successful with some groups then others. With
some of my classes, I have found that the female students of the class are more willing and innovative
when playing in a band setting. It seems that the female students are at times more focussed and more on
task and utilise their time more efectively. However I must state that this is not always the case. I teach 12
classes Musical Futures and out of those 12, there might be 3 classes where this is the case.
8 Both groups (9 & 10) have been successful although year 10 has shown a little more resistance to some of
the technology used (jamhubs) and the scope of the course and songs.
9 Year 9s
Those with some (even very little) music experience
10 Yes. Musical Futures has been very successful with about 90% of all students, however, I have noticed
diferences with children lacking social skills/understanding especially Aspergers. They often struggle in
bands.

Table 8: Responses to Has implementing Musical Futures had an impact on take-up of instrumental or vocal
lessons amongst students in your school?

Teacher Comments
1 Not at this stage. Too early to tell. Only had it in classes for term 3.
2 We found some students decided to take up instrumental practices or I found that many year 8 students
came and jammed at lunchtimes, which had never happened before. Many students formed friendships
and enjoyed the “jam-sessions”
4 Don’t know, not able to see results yet
5 Yes it has. Our guitar, drums and vocal lists are full and we have students on waiting lists for instrumental
lessons
6 Huge increase across all year levels
7 Musical Futures has had an impact on the enrolments of instrumental music at the school. Over the last
year, the Middle Years enrolments have increased by approx 30 students. These enrolments have been
on the drums, guitar, bass, keys and voice. The instrumental program previous to this had very poor
enrolment numbers, so this has dramatically increased the instrumental music program at the school for
the Middle Years Students.
8 We are currently evaluating this.
9 Deinitely increased interest but we currently do not have enough teachers to meet the need.
10 Yes. We have a marked increase in students taking on extra curricular music lessons in guitar, bass, drums,
keyboard and ukulele.

156 2010, No. 2


Engagement (involvement in learning,
persistence and pride in work, willingness to accept
challenges, display of positive attitudes to learning1)
Both the teachers and the students reported
on improved levels of engagement and that
the student-centred nature of the approach
contributed to this improvement.
It’s not necessarily all about sitting around
your desk and making sure everyone’s being
compliant and looking at the teacher, it’s much
more student driven which is good. And I think
that can’t be a bad thing no matter which way
you look at it. Honestly, if the students want to
learn and they want to learn what they want
to learn and they get the chance to learn that,
you’re going to have engagement and with
engagement you’re going to have learning. It’s a
natural progression… (Teacher, School G)
The positive relationship between the teacher
and the students also had an important part to
play in the engagement of the students.
You bond with your teacher a lot more than
any of your other teachers and you’re allowed
to express yourself, more than you can in, say,
English. And there’s no real answer. (Student,
School E)
For students to be interested in Music Education,
they need to be engaged. To enable this,
the teacher fosters positive relations with
and between students and develops shared
expectations for learning and interacting. Once
students are engaged, the class begins exploring
the music futures concepts. This is achieved as
a whole class investigation where the students
explore the concepts and take ownership of the
lesson. The teacher then provides meaningful
explanations of the concepts using diferent
methods to engage and then continuously
elaborates on these concepts when students ask
for further direction. (Teacher, School E)
The students were very keen to attend music
classes and looked forward to coming to school,
Notes
1. The deinitions of “engagement”, “social learning”, and “musical
knowledge and skills” are taken from the recently completed MGSE
arts partnership research for Arts Victoria and the DEECD, Imms,
Jeanneret & Stevens-Ballenger, 2010.
Australian Journal of Music Education
Musical Futures in Victoria
especially on music days.
I always, you know how you go to school on
Monday and you think, “No, another school week
again”, but then I keep, I hold out until Friday
and then I really enjoy it, cos Friday’s my Musical
Futures day.... (Student, School G)
The Creative Arts Manager and teacher at School
E reported that there was an obvious increased
attendance on music days. Teachers also reported
that the general behaviour in class was very good
and both teachers and students commented that
previously reluctant students were now positive
about music.
I have noted that students are better behaved
in class and are focused on the tasks they need
to achieve and are more motivated to learn.
Evidence to support this is that on Musical
Futures days, attendance is far stronger than
any other day throughout the week. (Teacher,
School E)
Students spoke of their sense of accomplishment
and increased conidence in themselves as
musicians:
I enjoy that well, you’re actually getting to play
the music that you hear on the radio, so it’s I’m
thinking, hmm I can actually play that now.
(Student, School G)
The enjoyment, more, it progresses. Like, when
you irst play in a concert type thing, you’re really,
really nervous but you like it and you’re like, “Oh,
yeah. I can’t believe we just did that. That was
awesome.” And you do it again and it turns out
even better. You’re like, “I didn’t even know I could
do it that better.” Then you do it again and again
and you can’t believe it because each time you
enjoy it more and more. (Student, School E)
There was strong interest displayed in more
music study (for example, in the future, after
school, lunchtimes) and a desire to improve music
skills and knowledge.
You might accomplish something, whereas
Literature or Maths, you might be able to answer
an equation or inish an essay but you never
actually get that pure feeling of, “Wow, I did
something really good.”
One of the best things about Music Tech is it
actually ... in some subjects, you’re just like, “Oh,
157
Jeanneret

Table 9: Are more students choosing to elect music? When and which courses?

Teacher Comments
1 Not at this stage. Too early to assess any low on efects.
2 Numbers seemed to be the same whilst the interest was there initially students preferred to jam rather
than take lessons.
3 Yes, song writing
4 Yes, song writing
5 Yes! Year 9 electives have been very successful. My year nine class is full and twenty-ive students strong.
6 Yes. Year 9-12 is elective choice. Very strong numbers over last 2 years. The year 11 and 12 component is
VCE VET music
7 We are very lucky at Carranballac College. Music is a compulsory subject for all students Grade 5 – Year 9.
Each student receives 1 hour of classroom lessons throughout their Middle Years Education.
8 Yes. Intake (projected) is higher into year 9 & 10.
9 Deinitely – huge increase at years 9 & 10.
10 N/A in primary school.

Table 10: Conditions for and impact on engagement

Conditions created by Musical Futures Evidence of impact

• Working towards a goal
• Student-driven learning
• Learn and play music that is relevant
(often what they listen to outside of
school)
• Positive student-teacher relationships
• Student choice of content
• Student choice of instruments
• Challenging
• Students feel a sense of “freedom”
• Both teachers and students report engagement
• Turning up to class
• Positive about coming to class
• Keen to learn
• Very good behaviour in MF classes
• Previously reluctant children now positive about music (reported
by teacher and students)
• An increase in the uptake of extra-curricula instrumental tuition
• Students show and express and interest in learning other (new)
instruments
• Most students prefer music over other subjects – “Everyone’s
favourite”
• Fun, enjoyable
• Look forward to school, generally
• Look forward to school, on music day
• Engage in music at home
• Helps students deal with worries, issues, “cheers you up”
• Strong interest in further music study – in future, after school,
lunchtimes
• Desire to improve music skills and knowledge
• Reported sense of accomplishment
• Students show conidence in themselves as musicians – discussion
of future music careers, being famous
• Only disappointment with MF is that they can’t do more!

158 2010, No. 2

 Musical Futures in Victoria

yeah. That’s okay. That’s a piece of work. That’s all
right.” But with Music Futures, you’re sort of ... you
always want to improve on it because you love
it that much that you actually care about your
work and you care about how well it turns out,
and stuf. (Students, School E)
It was also obvious that many of the students
worked on their music at home:
I: Do you go on Numu at home or around school
to see what the other bands are doing around
the world?
S1: Yeah at home.
S2:Yup. (Students, School G)
You hear a song sometimes and you think, oh,
that sounds cool. And you go home or come to
class and you try it out. (Student, School E)
Further evidence showed that students are
demonstrating and expressing an interest in
learning other (new) instruments and there has
been an increase in the uptake of extra-curricula
instrumental tuition.
I: Any particular instruments that you’d like to
do ...
S1: Drums.
S2: Violin.
S3: Piano. Like, I play drums now but I think piano
would be nice to learn.
S4: I’d love to have a shot at the saxophone.
(Students, School E)
Musical Futures has had an impact on the
enrolments of instrumental music at the school.
Over the last year, the Middle Years enrolments
have increased by approx 30 students. These
enrolments have been on the drums, guitar,
bass, keys and voice. The instrumental program
previous to this had very poor enrolment
numbers, so this has dramatically increased the
instrumental music program at the school for the
Middle Years Students. (Teacher, School E)
Students and teachers constantly referred to how
enjoyable music lessons were and many of the
students classed music as either their favourite
subject or one of their favourites. One student
talked of how music at school contributed to their
general well being
It can help get things that worry you of your
mind… it just cheers you up. (Student, School E)
It should also be noted the impact that Musical
Futures has had on the parent and general
community. The Creative Arts Manager at School
E spoke Musical Futures creating a performance
culture in the community and educating the
community about performance etiquette. She
noted that few in the community generally
attended live performances until the advent of

