JEFFREY R.

GORRE EE 321 - ELECTRICAL MACHINE 2

CHAPTER VI

TRANSFORMER

6.1. Fundamentals of Transformer

A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus by means of which electric power in
one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another circuit. It can raise or lower the
voltage in a circuit but with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. The physical basis of transformer is
mutual induction between two circuits linked by a common magnetic flux. In its simplest form, it consists of
two inductive coils which are electrically separated but magnetically linked through a path of low reluctance as
shown in figure. The coils possess high mutual inductance. If one coil is connected to a source of alternating
voltage, an alternating flux is set up in the laminated core, most of which is linked with the other coil in which it
produces mutually induced emf (according to Faraday’s Laws of electromagnetic induction e = MdI/dt). If the
second coil circuit is closed, a current flows in it and so electric energy is transferred (entirely magnetically)
from the first coil to the second coil. The first coil , in which electric energy is fed from the ac supply mains, is
called primary winding and the other from which energy is drawn out, is called secondary winding. In brief, a
transformer is a device that (1) transfers electric power from one circuit to another (2) it does so without a
change of frequency (3) it accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction and (4) where the two electric circuits
are in mutual inductive influence of each other. Figures 1 and 2 show the primary and secondary winding.

Figure 1 Figure 2
(p.1116, Theraja, B.L. and Theraja, A.K. A Textbook of Electrical Technology)

The simple elements of a transformer consist of two coils having mutual inductance and a
laminated steel core. The two coils are insulated from each other and the steel core. Other necessary parts are:
some suitable container for assembled core and windings; a suitable medium for insulating the core and its
windings from its container; suitable bushings (either of porcelain, oil-filled or capacitor-type) for insulating and
bringing out the terminals of windings from the tank. In all types of transformers, the core is constructed of
transformer sheet steel laminations assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path with a minimum of air-gap
included. The steel used is of high permeability and a low hysteresis loss at the usual operating flux densities.
The eddy current loss is minimized by laminating the core, the laminations being insulated from each other by a
light coat of core-plate varnish or by an oxide layer on the surface. The thickness of laminations varies from
0.35 mm for a frequency of 50 Hz to 0.5 mm for a frequency of 25 Hz. Figures 3 and 4 show the voltage
transformation from primary to secondary coils.
Figure 3 Figure 4

(p.1116, Theraja, B.L. and Theraja, A.K. A Textbook of Electrical Technology)

66
 Constructionally, the transformers are of two general types, distinguished from each other merely by the
manner in which the primary and secondary coils are placed around the laminated core. The two types are
known as (i) core-type and (ii) shell-type. Another recent development is spiral-core or wound-core type, the
trade name being the spirakore transformer. In the so-called core type transformers, the windings surround a
considerable part of the core whereas in shell-type transformers, the core surrounds a considerable portion of the
windings as shown schematically in figures 5 and 6.

Figure 5 Figure 6
(p.1117, Theraja, B.L. and Theraja, A.K. A Textbook of Electrical Technology)

6.2. Induced EMF Equation

E 4.44 Nf m
Where: E = rms voltage induced (volt)
N = number of winding turns
f = frequency of the flux (Hertz)
m = peak value of the flux (weber)

6.3. Equivalent Circuit of an Ideal Transformer

A transformer is ideal if its core is loss less, has no leakage flux and has no copper losses in its
windings.

E1 4.44 N1 f m E2 4.44 N 2 f m m m A
Where: E1 = voltage induced in the primary windings (volt)
E2 = voltage induced in the secondary windings (volt)
f = frequency of the supply voltage (Hertz)
N1 = number of turns in the primary windings
N2 = number of turns in the secondary windings
m = maximum or peak value of the flux in the core (weber)
m = maximum flux density (weber/sq. m or Tesla)
A = cross sectional area of the core (sq. m)
67
 If the maximum flux is given in unit maxwells,
8 8
E1 4.44 N1 f m x10 E2 4.44 N 2 f m x10 m m A
= maximum flux density (maxwells/sq. cm or maxwells/sq. in.)
m
A = cross sectional area of the core (sq. cm or sq. in.)

Ideal Transformer Ratios:

2
I1 N2 1 E1 N1 Z1 N1
a a2
I2 N1 a E2 N2 Z2 N2
Where: N1/N2 = a = turns ratio
E1/E2 = voltage ratio
I1/I2 = current ratio
Z1/Z2 = impedance ratio

Sample Problem 1: The net cross section of the core of a 60-cycle transformer is 20 square
inches. The maximum flux density in the core is 50,000 lines per square inch. If there are 900 turns in the
primary and 90 turns in the secondary, determine the rated voltage of the primary and secondary.
Answer :
8
E 4.44 Nf m Ax10
8
E1 4.44(900)(60)(50, 000)(20) x10 2397.6 volts
8
E2 4.44(90)(60)(50, 000)(20) x10 239.76 volts

Sample Problem 2: A single-phase transformer is rated 4,160V primary and 250V

secondary. If it has 1,500 turns in the primary, what should be the number of turns in the secondary winding?
Answer :
N1 E1 N1E2 (1500)(250)
N2 90 turns
N 2 E2 E1 4160

6.4. Equivalent Circuit of a Practical Transformer

Where: R1, X1 = resistance and reactance of the primary winding

R2, X2 = resistance and reactance of the secondary winding
Xm = magnetizing reactance of the primary winding
Rm = resistance representing the iron losses
Eg, Ig = supply voltage and current drawn from supply
Pm = iron losses
Sm = apparent power absorbed by the core
Qm = reactive power needed to set up the mutual flux
68
 E12 E12
Sm E1 I 0 Qm Sm 2 Pm 2 Rm Xm
Pm Qm

6.5. Equivalent Circuit of a Practical Transformer at No-Load and Full-Load

Note: At full load Ig is at least 20 times bigger than I0, consequently I0 can be neglected and the
corresponding magnetizing branch. This equivalent circuit can be used even if the loading is only 10% of the
rated capacity of the transformer without sacrificing the accuracy of the solution.

Sample Problem: A certain transformer has a ratio of 8 is to 1. The primary winding

resistance is 0.00283 ohm per turn and has 1155 more turns than the secondary winding. If the copper loss in
the primary is 20% less than in the secondary, find the resistance of the secondary winding.
Answer :
N1 8
N1 8N 2
N2 1
N1 N 2 1155 8N2 N 2 1155
N 2 165 turns; N1 1320 turns
Pcu1 0.8 Pcu 2 I12 R1 0.8( I 22 R2 )
2 2
I1 N2
R1 0.8 R2 (0.00283 N1 ) 0.8 R2
I2 N1
substitute :
2
1
(0.00283)(1320) 0.8R2 R2 0.073
8

69
 Shifting Transformer Parameters from Primary to Secondary or Vice-Versa:

2 2
N1 N1
Re1 R1 R2 X e1 X1 X2
N2 N2

2 2
N2 N2
Re 2 R2 R1 X e2 X2 X1
N1 N1
Z e1 ( Re1 ) 2 ( X e1 ) 2 Ze2 ( Re 2 ) 2 ( X e 2 ) 2
Where: Re1 = equivalent resistance referred to the primary side
Re2 = equivalent resistance referred to the secondary side
Xe1 = equivalent reactance referred to the primary side
Xe2 = equivalent reactance referred to the secondary side
Ze1 = equivalent impedance referred to the primary side
Ze2 = equivalent impedance referred to the secondary side

Sample Problem: A 2200/200 volt transformer has a primary resistance of 2.4 ohms and a
secondary resistance of 0.02 ohm. Determine the equivalent resistance referred to (a) the primary side (b) the
secondary side.
Answer :
2 2
N1 2200
Re1 R1 R2 2.4 0.02 4.82
N2 200
2 2
N2 200
Re 2 R2 R1 0.02 2.4 0.0398
N1 2200
Alternate solution to solve Re2:
2 2 2
Re 2 N2 N2 200
Re 2 Re1 4.82 0.0398
Re1 N1 N1 2200

70
 6.6. Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer Referred to the Secondary Side

2 2
E2 V2 cos I 2 Re 2 V2 sin I2 X e2
Where: V2 = load voltage
I2 = load current

+ (sign) = if power factor is lagging

- (sign) = if power factor is leading

Using Complex Number Format: E2 V2 00 I2 Re 2 jX e 2

-
2 and V2

Sample Problem: A 10 kVA, 2400/240V single-phase transformer has the following

resistances and reactances : R1 = 3 , X1 = 15 , R2 = 0.03 , X2 = 0.150 . Find the primary voltage required to
produce 240V at the secondary terminals at full load when the power factor is 0.8 lagging.
Answer :
S 10, 000
I2 41.667 A cos 1 0.8 36.8690
V2 240
2 2
N2 240
Re 2 R2 R1 0.03 3 0.06
N1 2400
2 2
N2 240
X e2 X2 X1 0.15 15 0.30
N1 2400
Assume V2 as reference :
E2 V2 I 2 ( Re 2 jX e 2 ) 240 00 41.667 36.8690 0.06 j 0.30
E2 250 1.950V
N1 2400
E1 E2 250 2500V
N2 240
Eg E1 2500V

71
 6.7. Open-Circuit and Short-Circuit Test on Transformer

Open Circuit Test or No-Load Test – The low voltage side is supplied with rated
voltage while the high voltage side is left open. Electrical measurements are done on
the low voltage side.