Table 11: Conditions for and impact on social learning

Conditions created by Musical Futures
• Regular involvement of other classes
(as audience for performances)
• Group work
• Opportunities to jam with students
from other schools
• Social networking through NUMU
• Freedom to work in groups of choice
Australian Journal of Music Education
Evidence of impact
• Improved peer-peer mentoring
• Peer sharing of resources and information
• Report learning new things about friends/classmates
• Self-moderated behaviour and choices (e.g. “appropriate” choice
of song content)
• Express and understanding that team participation and
cooperation can lead to increased productivity and improved
outcomes
• Opportunities to help others boost self-conidence
• The teamwork and problem solving transfers to other learning
areas
• New friendships formed through music – music “connects” people
• Peers are reportedly very supportive of each other
• Development of leadership skills
• Students who generally ‘clash’ on a personal level, work
cooperatively in MF classes
• Have learned strategies to deal with diicult team members
159
Jeanneret
regular student performances on and of campus.
Social learning (working in teams, building social
relationships, seeking contact with and mirroring
behaviours of adult role models and/or capable
peers).
There was strong evidence of Musical Futures
having a signiicant impact on social learning in
both schools. The students often choose to work
with new people who shared musical interests or
ability, rather than by gender or friendship.
if we see that they’ve got a bit of extra talent in
one instrument, we might sort of say hey you
should try this or generally they start to realise,
then the other kids start to realise, so they’re like
Table 12: Conditions for and impact on musical knowledge and skills
Conditions created by Musical Futures
• Guidance from teacher (when needed), in terms
of instrument selection, material selection,
simpliication of material, instrumental techniques
• Performance expectation provides a goal
• Freedom to access technology support, such as
YouTube, Jam Hubs, NUMU
• Realistic expectation from teacher – “just do the best
you can do”
• Teacher’s belief in this learning approach
• Constant relection and discussion of performances
and learning
• Exposure and access to a range of instruments
• Opportunities to play instruments regularly
(developing skills on the instruments) aids future
musical learning
• Peer-peer assistance when facing musical problems
• Playing music that they like and know makes
learning easier for the students (several reports of
this)
• Teacher support for out of class rehearsals
• NUMU ofers a challenge. Students want to improve
to make their way up the charts
• Access to the online resources assists problem
solving
• Teacher modelling of music skills
• Listening skills required to “work out” the music –
especially when thrown In the Deep End
• Opportunities to record performances (when ready
or at the completion of the task) provides a goal
160
no, we need him in our group or, you know, oh he
should be able to go on drums because he can
keep the beat better. (Student, School G)
They reported learning new things about friends/
classmates, the value of peer sharing of resources
and information, and the new friendships
that had been formed through music. The
social networking aforded by NUMU was also
important.
Sometimes learning a new instrument that you
haven’t learnt before can be quite hard, but
you get used to it and Mr Smith and the other
classmates help you heaps. (Student, School G)
You ind some of your friends have talents that
Evidence of impact
• Students have developed skills on a range of
instruments (guitar – lead, rhythm, bass; keyboards;
drums – kit, bongos, congas; ukulele; vocals)
• Ensemble playing aids rhythm/beat/aural skills
• Learned how to read “sheet music”
• Ability to improvise
• Report that they can see an improvement over time
• New songs are easier to learn indicating
development
• Students are able to articulate technical diiculties –
in strumming, playing rhythms, ingering
• Awareness of the diiculties in learning new music
• Awareness of strategies to overcome diiculties
in learning new music – perseverance, teamwork,
regular rehearsal
• Students report an improvement in their ability
to hear and identify all of the components in new
recorded music (for example, they can recognise the
diferent instruments, rhythmic patterns, and even
chord structure)
• Evidence of skill level – second in the world NUMU
charts
• Students themselves feel that they are learning a lot
• Understanding that practice = improvement
• Comfortable use of “metalanguage” i.e. the
language associated with the discipline
• Highly articulate students in the interviews
demonstrated a well-developed capacity to relect
on and discuss Musical Futures
2010, No. 2

you didn’t even know that was there, it’s quite
amazing. (Student, School G)
Numu, the website that you can put your
recordings up for the whole world to see which
is quite interesting cos it kinda makes you feel
like you’re famous, well the kids are famous cos
people are coming down to listen to what you’re
played. (Student, School G)
The teachers observed that students, who
sometimes ‘clash’ on a personal level, worked
co-operatively in Musical Futures classes and
the students express and understand that
team participation and cooperation can lead to
increased productivity and improved outcomes.
I ind that they’re starting to problem solve,
they’re starting to work together as a team much
better, they’re mentoring, so students going to
other students for help rather than relying on the
teachers, the full source of knowledge, which is
the whole point of it as well. (Teacher, School G)
It really helps you work together, as a team,
because when we’re in our own little bands, and
stuf, things don’t always go as easy because
we have to listen to the songs and do our own
interpretation. But we have to learn how to
cooperate with our band, so everybody’s happy.
Because if one of them isn’t, then the whole band
gets messed up. (Student, School E)
There was improved peer-peer mentoring and
the students are very supportive of each other,
taking opportunities to help others boost their
self-conidence.
It’s diferent because it’s a more relaxed
environment. You don’t feel pressured to ... not
that you feel pressured, anyway, but it’s just
really relaxed and people enjoy themselves more
because they’re like, “Oh, I missed this. No, it’s all
right. Do it again.” (Student, School E)
They also appeared to be conscious of the
teamwork and problem solving transferring to
other learning areas.
S: And even though it’s music, like it helps you like,
it helps you in other like maths and like it helps you
in other subjects, you know what I mean?
I: In what way?
Australian Journal of Music Education
Musical Futures in Victoria
S: Like working as a team, like cos you come to
music and you do all the teamwork and stuf,
you get out and like maybe if you had a problem
working with a team, and the teacher would ask
you, can you work with a team, and you’ll be like
ine with it cos you’ve done it like so many times
with music. (Student, School G)
There was a development of leadership skills and
strategies to deal with diicult team members,
as well as self-moderated behaviour and choices
(e.g., “appropriate” choice of song content).
In our band, they nominated me as the leader,
the little ... things. And it’s just, you have to listen
to what people want. Like, if one’s not happy
with it, you can tell and you’re just like, “Well,
what do you think?” You have to always ask for
their opinion. Because, in the end, you do have
to inalise it but you also have to make sure
everybody can live with it. (Student, School E)
I: And how do you deal with that, when people
aren’t cooperating?
S1: We’ll kind of just say, “Everybody else is doing
it, so can you just try it?”
S2: Stop giving up. (Students, School E)
Musical Knowledge and Skills (applying
music conventions, developing and using music
skills techniques and processes, relecting on
compositions and performances, reinement
of compositions and performances, making
judgements, critiquing and evaluating own and
other’s works).
The best evidence that learning had taken
place in these classrooms was to observe the
lessons where the students were obviously able
to demonstrate their developing musical skills
and knowledge in the ensembles. Students had
clearly developed skills on a range of instruments
such as lead, rhythm and bass guitars; keyboards;
ukulele; voice and percussion (drum kit, bongos,
congas) and learned how to read “sheet music”,
as well as improvise. They were comfortable
setting themselves up at the beginning of the
lesson and all the lessons ran smoothly with the
students demonstrating an extraordinary level of
engagement in the tasks at hand. Recent research
(Imms, Jeanneret & Stevens-Ballenger, 2010)
about the arts in schools has shown that students
161
Jeanneret

Table 13: Adaptation for DEECD Primary school best practice research (Jeanneret, 2009) of success factors
identiied by the National Review of School Music Education (2005).
Success Factors Indentiied in the Case Study Schools
Staf factors Teaching practices and programme factors
Dedication and commitment  Diversity of musical repertoire 
Passion for music  Practical based 
Enthusiasm  Integration of listening, performing & composing 
Warmth/rapport  Integration class & co-curricular music 
Vision  Integration music & other curriculum areas 
Musical expertise  Recognition of diversity 
Continuity  Music used to enhance other learning 
Collegiality  Support for students with identiied needs 
Mutual respect between staf and students  Adherence to VELS 
Trust of students  Pedagogy and method of delivery 
Mentoring of new staf & teaching students  Provision of performance opportunities 
Provision of Professional Learning to others  Popular music focus 
Work in community music ed programmes N/A School culture factors
Specialist staf  Music as normal part of school life 
Expectations of musical excellence  Collaboration factors
Organisational skill  Between staf members 
Teaching partnerships with the community N/A Between principal & staf 
Student factors Between schools 
Responsibility  Between primary & secondary school 
Respect  Between school & community 
Enthusiasm  Between school & tertiary institutions 
Community factors Between school & external providers 
Availability studio teachers N/A Professional Learning factors
Valuing of music  For teachers 
High expectations  Resource factors
Provision of funding  System support 
Performance and enrichment opportunities  Space 
Parent factors Equipment 
Parental valuing of music  Technology 
Financial assistance or fund-raising  Development over time 
Participation in music activities  External providers (Soundhouse) 
Payment of music tuition fees  Timetable factors
School principal & executive factors Flexibility (music in school time) 
Endorsement of music in school  ICT (from primary best practice research)
Vision & passion for music  Availability 
Support through staing, timetabling, relief  Equipment 
Continuity of support  Software 
Budget  Integration into teaching program 
162 2010, No. 2