Eoc 2 Eoc 2
Pcore loss Poc Rm Xm Soc Eoc I oc Qoc Soc 2 Poc 2
Poc Qoc
Where: Poc = reading of the wattmeter during the test (watt)
Eoc = reading of the voltmeter during the test (volt)
Ioc = reading of the ammeter during the test (ampere)

Sample Problem: The no-load current of a transformer is 4A at 0.25 pf when supplied at

250V, 60Hz. Determine the (a) core loss (b) resistance representing the core loss (c) magnetizing reactance.

Answer :
A. Pcore loss Poc Eoc I oc pf 250(4)(0.25) 250 watts
Eoc 2 2502
B. Rm 250
Poc 250
C. Soc Eoc I oc 250(4) 1000 VA Qoc Soc 2 Poc 2 10002 2502 968.24 VAR
Eoc 2 2502
Xm 64.55
Qoc 968.24

Short Circuit Test – The low voltage side is short circuited while the high voltage side
is supplied with voltage adjusted so that the high side will draw rated high side current.
Electrical measurements are done on the high voltage side.

72
 Psc Esc
Pcopper loss ( rated load ) Psc Re ( HIGH ) Z e ( HIGH )
I sc 2 I sc
X e ( HIGH ) Z e ( HIGH ) 2 Re ( HIGH ) 2
Where: Psc = wattmeter reading during the test (watt)
Isc = ammeter reading during the test (ampere)
Esc = voltmeter reading during the test (volt)
Re = equivalent resistance referred to the high side
Xe = equivalent reactance referred to the high side
Ze = equivalent impedance referred to the high side

Sample Problem: A short circuit test was performed upon a 10-Kva, 2300/230V
transformer with the following results: Esc = 137V; Psc = 192W; Isc = 4.34A. Calculate in primary terms the
equivalent resistance and reactance of the transformer.
Esc 137 Psc 192
Ze 31.567 Re 10.193
I sc 4.34 I sc 2 4.342
Xe Ze 2 Re 2 (31.567) 2 (10.193) 2 29.88

Polarity Test

Where: Vp = test input voltage Note: If V > Vp, the polarity is additive
V = voltmeter reading If V < Vp, the polarity is subtractive

Sample Problem: A 2300/230V distribution transformer is tested for polarity in

accordance with the standard method. If 120V is impressed across the high voltage windings, determine the
voltmeter reading if the transformer has (a) additive polarity (b) subtractive polarity.
Answer :
E1 N1 N2 230
E2 E1 120 12V
E2 N2 N1 2300
reading 120 12 132V for additive
reading 120 12 108V for subtractive

73
 6.8. Power Losses and Efficiency

Copper loss – I2R loss in the primary and secondary windings.

Pcu I12 R1 I 2 2 R2 Pcu I12 Re1 I 2 2 Re 2
Core loss or iron loss – eddy current loss + hysteresis loss.
2 2 1.6
Eg1.6
Peddy ke f m ke ' Eg Physteresis kh f m kh '
f 0.6
Where: ke and kh = proportionality constant
m = maximum flux density (Tesla)
Eg = supply voltage
f = frequency of the supply voltage

Sample Problem 1: In a 400V, 50 c/s transformer, the total iron loss is 2500W. When the
supplied p.d. is 220V at 25 c/s, the corresponding loss is 850W. Calculate the eddy current loss at normal
frequency and p.d.
Answer :
Eg1.6
Pe ke E g 2 Ph kh
f 0.6

2
Eg 1.6
Pcore Pe Ph ke Eg kh
f 0.6
When supply is 400V, 50Hz:
4001.6
2500 ke (400) 2 kh
500.6
2500 160000ke 1392.88kh Eq.1
When supply is 220V, 25Hz:
2201.6
850 ke (220) 2 kh
250.6
850 48400ke 811.17kh Eq.2
Solving the two equations simultaneously:
ke 0.01353 Pe 0.01353(400) 2 2165W