simply aren’t very good at being able to articulate
what they have learned in the arts when asked,
whereas their ability to produce artistic works as
a result of instruction demonstrates that learning
has taken place. The students interviewed for this
study were considerably more articulate about
their learning than previously encountered.
I: When you leave the lesson, what do you think
that you’ve learnt at the end of it?
S: We’ve learnt new chords and how to get along
with new people and ...
S: Maybe a new song.
S: A new instrument (Student, School E).
Well you can improvise on your work but in
maths you can’t, well you can, but it’s not fun.
(Student, School E)
I have a friend that has absolutely nothing to
do with music but then when he started Musical
Futures he actually got into it and now he
actually appreciates music a bit more than he
used to. (Student, School G)
They’ve performed nearly every week, like the irst
two terms of running, so term 2 and term 3 this
year, after every lesson they had to perform. No
matter what it was. If they learnt one note, they
had to perform that one note. If they learnt how
to hold a guitar correctly and get their ingers into
a chord position and play that one chord, then so
be it, you know. They had to perform what they
learnt. So they’re accountable for their learning.
(Teacher, School G)
How to keep in time with the drumbeat so you’re
not all over the place. (Student, School G)
How to read sheet music. (Student, School G)
Ensemble playing has aided their development
of rhythmic skills, a sense of beat and their aural
skills. The students reported that they could
see an improvement over time and that new
songs are easier to learn, indicating developing
knowledge and skills.
…you learn it for a fair bit of time and then like at
the stage now that we’ve learnt it for like a year
now, that like you will, say you get a task to learn
a song in two hours, you can do it like real easy
like just get in there and yeah just start playing
it, and yeah get real good at it so that’s the easy
part now. (Student, School E)
They also reported an improvement in their
ability to hear and identify all of the components
Australian Journal of Music Education
Musical Futures in Victoria
in new, recorded music (for example, they can
recognise the diferent instruments, rhythmic
patterns, and even chord structure) and feel they
are learning a lot in these classes.
Now I actually pick out the diferent instruments
in the song.
And it’s not just like you learn chords. You learn
how to igure out the chords. Like, you can listen
to a song and you can thing, that’s B chord or
A chord. And then you can go of and play it.
(Students, School G)
The students are able to articulate technical
diiculties they encountered (for example,
strumming, playing rhythms, ingering) and they
demonstrate metacognitive abilities in their
awareness of strategies to overcome diiculties
in learning new music such as perseverance,
teamwork and regular practice and rehearsal.
I: How do you think that you get to be like that?
S: Lots of practice, pretty much. (Student, School
E)
They are very comfortable using “metalanguage”
(i.e., the language associated with the discipline)
and the highly articulate students in the
interviews demonstrated a well-developed
capacity to relect on and discuss Musical Futures
as a learning program and the impact it has had
on them.
By way of a summary of the site visits, Table
13 shows how the two schools measure against
the adaptation for DEECD primary schools best
practice research (Jeanneret, 2009) of success
factors identiied by the National Review of
School Music Education (2005). The nature of the
Musical Futures program and its implementation
marry very well with what was identiied as a
national and state benchmarking standard.
Conclusions
In response to the irst research question, Has
Musical Futures had an impact on teachers’
conidence, pedagogy and professional
satisfaction?, there is considerable evidence
to support that Musical Futures and its
implementation has had a powerful impact
on the teachers’ conidence, pedagogy and
163
Jeanneret
professional satisfaction. The teachers have
referred this program and the associated
Professional Learning as having changed their
approach to teaching music in the classroom
and they are witnessing a positive change in
the school after only two terms (in most cases).
The second research question, What impact has
the Musical Futures approach had on students?,
has drawn quite extraordinary evidence of a
profound impact on students’ engagement, social
learning and development of musical knowledge
and skills in a relatively short time based on
the teachers’ observations and discussion with
some of the students. These young students are
well on the way to becoming very competent
musicians with well-developed aural and research
skills, as well as a strong sense of their own
learning and productive team-work. Although
not part of the research brief, it is obvious how
the Musical Futures approach can contribute
to the ten Australian Curriculum capabilities of
literacy, numeracy, ICT, thinking skills, creativity,
self-management, teamwork, intercultural
understanding, ethical behaviour and social
competence.
This is a relatively small study and there is
obvious potential in examining the longer term
outcomes of the program over a number of
years. It would be especially useful to explore
the impact the Musical Futures approach has
on other learning areas, given that David Price
is currently developing Learning Futures, which
uses the principles of the Musical Futures
pedagogy across learning areas.
Dr Neryl Jeanneret is the head of music education in the Melbourne Graduate School Education at The University of
Melbourne where she teaches and supervises in the primary, secondary and postgraduate programs. She has been
the National President of the Australian Society for Music Education and Chair of the International Society for Music
Education’s Commission for Policy.
164
References
Department of Education and Early Childhood
Development (2009). The e5 Instructional Model. http://
www.education.vic.gov.au/prolearning/e5/default.
htm Accessed April 30, 2010
Department of Education, Science and Training (2005).
National Review of School Music Education: Augmenting
the diminished. Perth: DEST & Centre for Learning,
Change and Development, Murdoch University
Green, L. (2002). How popular musicians learn: A way
ahead for music education. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
Green, L. (2005). Musical meaning and social
reproduction: A case for retrieving autonomy.
Educational Philosophy and Theory, 37(1), 77-92.
Green, L. (2006). Popular music education in and for
itself, and for ‘other’ music: Current research in the
classroom. International Journal of Music Education, 24
(2), 101-18.
Green, L. (2008a). Music, informal learning and the school:
A new classroom pedagogy. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
Green, L. (2008b). Group cooperation, inclusion and
disafected pupils: some responses to informal
learning in the music classroom. Music Education
Research, 10(2), 177-192.
Hallam, S., Creech, A. & Sandford, C. (2010). Survey of
Musical Futures: A report from Institute of Education,
University of London for the Paul Hamlyn Foundation.
http://musicalfutures.org.uk/resource/27229. Accessed
May 30, 2010.
Hutchinson, L. (2007). An investigation of the reasons why
students participate in on-going instrumental music
instruction in selected secondary schools in Victoria.
Unpublished thesis (DEd), University of Melbourne.
Imms, W., Jeanneret, N. & Stevens-Ballenger, J. (2010).
Partnerships between schools and the professional
arts sector supported by Arts Victoria: Research and
evaluation. Unpublished research report for Arts
Victoria and the DEECD.
Jeanneret, N. (2009). Primary Music Education in Victoria.
Unpublished report on research conducted for
the Department of Education and Early Childhood
Development, Melbourne.
Plummeridge, C. (1997). The rights and wrongs of school
music: A brief comment on Malcolm Ross’s paper.
British Journal of Music Education, 14, 23-27.
Ross, M. (1995). What’s wrong with school music? British
Journal of Music Education, 12, 185-201.
St George, J. (2010). The subjectivity of musical learning:
Understanding participation in instrumental music
instruction. Unpublished thesis (PhD), University of
Newcastle.
2010, No. 2

Music Education Research In
Australia – 2009-2010
Robin Stevens
Melbourne Conservatorium of Music, The University of Melbourne
The BAMER (Bibliography of Australian Music
Education Research) database has recently
been fully revised and updated, and all current
information has transferred to a new BAMER
website at <http://australian-music-ed.info/
BAMER/>. The BAMER website is part of the
larger ‘Australian Music Education Information
and Resources’ website at <http://australian-
music-ed.info> which has been developed as a
service to music educators and music education
researchers, both in Australia and overseas, and
focuses on various aspects of Australian music
education mainly from a scholarly research
perspective. This website also include links to the
‘History of Australian Music Education’ and ‘The
Curwen Method’ websites which are currently
hosted at the Deakin University website but will
be progressively re-located to the ‘Australian
Music Education Information and Resources’
website.
The new BAMER website at <http://australian-
music-ed.info/BAMER/> includes a downloadable
EndNote X3 library (as a zip ile) of all entries in
the BAMER database as well as downloadable
EndNote ‘output’ styles. Many Australian
universities now have an EndNote X3 user license
available to staf and students, but for those who
may not have access to the EndNote X3 program,
a printout as an rtf document (readable by all
word processors) of all BAMER entries is available
for download. In addition, there are links to
other useful databases including the Australia
and New Zealand Postgraduate Music Research
Thesis Register’s ‘Education and Pedagogy’
Australian Journal of Music Education
a u s t r a l i a n
s
a o c i e t y
f o r
s m u s i c
m
e d u c a t i o n
i n c o r p o r a t e d
e
listing at <http://www.musicresearchanz.
com/?q=taxonomy/term/21> and the
Australasian Digital Theses Program at <http://adt.
caul.edu.au/>.
The total number of entries in the BAMER
database is now 587 entries. There are 497
‘completed’ research studies of which 144
are completed doctoral theses/dissertations.
Additions to the database since the last report
are listed below in ‘Recently Completed Post-
Graduate Research Studies in Music Education’.
The Australian and New Zealand Association
for Research in Music Education (ANZARME) has
a new website which can be accessed at http://
www.anzarme.org. The new website includes
details of ANZARME’s XXXIIIrd Conference which
will be held at the Crowne Plaza on the Gold
Coast in Queensland from 6 to 8 July 2011.
Participants are invited to submit abstracts of
papers for presentation at the conference by the
closing date of 1 March, 2011. Each paper will be
allocated 20 minutes for presentation with an
extra 5 minutes for questions and discussion. For
further enquiries and submission of abstracts,
please contact Kay Hartwig <K.Hartwig@griith.
edu.au>.
The appointment of music education and
early childhood education specialist Susan
Wright to the Chair of Arts Education at The
University of Melbourne’s Graduate School
of Education was announced recently. Susan
comes from the National Institute of Education,
Nanyang Technological University in Singapore
where she was professor in the Department of
165
Stevens
Early Childhood and Special Needs Education.
Together with the appointment to professorial
chairs of Gary McPherson (Director of the
Melbourne Conservatorium of Music, The
University of Melbourne), Margaret Barrett
(Head of the School of Music at the University
of Queensland), and Huib Schippers (Director of
Queensland Conservatorium Research Centre at
Griith University) over the last couple of years,
Australian music education is now well served
in terms of research leadership. In addition,
there are now well experienced music education
researchers in place in Schools/Faculties of Music
or Education at most of Australia’s thirty nine
universities. Many of these music education
researchers are able to undertake supervision
of higher degrees by research and/or research
papers for coursework higher degrees. For
music educators who may be interested in
undertaking a research study for a higher degree,
it would be well worth browsing through the
EndNote X3 library or the listing of entries (in
the downloadable rtf document) of the BAMER
database to identify universities and supervisors
who may best be able to supervise in your area of
research interest. Where known, the supervisor(s)
of research studies have been included in the
most recent update of the BAMER database.
Researchers who are undertaking or have
recently completed a post-graduate research
study in music education and who have not yet
registered their projects with BAMER are asked
to do so using the online submission form on the
BAMER home page at <http://australian-music-
ed.info/BAMER/>. Any research news—such
as successful grant applications, conference
information or other announcements—of interest
to music education researchers can be submitted
for publication in the annual review of music
education research in Australia in the AJME.
Please send any such information to the Research
Editor (Robin Stevens) at <rstevens@australian-
music-ed.info>.
166
Recently Completed
Post-Graduate Research
Studies In Music Education
Camp, Fiona M. (2009), Is musical
achievement linked to learning styles? An
investigation into a Year 6 Instrumental
Band Program. Completed MEd thesis, The
University of Melbourne, Victoria.
Summary: This study examines the question
of whether musical achievement is linked to
learning styles. The research study focuses on
issues of multiple learning style deinitions,
positive and negative aspects of testing for
learning styles. Additionally the arguments for
and against the identiication and matching of
learning styles is explored. Popularity, commercial
appeal and avenues to achievement are major
issues arising out of the literature.
The research group is a Year 6 Band Program
at a Prep to Year 12 school in the north-west
suburbs of Melbourne. Participants included 56
students who play a range of band instruments
for the irst time. Academic results from students’
musical performances were compiled and
compared to the results of a learning styles
questionnaire. The questionnaire used was
Reid’s Perceptual Learning Styles Preference
Questionnaire (PLSPQ). Learning style questions
covered 6 major styles- Kinesthetic, Individual,
Group, Auditory, Visual and Tactile. Results from
the questionnaire were analysed in a quantitative
manner. Five analyses were run derived from
the questionnaire data pertaining to: the whole
cohort, gender, instrument type, achievement
level and the combination of all variables.
Results showed that diferences lie between
gender and achievement level. Levels of
achievement across the participants were
exceptionally high therefore certain components
of the research question could suggest further
research into medium to low achieving students.
Nonetheless, insight into learning styles of
beginner instrumentalists is found and informing
2010, No. 2

of educational practice is concluded. With this
stated, ground has arguably been established for
further research into this topic.
Ceresoli, Melinda Laurance (2010). The
Efectiveness of Spectrographic Analysis
Software for Identifying and Improving Tonal
Quality in Adolescent Female Vocal Students.
Completed MMusSts research report, The
University of Melbourne, Victoria (65 pp).
Summary: Young females experience vocal
change throughout the pre-adolescent years into
the young adult stage, and this afects not only
the speaking voice, but also the singing voice.
The approximate age range for the changes
to occur lies between 10 and 14 years. Lynne
Gackle, a prominent researcher in the area of
the female adolescent voice, has identiied the
vocal manifestations of the physiological changes
as insecurity of pitch, increased huskiness/
breathiness, decreased and inconsistent range
capabilities, voice cracking, hoarseness, general
vocal discomfort and diiculty in phonation, and
development of noticeable register breaks.
This research study focussed on tonal
problems, particularly that of breathiness, but
also included issues relating to registration and
vocal intensity. To assist adolescent vocal students
identify and improve these problems, the use of
real-time spectrographic analysis software was
used to determine whether it could be useful in
vocal lessons. This collective case study involved
ive female contemporary voice students from
a Victorian school. Testing involved singing into
a computer-based spectrographic software
application called Sing&See (Cantovation, 2003-
2008). Data on the efectiveness of the facility to
improve students’ tonal quality and registration
was gained through visual analysis, aural analysis,
student feedback and a written questionnaire.
The deliberate production by participants
of ‘twang’ sounds, glottal onset and staccato
singing was employed to determine whether
Australian Journal of Music Education
Music eduation research 2009-2010
tonal changes could be identiied immediately
on the screen and then, through either self
improvement and/or teacher-directed assistance,
the deicient tonal problems could be improved.
It was determined that the use of twang and
glottal onset were most eicient in producing an
instant reduction in breathiness. Due to the force
of vocal fold collision, glottal onset was used
under teacher supervision and could be injurious
to the voice if employed too often. With this in
mind, it was deduced that twang was the most
eicient and healthy way of instantly improving
voice quality.
Participants uniformly found the
spectrographic analysis software helpful in
increasing their vocal awareness. They were able
to see the varying levels of vocal strength and
breathiness throughout their range. In particular,
the participants could see how their strength and
breathiness improved with the use of twang and
glottal onset.
Chu, Kalaly (2008), Cross-modal experience
in music and visual art: their correspondences
and a new perspective of appreciation in
education. Completed PhD thesis, University
of New South Wales, New South Wales (272
pp).
Summary: The originality and signiicance of
this research is to use a ‘cross-modal’ perspective
to experience the ‘multi-dimensional’ nature
of the arts, speciically in the area of music
and the visual arts. This research will focus
on investigating common cross-disciplinary
attributes and apply them in the realm of
‘appreciation’ in aesthetic education in music and
visual art. The three major research problems
and issues in this dissertation are as follows: (1)
What are the common elements in music and the
visual arts? (2) Do people make correspondences
between music and painting by using the work
of painters and musicians? (3) How do we deine
the role of music and its adaptability in linking
167
Stevens
with other expressive forms in contemporary
education? Ultimately, the entire dissertation
serves to redeine the ‘value’ and uniqueness
of the arts (music and visual art) in the holistic
development of an individual, in particularly in
moulding and enhancing the skills of personal
and cultural expression. The aims in this research
are taken from various angles which correspond
with the questions about ‘interdisciplinary study’
and the ideas of ‘changing teaching and learning’
in the 21st century. Interdisciplinary Studies has
been a term which has provoked a great deal of
controversy in current educational development,
particularly in Asian countries, and especially in
music education. The originality of this research
lies in three areas. First, a cross-modal perspective
is used to explore the common elements in music
and visual art, especially in the dimensions of
‘brightness’, ‘intensity’ and ‘line’. Second, a cross-
modal perspective in music will be adopted.
Instead of focusing on the melody, harmony and
form of music repertoire, sensory qualities, such
as ‘brightness’, ‘intensity’ and ‘line’ will be used
as musical vocabulary to interpret cross-modal
perception in experiencing the arts. Third, this
dissertation will investigate the art experience,
especially the thinking and cognitive appraisal
in viewing the arts, of the creators and the
spectators.
Online Access: http://handle.unsw.edu.
au/1959.4/40929
De Francesco, Luca (2009), An empirical
study of children’s musical experiences in Italy,
South Africa, and Bali, discussing the nature
of the transmission of musical knowledge.
Completed PhD thesis, University of New
South Wales, New South Wales (303 pp).
Summary: The central interest of this thesis is the
nature of the transmission of musical knowledge,
and its meaning and purpose to diferent
societies and within diferent contemplations of
life and beliefs. In my case, I will speciically refer
168
to what I learnt from the ieldwork I carried out
in Southern Italy (2004), in some South African
contexts (2005), and in the village of Batuan (Bali,
Indonesia; 2006, 2007). All such experiences
will be put, so to say, in a ‘dialogue’ with each
other in order to suggest a few considerations.
The methodological tools employed to sustain
my argument are Cliford Geertz’s concept of
thick description, and the audio-visual material
collected throughout my ieldwork, which will
further support my commentary. Using Cliford
Geertz’s approach, I suggest that in exploring
the relationship between human beings and the
various practices of ‘music’ existing, as well as
their contents and aims, we need to look at music
not as an isolated element on its own, as mostly
conceived of in the West, but rather as an integral
aspect of life itself. The facts and observations
reported from my ieldwork show that what in
the West is called music and music education
can elsewhere be experienced and thought of
in very dissimilar ways. In the village of Batuan,
for example, music is not a special event, but an
ingredient of the local community’s life and its
spirituality. The inal ruminations will speculate
on the fact that in the West the fragmentation
through which life is understood, and that has
destroyed the bond between life and the arts,
is also relected in the educational system. In
modern Western societies, the detachment of
arts from life has created a craving and a need
for artistic exclusivity, which celebrates the
individualistic rather than the communal, and
aesthetics rather than spirituality, unlike Bali,
for example. As a starting point, we are asked
to ponder whether, and how, in the West we
can still entertain the hope to reconcile such a
fragmentation with a more holistic approach,
where music becomes equal to the other daily
activities taking place within our community
Online Access: http://handle.unsw.edu.
au/1959.4/43406
2010, No. 2

Garvis, Susanne (2010), An Investigation
of Beginning Teacher Self-Eicacy for the
Arts in the Middle Years of Schooling (years
4-9). Completed PhD thesis, University of
Queensland, Queensland (302 pp).
Summary: This study sought to investigate
beginning teacher self-eicacy for the arts in
the middle years of schooling (years four to
nine). In Queensland, Australia, it is a curriculum
requirement and expectation that generalist
beginning teachers shall teach the arts (dance,
drama, media, music and visual arts) as part
of the compulsory curriculum. Generally it
is assumed that beginning teachers acquire
relevant arts knowledge and skills in pre-service
teacher education. During pre-service teacher
education, it is assumed that beginning teachers
will develop positive teacher self-eicacy, leading
to future teacher efectiveness in teaching arts
education. Research suggests however, that
many generalist teachers do not feel conident or
capable in teaching the arts in their classrooms.
This implies that beginning teachers do not have
positive teacher self-eicacy beliefs.
Few studies have investigated current levels of
beginning teacher self-eicacy for arts education,
how teacher self-eicacy beliefs are formed
and what inluences teacher self-eicacy beliefs
in school contexts. Little is also known about
developing and supporting positive teacher
self-eicacy beliefs towards arts education in the
middle years classroom (year four to nine).
Through this investigation, I sought to
address this void through identifying existing
beginning teacher self-eicacy beliefs and the
ways in which individual self-eicacy beliefs
may be shaped through schools, community
and policy initiatives. I sought to identify ways
that beginning teacher self-eicacy beliefs for
the arts could be supported and maintained
within schools. Consequently, the importance
of this study lies in its exploration of the ways
that beginning teacher self-eicacy beliefs for
Australian Journal of Music Education
Music eduation research 2009-2010
arts education shape perceptions of teacher
efectiveness in the classroom.
Using a mixed method approach, the study
was undertaken in two phases. In the irst
phase, 201 beginning teachers participated in
a questionnaire that provided a snapshot of
current teacher self-eicacy beliefs towards the
arts across Queensland. Using an adapted teacher
self-eicacy scale, I was able to measure teacher
self-eicacy for each of the arts disciplines. I was
also able to examine contributors from the school
environment and policy agenda that inluenced
beginning teacher self-eicacy beliefs for the arts.
In the second phase of the study, to add depth
and understanding to individual beginning
teacher experience in relation to indings from
the questionnaire about teacher self-eicacy for
the arts, I employed a narrative-informed case
study approach. Four diferent school contexts
were chosen across Queensland, and interviews
were conducted with beginning teachers and
principals. Field notes and observations were
also collected. Using a narrative approach, data
were analysed and presented as four story
constellations. Each constellation revealed
the beginning teacher’s self-eicacy for the
arts, and the ways in which these were shaped
by collective school eicacy. The inluence of
community, curriculum reform and policy reform
also became known, directly and indirectly
inluencing beginning teacher self-eicacy with
the arts.
The indings trouble some of the taken
for granted assumptions about teaching arts
education in generalist middle years classrooms.
Beginning teachers revealed a diverse range
of beliefs towards the arts. Questionnaire data
established that beginning teacher self-eicacy
for each of the arts disciplines was signiicantly
lower compared to the teaching of Maths and
English. Beginning generalist teachers suggested
they do not have adequate content knowledge
and skills, received limited support and had few
opportunities for professional development.
169
Stevens
The story constellations revealed the inluence
of school beliefs, community beliefs and policy
beliefs on beginning teacher self-eicacy for the
arts. When the story constellations were placed
side by side, they brought to the surface critical
points for discussion and analysis about collective
eicacy, subject valuing, supportive networks
available and training of generalist teachers.
Findings provide key messages for schools,
teacher educators, administrators, policy makers,
the community and the arts industry about
supporting beginning teacher self-eicacy for
the arts. Findings also reinforce areas of need
and development for future policy initiatives
that encourage and support teacher self-eicacy
for the arts in the middle years of schooling
(years four to nine). Since the arts are considered
an integral part of the curriculum for students
in Queensland, a shared responsibility for the
delivery of quality arts programs is needed with
a democratic approach to planning, policy and
implementation.
Gower, Lily Lorraine (2009), An Investigation
into Interactive Music Video Games
and Children’s Musical Disposition and
Development. Completed BEd (Junior
Primary and Primary) (Hons) thesis, School
of Education, South Australia.
Summary: Interactive music video games are a
readily available, mainstream technology that
can be found in the lounge rooms of millions of
homes worldwide. At this time there had been no
signiicant literature on interactive music video
games in any context. This study investigated
the efect of interactive music video games on
children’s musical disposition. The perspective of
ive related areas were used in the investigation;
music education, musical play, music technology,
video games and youth culture.
The research was conducted using a qualitative
approach. Individual semi-structured interviews
were used to collect data. Eleven participants
were included in all; two professional music
170
teachers and nine students aged from eleven to
fourteen (ive male, four female).
Results indicated that playing interactive
music video games has a positive efect on
children’s musical disposition. Data showed that
the games help to develop some distinct musical
skills and musical knowledge whilst having a
positive impact upon the social and emotional
development of the players. The music teacher
participants acknowledged the potential of
interactive music video games to be incorporated
into the traditional music curriculum, however
both expressed a belief that the technology
ideally needs further development.
This research indicates that interactive music
video games are of high interest and importance
to students; therefore based on constructivist
learning theories, they should be taken into
consideration when developing lessons and
curricula. Further, the potential of the games to
beneit the musical disposition and development
of children suggest they could be included as
a music technology within music education.
Moreover, the research suggests that interactive
music video games may actually be beneicial to
young people’s personal and social development,
something of great consequence to all educators,
parents and developers of curriculum.
Howell, Gillian (2009), Beyond words: Newly-
arrived children’s perceptions of music making
and music learning. Completed MEd thesis,
The University of Melbourne, Victoria.
Summary: This thesis examines the way
refugee and immigrant children, newly-arrived
in Australia, perceive and describe music
learning and music making. Sited in a specialist
English Language School for primary school-
age new arrivals, it explores the meaning that
children from diverse cultural backgrounds and
prior schooling experiences ascribe to their
music classes and experiences, inviting their
perceptions of what they are learning, how they
learn it, what aspects of the music program most
engage and motivate them, and what sense they
2010, No. 2