Sample Problem 2: The no-load loss of a transformer at rated voltage is 100 watts at 30Hz
and 300 watts at 60Hz. What is the hysteresis loss at 60Hz and rated voltage?
Note: since not specified, the maximum flux density is constant
Answer :
Pe ke f 2 ; Ph kh f
Pcore Pe Ph ke f 2 kh f
When f = 30Hz, Pcore = 100W: 100 ke (30) 2 kh (30) Eq.1
When f = 60Hz, Pcore = 300W: 300 ke (60) 2 kh (60) Eq.2
Solving the two equation simultaneously: kh 1.66669
At 60Hz: Ph kh f 1.66669(60) 100W

74
 The efficiency of the transformer is the ratio of its output power (power drawn by the
load) to the input power (power developed by the transformer).
Poutput
Poutput V2 I 2 pf Pinput Poutput Plosses
Pinput
Where: V2 = load voltage and I2 = secondary current or load current

Copper Losses at any size of load: Pcu x ( x) 2 PcuFL

Where: x = percentage loading on the transformer
Pcux = copper losses at x% load
PcuFL = copper losses at full load

Sample Problem: Given that full load copper losses are exactly twice the iron losses in a
50-kVA transformer, and that the quarter-load efficiency is 96.5%. Calculate the full load efficiency at unity
power factor.
At quarter-load, unity pf:
Pout ( size of load )( Srated ) pf
P 1 (0.25)(50, 000)(1) 12,500W
out
4

Pcu ( size)2 PcuFL (0.25)2 (2 Pco )

P 1
out
P 1 0.125Pco 1
4
cu
4 4 P 1 P 1 Pco
out cu
4 4

12500
0.965 Pco 403W
12500 0.125 Pco Pco
PcuFL 2 Pco 2(403) 806W
At full-load, unity pf:
Pout ( size of load )( Srated ) pf (1)(50, 000)(1) 50, 000W
PoutFL 50, 000
FL 97.64%
PoutFL PcuFL Pco 50, 000 806 403

6.9. Maximum and All Day Efficiency

Maximum Efficiency – This efficiency occurs only when the core loss and the copper
loss are equal.
Poutput
Pcopper loss Pcore loss max
Poutput 2 Pcore
Sample Problem: The core loss of a 5-kVA single-phase transformer with normal voltage
applied to the primary is 75 watts. The maximum efficiency occurs at 60% of full load kVA. What is the full
load efficiency of the transformer at 80% power factor?
Answer :
Pcu ( size)2 PcuFL 75 (0.6)2 PcuFL
PcuFL 208.33W
Pcore Pcopper 208.33W at max . efficiency

75
 At Full Load, pf = 0.8:
PoutFL ( S rated )( pf ) (5000)(0.8) 4000W
Pout 4000
x100% 93.38%
Pout Pcu Pcore 4000 208.33 75

All-Day Efficiency or Energy Efficiency – It is the ratio of the energy output or

delivered within a 24-hour period to the energy input in the same period of time.
Woutput ( Poutput )(t ) Woutput ( size of load )( S rated )( pf )(t )
Wcopper ( Pcopper )(t ) Wcopper ( size of load ) 2 ( Pcopper ( rated ) )(t )
Woutput
Wcore ( Pcore )(24) all day
Woutput Wcore Wcopper
Where: Woutput = total output energy (watt-hour)
Wcore = total energy loss in the core within the 24-hour period (watt-hour)
Wcopper = total energy loss in the copper windings (watt-hour)
Pcopper(rated) = full load copper loss
Pcore = core loss
t = time of usage
pf = power factor

Sample Problem: A 25 kVA distribution transformer operates at 20% overload, 0.3 pf

lagging fir 1 hour; at full load, 0.9 lagging pf for 3 hours; 50% load at unity pf for 8 hours; and 10% load at
0.8 leading pf for the rest of the day. If the core loss is 150 watts and full load copper loss is 500 watts, what is
the all day efficiency of the transformer?
Answer :
Wout ( size)( Srated )( pf )(t )
(1.2)(25)(0.3)(1) (1)(25)(0.9)(3) (0.5)(25)(1)(8) (0.1)(25)(0.8)(12)
Wout 200.5 kW Hr
Pco (24) 150(24)
Wcore 3.6 kW Hr
1000 1000
Wcopper ( size)2 ( Pcopper ( rated ) )(t )
(1.2) 2 (0.5)(1) (1) 2 (0.5)(3) (0.5) 2 (0.5)(8) (0.1) 2 (0.5)(12)
Wcopper 3.28 kW Hr
Woutput 200.5
all day x100% 96.68%
Woutput Wcore Wcopper 200.5 3.6 3.28