make of the music program and its existence at
this school.
The study also focuses on the methodological
issues at play in a research context where
multiple languages, culture shock, and pre-
adolescent children with unknown pre-migration
experiences, coincide with a subject matter that
does not lend itself easily to spoken descriptions.
These include issues of interpretation and
assigning meaning, and the way that diferent
cultural values and expectations can inluence
participants’ responses. The researcher sought
to develop research methods and tools that
would efectively elicit the children’s responses,
supporting them in the unfamiliar research
environment, while remaining sensitive to their
preferred ways of communicating.
This is a qualitative multiple case study that
focuses on three individual students from diverse
cultural and schooling backgrounds, with the
school’s music program being the issue or
concern upon which they ofer their diferent
perspectives. Both within-case and cross-case
analysis was utilised, and a phenomenological
approach to the inquiry was embedded within
the case-study structure and research design.
Data were gathered by means of interviews
and participant observation, and were analysed
and interpreted for emergent categories and
themes, and for the additional meanings
hidden between what was not said, or within
awkward language, using interpretive poetics
methods and direct interpretations of individual
instances. Discussion points and conclusions
include the signiicance of the music pedagogy
in building shared understanding among
culturally-diverse children, the impact of culture
shock on children’s perceptions, the importance
of social learning contexts for newly-arrived
children, and methodological challenges and
recommendations for research with a similar
cohort of children.
Australian Journal of Music Education
Music eduation research 2009-2010
Lo, Pik Yu (2010), Piano teaching
methodologies used in the training of inal
year undergraduate performers at four
tertiary institutions in Hong Kong. Completed
PhD thesis, RMIT University, Victoria.
Summary: This study examines the piano
teaching methodologies used to train inal-
year undergraduate performance students
at four tertiary institutions in Hong Kong. As
there is a hierarchical relationship among the
philosophies, principles, and methodologies of
teaching, this study discusses two chief areas
of philosophy, ive principles, and six aspects of
teaching methodologies that were identiied in
the literature as being important in the teaching
of piano performance. The philosophies include
both philosophical ideas and philosophies
that are derived from practical experience.
The philosophical ideas investigated include
rationalism, empiricism, and pragmatism,
and the philosophies derived from practical
experience cover the issues of inculcating in
students an abiding enjoyment and love of music;
acknowledgement of the place of aesthetic
education in the teaching of piano; recognition of
the teacher’s and performer’s roles in transmitting
to others musical knowledge, personal insights,
and a signiicant expression of culture; ideally,
the need for pianists to be well-balanced
intellectually and emotionally and not narrowly
focused; the importance of instilling in students
a sense of humanity that goes beyond their role
as a mere pianist and, ideally, gives them a world
perspective.
The ive principles identiied relating to the
teaching of piano performance majors include:
the need to nurture in students an ability to
express emotions and ideas; the importance of
pianists producing a considered and appropriate
tonal quality; the importance of developing the
imagination and nurturing creativity; recognizing
the need for encouragement and stimulation in
171
Stevens
teaching; and committing to quality teaching.
These ideas provide the foundation for the
discussion of the methodologies of teaching
piano performance, which is divided into the
six aspects of technique, style, memorization,
practicing, acute listening skills (or extending
aural ability), and devising solutions to stage
fright. The aspect of teaching technique
includes the diferent ideas that teachers
have on artistic sense, mental imagery, hands
postures and physical movements, force, and
the use of technical exercises. The aspect of style
covers several topics, namely, understanding
the historical background of the music, the
interpretation of symbols, listening to music, the
relationship between music and other arts, and
a personal style. The four issues that relate to
the teaching of memorization are aural, visual,
kinaesthetic, and analytic memorization. The
aspect of practice includes practising with a
goal or target, practising with an intellectual
understanding of the cause of problems,
slow practise, and productive, efective, and
systematic practise. The three main areas for
extending the listening skills of performance
students include: the importance of listening to
recordings by professional artists; attending live
performances; and students recording their own
playing and critically evaluating it. The diferent
elements involved in relation to stage fright
include: good preparation as a basis for feeling
secure; performance rehearsal and performance
experience; acute aural awareness and aural
concentration; having a positive attitude; and
being relaxed.
The information in this research was collected
from the four tertiary institutions in Hong Kong
that ofer a Bachelor degree in music: the Hong
Kong Academy for Performing Arts, the University
of Hong Kong, the Baptist University of Hong
Kong, and the Chinese University of Hong Kong.
The heads of department of these institutions,
the teachers of inal-year undergraduate piano
performance students, and the undergraduate
students of piano performance themselves
172
participated in the research. The information
was collected from the participants through
an introductory questionnaire and subsequent
face to face interviews. Background information
on the four institutions, including their history,
facilities, curricula, and expectations of teaching,
was collected from the heads of department,
along with more general comments on the
institutions and Hong Kong society. Case studies
of the ten teachers are presented that include
the learning background of the teachers,
their philosophies, their principles, and the
teaching methodologies that they used to teach
technique, style, memorization, practice, and the
development of aural ability, and to solve the
problem of stage fright. The data from the heads
of department, teachers, and students were
analyzed, and the indings from this analysis are
presented. Models of philosophies, principles,
and methodologies of piano teaching are
proposed, and recommendations are ofered for
teachers, students, and institutions to improve
the quality of piano performance teaching.
Nguyen, Minh Thanh (2008), The efects
of Russian piano pedagogy on Vietnamese
pianists, with comparisons of efects of
Vietnamese piano pedagogy and UK piano
pedagogy. Completed PhD thesis, University of
New South Wales, New South Wales (410 pp).
Summary: Cultures in contact over a
considerable period inluence intellectual
traditions, practices and habits relating to
musical expression and the manner of teaching
it. This study investigates the efects of diferent
cultural contacts on Vietnamese student
pianists, especially from Russian-style piano
pedagogy and associated educational ideas
and methods in music conservatoires. The
purpose of this study was to compare various
teaching approaches and learning styles, and
the reactions of Vietnamese students to three
diferent sources of training of piano teachers:
Russia, Vietnam and England. Diferent sources of
2010, No. 2

training afected piano pedagogy, and diferent
musical traditions afected expression in piano
performance, especially where students are from
a cultural background diferent from that of their
teacher. Observations of actual piano lessons
were undertaken, and data were also obtained
from interviews and questionnaires and analysed
statistically. Results are reported and discussed
in relation to four prominent features of the
Russian piano school: achieving a powerful and
substantial sound; the requirement for ‘singing’
quality on the piano; the solid technical training
which requires an enormous amount of practice
time; and the necessity to play from memory.
These are four prominent features of the Russian
piano schooling. In addition, Vietnamese students’
problems regarding rhythmic accuracy highlight
an inherent diference between the Vietnamese
and Russian piano school. Major diferences and
similarities in teaching styles between Russian
teachers and those from the UK and Vietnam
were described and commented on under the
following headings: use of mental practice; the
role of listening; teacher demonstration; freedom
for students in learning and making decisions
(choice of repertoire; performance opportunities
for students; students’ emotional reactions); the
more liberal approach of the UK teachers; and the
piano teaching styles at the Hanoi Conservatory
that have been strongly inluenced by the Russian
piano school through Russian graduates’ teaching
in Vietnam. These indings have important
pedagogical implications. The more teachers
control there was in lessons, the less a student
would contribute to lessons actively. More liberal
or less authoritarian approaches to teaching
do not necessarily inculcate the discipline
required for high achievement technically
and expressively. There needs to be a balance
between liberal approaches and encouraging the
student to become autonomous in their eforts,
and ensuring that they realize the importance of
being disciplined in their practice habits.
Online Access: http://handle.unsw.edu.
au/1959.4/30558
Australian Journal of Music Education
Music eduation research 2009-2010
Park, Jeongmin (2009), Talent development
in music: a comparative study between
Sydney (Australia) and Seoul (Korea) on the
emergence of talent, especially the interface
between giftedness and talent. Completed
PhD thesis, University of New South Wales,
New South Wales (425 pp).
Summary: The purpose of this study is to
investigate factors which can inluence the
emergence of high musical ability during
the developmental process of musical talent
achievement, comparing students in Seoul
(Korea) and those in Sydney (Australia). The
main focuses of the investigation concern the
comparison of musical giftedness demonstrated
in early childhood, the developmental process,
and various factors, such as the environmental
and intrapersonal, which can afect the
emergence of talent, especially in those of
diferent cultural backgrounds. For this purpose,
Gagné’s Diferentiated Model of Giftedness and
Talent (DMGT, Gagné, 2003) was adopted as an
analytical tool for the present study, in particular
for empirical research. A total number of 137
students and 88 parents participated in this
research. Student participants consisted of two
groups: young musicians aged below 10 who
show high musical achievements; and teenage
students who are musically superior. All students
completed a questionnaire, and their parents
also completed a questionnaire. Data showed
some signiicant diferences between students
in the two countries. Three research instruments
are employed based on Harnischmacher (1997).
SCI (the Self-Concept Scale of Instrumental
Abilities), GOP (Goal Orientation of Practice) and
EAD (External Action Distraction) were included
in the student questionnaire in order to examine
intrapersonal catalysts (motivation) which can
afect the developmental process of musical
talent. A signiicant diference was found in SCI
between countries. Self-concept of student
groups in Sydney was signiicantly higher than
that of students in Seoul among all age groups
173
Stevens
concerning musical abilities. However, there
were no signiicant diferences in GOP and EAD
between students in Seoul and Sydney. Other
diferences emerged concerning the role of
parents, expenditure on music lessons, time
spent on practice, and environmental factors. In
particular, cultural milieu was revealed as one of
important environmental factors in the present
study.
Online Access: http://handle.unsw.edu.
au/1959.4/43522
Pursell, Finn (2004), The experimental
aesthetics of musical taste: the LeBlanc model,
arousal, complexity, and prototypicality.
Completed MMus thesis, University of New
South Wales, New South Wales (181 pp).
Summary: This thesis is a review of some of the
published literature on the determinants of music
preference, and an exploration of the nature of
music preference among a sample of university
students in Sydney, Australia. The review initially
gives the reader a picture of a cross-section of
the literature, followed by a focus on complexity
as the single most important determinant of
music preference. It is concluded that although
complexity may be a relevant factor in shaping
preferences, considered alone, it is most likely
a minor issue. A range of other factors is also
responsible for shaping our musical tastes. The
empirical research is an exploratory study on the
efects of training, age, and gender on patterns
of preference for styles of music. Patterns of
preference for 12 styles of music were examined,
and the efects of gender, age, and training
investigated. Subjects responded by indicating
their preference on a ten-point rating scale,
and information on gender, training, and age
was collected. Analysis of variance revealed
signiicant main efects for training and style. In
addition, the style by training, style by age, and
style by age and training interactions were all
signiicant. Results broadly support indings in
the mainstream literature regarding the efects of
174
age and training on preference; however, the lack
of efect of gender does not correspond to the
popular perception regarding the importance of
gender inluences.
Online Access: http://handle.unsw.edu.
au/1959.4/45665
Pursell, Finn (2010), Contrast as a general
perceptual principle in music and speech.
Completed PhD thesis, University of New
South Wales, New South Wales (291 pp).
Summary: This thesis engages the contrast
phenomenon in its various manifestations
across the diferent sense modalities in order to
assess the plausibility of contrast as a general
perceptual principle. There is some question as to
whether contrast may spill over into modalities it
is not commonly associated with. In particular, a
number of researchers have argued that contrast
occurs in audition and has similarities to the
brightness contrast illusion in visual perception.
For example, studies of noise pitch have noted
similar psychophysical properties to brightness
contrast and invoked the same underlying
neural mechanism. Furthermore, there is some
suggestion that contrast may come in a non-
simultaneous form characterised by perceptual
exaggerations arising from the contrasting
spectral content of successive auditory stimuli.
The speech perception literature on context
efects are engaged as it is in this domain that
there is some evidence for non-simultaneous
contrast. A study was conducted in which 34
subjects were presented synthesized tokens of
‘da’ and ‘ga’ diotically and dichotically following
the precursors ‘al’ and ‘ar’. Signiicantly more
‘da’ identiications were observed (F=62.85,
p=.000) following ‘ar’ precursors when stimuli
were presented diotically, whereas no signiicant
efects were observed in identiications of
the target for diferent precursors (F=.553,
p=.457) when targets were presented to the ear
contralateral to that of the precursor. Results fail
to support an explanation of the context efect
2010, No. 2

in the form of a causal mechanism with a central
locus. Rather, the locus of the context efect can
only be hypothesized to occur at the periphery of
the nervous system. This suggests that auditory
contrast may be a plausible explanation for
the context efect, and which if correct, may
be a universal phenomenon common to all
people regardless of environment and acquired
knowledge. Given these results, contrast is
explored more broadly. As generic use of the term
is often encountered in musical contexts, aspects
of music perception relating to contrast are
examined. Some theoretical ideas are put forward
in this capacity, focusing on an interactive neural
network approach to understanding hypothetical
structural contrasts, including tonal contrasts. The
thesis closes with a consideration of contrast-like
efects that may be of some relevance towards
understanding contrast more generally.
Online Access: http://handle.unsw.edu.
au/1959.4/44625
Robinson, Phillipa (2009), Examining and
deining the term ’musical culture’ stemming
from secondary curricula. Completed MEd
thesis, The University of Melbourne, Victoria
(124 pp).
Summary: Cultural exchange is implicit in human
interaction, and across the world a multitude of
musics can be found, each with its own distinctive
features.
In music curricula, the need to situate all
musics into categories has evolved, mainly for
the purposes of assessment. The International
Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma Program (DP) music
study guide refers to musics as belonging to
distinct ‘musical cultures’. However, diiculties can
arise for teacher and student alike when making
decisions regarding appropriately situating
diferent musics within particular ‘musical
cultures’, and this has implications for student
outcomes.
Australian Journal of Music Education
Music eduation research 2009-2010
Tang, Pan-Hang Benny (2009), Teaching
Music Composition with Computer-based
Technology in Hong Kong Primary Schools:
Critiques of Present Pedagogical Practices and
Recommendations for Future Development.
Completed PhD thesis, Deakin University,
Victoria (303 pp + 1 CD-ROM).
Summary: The music curriculum for Hong Kong
primary schools has focused to date almost
exclusively on singing, instrumental playing and
music listening. Musical creativity on the other
hand has been considered as an ‘optional’ activity.
However, creativity has been identiied as an
important generic skill in Hong Kong’s current
educational reforms (Curriculum Development
Council 1999). As most primary school music
teachers do not receive formal training in the
promotion of musical creativity, there have
been diiculties in implementing creative music
making activities in the general music classroom
environment.
Computers are widely accepted as useful tools
for teaching and practising musical composition.
Information Technology might therefore able
to assist Hong Kong primary school teachers
to implement creative music making activities.
However, of the eight hundred Hong Kong
primary schools, only fourteen receive inancial
support from the Quality Education Fund (QEF)
to set up with computer-based music rooms.
Of these fourteen schools, twelve have focused
on the application of technology on musical
creativity.
This study will develop a pedagogical
framework in order to propose a ‘blue print’
for future development of musical creativity in
primary schools. The study will be divided into
two phases. During the irst phase, diferent
strategies of utilizing Information Technology in
implementing creative music making activities
used by the music teachers in various Hong Kong
primary schools will be compared. During the
175
Stevens
second phase, a pedagogical framework will be
formulated with reference to principles derived
from research reported in the international
literature as well as from the investigation in the
irst phase.
This research aims to provide new information
for application to the area of music education
in Hong Kong, especially for the primary school
sector. The research will also demonstrate ways of
improving teachers’ professional knowledge and
skills in implementing music creative activities as
well as in employing information technology to
assist in music teaching and learning.
Wanzel, Lorna (2010), Independent music
teachers conducting collaborative practitioner
inquiry. Completed EdD thesis, University of
South Australia, South Australia.
Summary: The research indings presented in
this portfolio share the situated experiences
of ive independent music teachers (IMTs)
within a collaborative action research project
contextualized within a critical analysis of the
ield of independent music teaching in Canada.
IMTs work in isolation in their studios and except
for occasional meetings organized by Registered
Music Teachers Associations (RMTA), they rarely
meet professionally. The Independent Music
Teachers Research Group, (IMTRG) was formed
from members of the Halifax Chapter of the Nova
Scotia Registered Music Teachers Association with
the purpose of developing collaborative research,
breaking professional isolation and enhancing
the usual ways in which IMTs gain knowledge.
The research program reported in this portfolio
was undertaken by a founding member of the
IMTRG with the aim of investigating how IMTs
engaged in research and the changes this made
not only to their own professional practice but to
the ield more broadly.
Starting from an open stance, the springboard
for this investigation was the deceptively simple
question Why don’t IMTs generally conduct
practitioner research?; Considering this question
176
engaged the researcher in a process of personal
consciousness raising and formal research which
exposed the problematic nature of the everyday
lives of IMTs in the private music teaching studio,
their relationships to institutional knowledge
and the restraints on their forming collaborative
teacher researcher relationships. Three projects
were undertaken within an overarching
methodology of critical action research.
Qualitative methods were employed throughout
including textual analysis, interviewing and the
keeping of a relective journal.
The irst project is an analysis of the ield of
independent music teaching ield in Canada.
Using a critical discourse analysis approach, it
treats music teaching as a discursive ield within
which knowledge and power circulates. Mapping
the players in the ield and their relations sets
the scene for understanding the position of IMTs
and the nature of the challenge to the ield that
is represented by IMTs becoming knowledge
producers through participation in teacher
research.
The second project focuses closely on the
past and current professional experiences
of three IMTs who became members of the
IMRTG. Interviews are analysed to explore IMTs
relationships to knowledge, practice and identity.
The rationale for this focus is that forming the
IMTRG was intended to impact on these aspects
of the teacher-researchers lives by changing the
usual ways in which knowledge is produced for
professional practice in the ield of IMTs. This
project uses a feminist strategy of inquiry D.E.
Smith calls the everyday world as problematic. It
is used here to constitute the everyday world of
IMTs professional practice in the studio, a world
in which professional and personal identities
intersect. This establishes the context for
understanding the histories which IMTs bring to
their new role as researchers.
The third project describes and analyses the
IMTs collaborative action research process. It
gives a brief history of why and how the IMTRG
2010, No. 2

was formed, considers how the IMTs identiied
a focus for their research, gives a description of
the methods the group employed reports on the
collaborative process and presents the IMTs own
views of the outcomes. Based on observations,
interviews and artifacts, identify signiicant
aspects of the process including how IMTs worked
collaboratively; improved their knowledge and
understandings; shifted individual perspectives;
and attained commitment to outcomes for
professional practice.
Finally, in the meta-analysis I review all three
projects and discuss them in the light of broader
philosophical questions about the value of
learning, power and growth in the lives of music
teachers. I give evidence of the contribution this
research program has already made to changing
professional practice and knowledge and make
recommendations for future collaborations and
research directions.
Wu, Chao-Kuei (2010), Music Education and
ICT Integration: A case study of pedagogy
in Taiwan. Completed EdD dissertation,
University of Melbourne, Victoria.
Summary: With the growth of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT), the Ministry
of Education in Taiwan (MoE) released a policy
in 1998- the Grades 1-9 Curriculum Guidelines-
to encourage school educators integrating
ICT into all primary and junior high schools
curricula. In Taiwan, music is included in the
Arts and Humanities Learning Area in Grades
1-9 education and aims to develop students’
interest in arts and then to inspire their creativity,
aesthetic sensitivity, and appreciative ability.
Rather than composing and performing, music
appreciation which emphasizes the introduction
of basic history, theory, listening and composers’
biographies is almost the core course taught by
music teachers in Taiwanese music education.
However, I claim more successful teaching
and learning music will result from students’
engagement in musical praxis. Many studies have
Australian Journal of Music Education
Music eduation research 2009-2010
shown ICT have the possibility of providing music
education with a praxial approach to curriculum
enactment, and then produce more successful
teaching and learning of music, however a
diferent pedagogical approach is required. In
order to investigate the authentic practices of
integrating ICT into music curriculum in the music
classroom in Taiwan, a qualitative case study
has been designed, with the elements of both
participant observation, and interview which
aims to explore particular pedagogical practices
of integrating ICT into music teaching at one
junior high school in Taiwan.
Zurita, Javier Antonio Silva (2010), Music
and the Promotion of Cultural Identity: A
Case Study of an Indigenous Music Program
Introduced to the Curriculum of a Pewenche
Community School at Alto Bio-Bio in Chile.
Completed MMusSts research report,
University of Melbourne, Victoria (102 pp).
Summary: The indings from this research
relate principally to Mapuche-Pewenche cultural
activities, in which music is implicitly present
and plays an important role in the promotion
of aspects related to cultural identity. Moreover,
the design, implementation and outcomes of
these Mapuche-Pewenche cultural activities were
found to correlateto a reasonable extentwith the
methodologies and principles suggested by the
three facilitating factors cited by UNESCO. Given
the lack of a Mapuche-Pewenche curriculum in
Music and/or Aesthetic Education, the principal
recommendation from this research is for the
future design and development of a sequential
and developmental set of curriculum materials
based on Mapuche-Pewenche music. I believe that
the development of further research in this area is
essential to improve the approach of intercultural
issues not only for Pewenche people, but also for
other Mapuche communities and other ethnic
minority groups in Chile as they strive to maintain
and then enhance their sense of cultural identity.
177
Reviews

Kodály Today thought provoking way. From chapter two

onwards, each chapter culminates in the devising
Houlahan, M. & Tacka, P. (2008). Kodály Today of a lesson plan that uses the information taught
New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978- in that chapter, added to what has been taught
0-19-531409-0, Pb, 617pp. in previous ones giving us an insight into lesson
planning that goes beyond the cursory. Each
Kodály Today was written by Mícheál Houlahan
chapter begins with a series of key questions the
and Philip Tacka after working with music
authors set out to answer and concludes with
instructors for over a decade “to learn and
another series of discussion questions and an
understand the pedagogical needs and concerns
ongoing assignment topic making it suitable for
of music specialists” (p. 4). They discovered
use as a text for universities and higher education
that these teachers had concerns “about the
providers. Each chapter also has a general
lack of speciicity concerning issues relating to
bibliography which would prove very useful for
the teaching of music according to the Kodály
further study.
philosophy of music education” (p. 4). As a result
The irst three chapters of the book give
of this research Houlahan and Tacka have written
practical advice on setting up or starting a
this text “as a basic introduction to the Kodály
Kodály based music curriculum. The irst chapter
vision of music education for experienced music
“Constructing a Teaching Resource Portfolio”
instructors, inservice and pre-service teachers,
gives the authors’ views on what “practical
and college methods professors who are looking
information an instructor will use for teaching
for a way to enhance the musicianship of their
music” (p. 9) and suggests ways to organise
students” (p. 4).
and process this information to make it readily
The authors have achieved their aim “to
available for teaching purposes. The current
provide elementary level music instructors with a
relevance of this text is highlighted here with a
practical guide for teaching a Kodály-based music
list of key components of a Teaching Resource
curriculum” (p. 5) and have done so in an orderly
Portfolio such as “Statement of Teaching
and logical, although sometimes wordy, manner.
Philosophy and Relective Practice” and “Critical
Kodály Today is illed with copious amounts of
Thinking, Problem Solving, and Music Literacy
information on everything Kodály, including
Goals” (p. 9).
selecting repertoire for the classroom; teaching
Chapter Two “Kodály’s Philosophy of Music
traditional music notation alongside rhythmic
Education” gives a summary of biographical
and melodic solfège syllables; designing lesson
information on Kodály and his philosophy of
plans that develop critical thinking; developing
music education as is expected in texts such
rhythmic and melodic strategies for developing
as these. However, the feature that makes this
musical skills and creating assessment tools for
text stand out is the way the authors link the
use in the Kodály music classroom. While having
most important aspects of Kodály’s concept of
been written speciically for the North American
music education with the American National
elementary (primary) levels of Grades One to Five,
Content Standards for Music Education. Whilst
the information in this book can just as easily be
clearly being diferent to ours, the way in which
applied to any level of music education being
Houlahan and Tacka have approached this task
taught and its, with little adjustment, into the
gives ample information for any teacher to use
Australian way of thinking.
when doing the same within their own music
The main part of the book is divided into
education system.
eleven chapters, each of which builds on the
The next chapter deals with “Selecting Music
information of the previous one in a clever,

178 2010, No. 2


Repertoire for the Classroom” (p. 37). One of the
issues often faced by classroom music teachers
using a Kodály approach to their teaching is the
choice of music for use in teaching and this is
addressed clearly, helpfully and in great detail.
Chapter Four “Children as Performers: Singing,
Movement, and Playing Instruments in the
Elementary Music Classroom” (p. 71) deals with
strategies used to present songs, to develop
the students’ singing voice, for introducing
instruments and for the use of movement in
the classroom. Chapter Five “Children as Critical
Thinkers and Problem Solvers: Developing Music
Literacy Skills” (p. 115) continues this focus,
aiming “to discover how to develop the children’s
music literacy skills based upon the repertoire
they are performing in the classroom. In other
words, the common rhythmic and melodic
elements (building blocks) within the repertoire
become the basis for teaching music literacy” (p.
116).
The next four chapters “provide information
to assist you in developing your students’
music literacy and critical thinking skills” (p.
11) including strategies for teaching rhythmic,
melodic and other music concepts to be
taught, details for lesson planning and teaching
techniques for the development of other musical
skills such as reading, writing, inner hearing,
improvisation etc.
It is in Chapter Six that this text departs
from what is generally known to be traditional
Kodály pedagogy by adding several steps,
or clariications, to the “preparation, present
and practice” elements of a typical Kodály
teaching strategy. Extending upon the “sound
before symbol” principle, the authors have
been inluenced by the work of Jerome Bruner.
“Bruner’s theory of instruction proposes that
learning may be accomplished using three
teaching strategies: (1) enactive, (2) iconic,
and (3) symbolic” (p. 144). By using this theory
as a starting point, Houlahan and Tacka have
further developed the “preparation” phase
Australian Journal of Music Education
Reviews
(which they refer to as “The Cognitive Phase”
p. 145) of a teaching strategy to include more
specialized steps to ensure that students fully
understand all aspects of each musical element
or concept being taught before it is presented:
that of developing kinesthetic, aural and visual
awareness. The “presentation” or “Associative
Phase” (p. 151) of their construct has two separate
parts – the irst being to associate the sound with
the name (rhythmic or melodic solfège syllable)
and the second to associate the sound with
its symbol or traditional notation. This chapter
makes a thorough comparison of this version
of a teaching strategy and the more traditional
version making it easy for a Kodály trained
teacher to understand, adopt, adapt or discard
the new additions as desired.
Now that the big picture has been dealt with,
the next three chapters lesh out the “how to”
aspect with literally hundreds of strategies, ideas
and suggestions for the development of the
musical skills teachers wish to impart to their
students. There are lists of practice activities for
rhythmic and melodic elements, improvisation
and composition, part singing, form, harmonic
hearing and listening. Chapter Eight focuses on
the rhythmic and melodic strategies themselves,
explaining in great detail the additional steps
now required to teach these elements and
concepts. These strategies are divided across the
ive year levels that this book is aimed towards
teaching and include extensive song, game and
listening material lists. Chapter Nine puts all this
information into context by linking lesson plan
types with each grade’s curriculum goals and
objectives.
Chapter Ten makes a cursory foray into
teaching the older beginner and talks about
the choice of repertoire and sequence required
for this type of student. The inal chapter:
“Evaluation and Assessment” leaves us with
many considerations about the importance
and purpose of assessment and how to make
this an intrinsic part of our lesson planning and
implementation.
179
Reviews

No review of this book would be complete Piano Lessons

without a mention of the appendices, of which
there are four that are incredibly thorough Anna Goldsworthy (2009). Piano Lessons.
and detailed. The irst “Curriculum Goals” Melbourne: Black Inc. ISBN 9781863954433,
goes through each grade and outlines what PB, 224pp
curriculum goals should be attained by the
Piano Lessons is an elegantly crafted piece of
students by the end of that school year. The next
writing from its organisation, through its array of
two: “Alphabetical Song List” and “Pedagogical
characters, to the descriptive account of learning
Song List” list the songs used for each Grade
music. Anna Goldsworthy presents an account of
but according to name in Appendix Two and
her growth and development as a musician and
pedagogical use in the third. The fourth and inal
as a person.
appendix: “Monthly Plans” contains 82 pages of
The book is organised in three parts with a
plans for each month of each year level to be
coda. Each chapter takes as its title a composer’s
taught. These include activities for all aspects of
name. Associated with the composer is a
a strategy including preparation, presentation,
particular musical work which was the focus at
practice, reading, writing, inner hearing, form etc.
that time in her life. The composers/chapters
In conclusion, this is an extremely
of Part 1 are Bach, Mozart, Shostakovich
comprehensive and exhaustive text which ills
and Debussy. Part 2 consists of Beethoven,
a gap in the current Kodály music teaching
Schubert, Mozart, Chopin, Liszt and Prokoiev.
literature. It has enough information for an
Part 3 includes Bach, Rachmaninov, Beethoven,
experienced teacher to improve their teaching
Shostakovich and Khachaturian. The coda
and rethink their current teaching practices but
comprises Mozart and Chopin.
at the same time manages to give the basic and
Central to the book are the two main
necessary elementary knowledge a beginning
characters: Anna Goldsworthy and her teacher
Kodály teacher would need in their irst venture
the Russian pianist, Eleonora Sivan. With each
into this type of music teaching. The relevance
chapter (and each piece of music) we are
of the research undertaken by Houlahan and
introduced to the cascade of events in Anna
Tacka and the linking to current educational
Goldsworthy’s life, her experiences and the
requirements and standards helps to bring this
anguished ease with which she approached the
exceedingly valuable and successful method of
learning and performing of the repertoire. The
music teaching into the 21st century.
compressed chronology of life unfolds among
the family members and the ever daunting
milestones that are so much of the forward low
of the writing.
The reader is taken on a musical, educational
and emotional journey through the study and
Deborah Smith is an authority on the Kodály
approach to teaching and aural training. She has held performance of so many works that have been
teaching positions in many schools and is a highly important in her musical education. It is not just
sought after presenter at conferences and seminars. the musical works, it is the glimpses of the life
She is the author of Musicianship & Aural Training (and people) that surrounds the learning and
for the Secondary School: a comprehensive series of performance of the work. The guidance and
student workbooks, teacher manuals and CDs for the direction of the teacher, the insights, inspiration
teaching of musicianship, theory and aural training for and anxiety of the performer are portrayed
the secondary school.
admirably.

180 2010, No. 2

 A regret I felt while reading the book was
that I had to search out some of the works
being discussed. This was rectiied when a CD to
accompany the book was released in 2010. The
CD contains a selection of the works performed
by Dr Goldsworthy and includes an array of
works: small pieces by J. S. Bach, Shostakovich
and Debussy, sonata movements by Mozart,
Beethoven and Chopin, and other works such
as the Prokoiev Toccata Op. 11, Schubert A lat
Impromptu, Chopin Nocturne in D lat major, and
the Liszt Rigoletto Paraphrase.
This memoir is a lovely tribute to a teacher. It
afords us the opportunity to recall our teachers
and their approach to music and to teaching.
Equally it provides us with the opportunity to
consider the way we approach learning and
teaching, as well as the place of music in our life.

David Forrest is ASME Publications Editor.

Australian Journal of Music Education 181

 AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION
ISSN: 0004-9484
Editor: Associate Professor David Forrest
PO Box 5, Parkville, Victoria 3052
Tel: +61 3 9925 7807
E-mail: publications@asme.edu.au

The Australian Journal of Music Education (AJME) publishes articles that enhance knowledge regarding
the teaching and learning of music with a special interest toward the Australian music education
community. This may include articles that report results of quantitative or qualitative research studies,
summarize bodies of research, present theories, models, or philosophical positions, etc. Articles should
include a discussion of implications and applications to music teaching and learning, deined broadly.
The Australian Journal of Music Education is a fully refereed journal, which aims to provide clear,
stimulating and readable accounts of current issues in music education. In particular, it strives to
strengthen professional development and improve practice within the ield of music education.

Manuscript preparation
Abstract
The manuscript should include an abstract of not more than 200 words.

Presentation
The type size of the font should be no smaller than 12 points and be double-spaced.
Tables and igures should be no smaller than eight points.

Length
Normally between 3,000 and 10,000 words. The entire manuscript including the abstract and any igures,
tables, drawings, and references, generally should not exceed 20 pages.

Biographical note
Authors are requested to include a short biographical note of no more than 100 words.

Title page
The title page must include the following information: title of article; author’s name; current position and
institution; current email, postal address, and telephone number.
There should also be the following statement on the title page: “This article is submitted exclusively to
the Australian Journal of Music Education and, if accepted for publication, it is agreed that it will become
the copyright of the Australian Society for Music Education.”

Style
All quantitative research articles should conform to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association (5th ed., 2001). Non-quantitative articles may conform to APA style, The Chicago Manual of
Style (15th ed., 2003), or A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations (K.L. Turabian, 7th
ed., 2007). Authors may not mix styles within a single manuscript.

182 2010, No. 2

Language
Writing should be clear, and jargon free; subheadings are useful in long articles.

Stereotyping
All forms of racial and gender stereotyping should be avoided.

Abbreviations, acronyms
Should be given in full at their irst mention, thus: Australian Society for Music Education (ASME).

Submission
Articles should be sent electronically to the Editor.

Review Process
The Editor will acknowledge manuscripts upon receipt. All manuscripts will then be sent out by the
editor for anonymous editorial review by members of the AJME Editorial Committee. To preserve
anonymity in the review process, the manuscript and abstract should contain no clues to the author’s
identity or institutional ailiation (they should appear only on the title page which will not be sent out).
Contributors can usually expect a decision concerning the acceptability of a manuscript for publication
within three months after receipt. Accepted articles will appear in the order in which they were accepted
as publication space allows in the AJME.
In reviewing the article, the referees are asked to consider the following:
1. appropriateness of the article for the members of the Australian Society for Music Education
2. scholarly content
3. relevance of the issue for Australian music education today
4. writing style (including, clarity of presentation)

Copyright
Author(s) are responsible for compiling and ensuring that any material that has inluenced the research
or writing has been properly cited and credited both in the text and in the list of references.
Once accepted for publication in AJME the author(s) assigns literary rights on the published article to
ASME, so that the author(s) and the Editor are protected from misuse of copyright material.
However, the Editor should be informed at the time of submitting an article if any of the material has
been used elsewhere.

Multiple Submissions
Manuscripts should not be under consideration for publication elsewhere.
Intending authors are encouraged to contact the Editor if they have any questions or concerns. The
Editor is particularly keen to assist prospective authors who may be considering submitting an article.

Australian Journal of Music Education 183

 a u s t r a l i a n

s
a o c i e t y

f o r
s m u s i c

e d u c a
m
t i o n

i n c o r p o r a t e d
e
AUSTRALIAN SOCIETY FOR MUSIC EDUCATION (ASME)
ASME:

• supports the right of every Australian to access a quality music education

• promotes continuous, sequential and developmental music education
• assists educators to develop and extend their professional knowledge and
skills in music education
• seeks to improve the status of music education in Australian schools
• provides a forum for the exchange of ideas
• promotes the rich diversity of Australian music
• promotes the incorporation of emerging technologies in music education
• encourages innovative pedagogies in music education

ASME publishes The Australian Journal of Music Education, ASME Update, State Newsletters and Journals,
reports of ASME conferences and other relevant publications. ASME organises conferences, lectures,
seminars and workshops at both national and state levels.

ASME is Australia’s ailiate organisation of the International Society for Music Education (ISME), which
exists under the auspices of UNESCO’s Music Council. ASME also represents music education on the
National Ailiation of Arts Educators (NAAE).

For further information on ASME and membership details contact the ASME National Website: http://
www.asme.edu.au

Comments on ASME publication

If you have any comments on how to improve or enhance ASME publications, or would like
to make a contribution please contact David Forrest on publications@asme.edu.au or
telephone (+61 3) 9925 7807 (w).
 Australian Journal of Music Education
ISSN 0004-9484

Contents Volume 2010,2

Contributed papers Page

Editorial ............................................................................................................................................................................ 3
– David Forrest

Young children and music: Adults constructing meaning through

a performance for children ....................................................................................................................................... 5
– Berenice Nyland, Jill Ferris and Jan Deans

A music collaboration with early childhood teachers ..................................................................................17

– Lucy Bainger

Middle years teachers’ past experiences of the arts: Implications

for teacher education .......................................................................................................................................................................28
– Susie Garvis and Donna Pendergast

In their voice: Lower secondary school students’ beliefs about playing musical
instruments, and the impact of the instrument lesson upon those beliefs ..........................................41
– Geofrey Lowe

The perilous path from proposal to practice:

A qualitative program evaluation of a regional music program ...............................................................52
– Helen Grimmett, Nikki S. Rickard, Anneliese Gill and Fintan Murphy

Experiences and understandings:

Student teachers’ beliefs about multicultural practice in music education .........................................66
– Dawn Joseph and Jane Southcott

A ten year follow-up investigation of preservice generalist primary

teachers’ background and conidence in teaching music ...........................................................................76
– Deirdre Russell-Bowie

Cassie: A gifted musician. Socio-cultural and educational perspectives

related to the development of musical understanding in gifted adolescents ....................................87
– Michelle M. Tomlinson

Gesture as a tool of communication in the teaching of singing ............................................................ 103

– Julia Naisi
 Australian Journal of Music Education
ISSN 0004-9484

Contents cont. Volume 2010,2

Trauma-related dissociation as a factor afecting musicians’

memory for music: Some possible solutions ................................................................................................ 117
– Inette Swart, Caroline van Niekerk and Woltemade Hartman

Dalcroze Eurhythmics: Interaction in Australia in the 1920s ................................................................... 135

– Joan Pope

Musical Futures in Victoria ................................................................................................................................... 148

– Neryl Jeanneret

Music Education Research In Australia – 2009-2010 .................................................................................. 165

– Robin Stevens

Reviews
Houlahan, M. & Tacka, P. (2008). Kodály Today .............................................................................................. 178
– Deborah Smith

Anna Goldsworthy (2009). Piano Lessons........................................................................................................ 180

– David Forrest