6.10. Per Unit Values and Voltage Regulation

I1 Re1 I 2 Re 2 S rated Re1 S rated Re 2

% IR
V1 V2 V12 V2 2 I1 X e1 I2 X e2 S rated X e1 S rated X e 2
% IX
Pcopper ( rated ) PSC V1 V2 V12 V2 2
% IR
Srated Srated

76
 I1 Z e1 I2 Ze2 Srated Z e1 Srated Z e 2
% IZ
V1 V2 V12 V2 2
% IZ (% IR )2 (% IX )2

Per Unit values using a new voltage and power bases

2
Vold base Snew base
% IZ new % IZ old
Vnew base Sold base

Sample Problem 1: A 13.8kV/480V, 10 MVA three-phase transformer has 5% impedance.

What is the impedance in ohms referred to the primary?
Answer :
S rated Z1 % IZ (V1 ) 2 0.05(13.8 x103 ) 2
% IZ Z1 0.9522
V12 S rated 10 x106

Sample Problem 2: The percent impedance of a 115 kV transmission line is (3.8 + j15.1)%
at 100MVA base. What is its ohmic impedance?
Answer :
Srated Z ohmic % IZ puV 2 (0.038 j 0.151)(115, 000) 2
% IZ pu Z ohmic
V2 Srated 100 x106
Z ohmic 5.0255 j19.97

Sample problem 3: The impedance of a transformer is 1% at 100 MVA base and 34.5 kV
base. What shall be the percent impedance at 50 MVA base and 115 kV base?
2 2
Snew base Vold base 50 34.5
% IZ new % IZ old 1% 0.045%
Sold base Vnew base 100 115

Voltage Regulation – Percent voltage regulation is the percentage rise in the terminal
voltage of the transformer when its load is removed.
E2 V2
%VR x100% %VR (cos % IR ) 2 (sin % IX ) 2 1
V2
Where: +%IX = if pf is lagging
-%IX = if pf is leading

Sample Problem: A short circuit test was performed upon a 10-kVA, 2300/230V
transformer with the following results: Esc = 137V; Psc = 195W; Isc = 4.34A. Calculate the percent regulation at
a lagging power factor of 0.707.
Answer :
Pcopper ( rated ) 195
Pcopper ( rated ) Psc % IR 0.0195
S rated 10, 000

77
 ESC 137 I1Z e ( HIGH ) 4.34(31.566)
Z e ( HIGH ) 31.566 % IZ 0.0595
I SC 4.34 V1 2300
% IX (% IZ ) 2 (% IR) 2 (0.0595) 2 (0.0195) 2 0.0562
cos 1 0.707 450
%VR (cos % IR) 2 (sin % IX ) 2 1 (0.707 0.0195)2 (0.707 0.0562) 2 1
%VR 5.37%

6.11. Autotransformer and Instrument Transformer

Autotransformer – an autotransformer is a transformer with only one winding which is

common to both the primary and the secondary sides.

I1 N2 1 V1 N1
a
I2 N1 a V2 N2

1
Ptransformed Pinput 1 Pinput V1 I1 Pconducted Pinput Ptransformed
a

Sample Problem 1: A 30-kVA, 500-V single-phase load is to be supplied by an ideal step-

up autotransformer from a 400-V ac source. Determine the (a) voltage and current of the series winding
(b) voltage and current of the common winding (c) power and voltage rating of this transformer if it were used
as a two winding transformer.

A. Vseries winding V2 V1 500 400 100V

Srated 30, 000 S rated 30, 000
B. I1 75 A I2 60 A
V1 400 V2 500
I common winding I1 I 2 75 60 15 A
C. S rating Vseries I 2 100(60) 6kVA or Srating V1 I common 400(15) 6kVA
Rating 6kVA, 400 / 100V

78
 Sample Problem 2: An autotransformer having a primary voltage of 120 volts and a
secondary voltage of 75 volts delivers power to a load rated 5kVA at 0.8 pf lagging. Determine the power in
kW being transformed and conducted from the source to the load.

V1 120 Sload 5
a 1.6 Pinput Pload 6.25kW
V2 75 pf 0.8
1 1
Ptransformed Pinput 1 6.25 1 2.34kW
a 1.6
Pconducted Pinput Ptransformed 6.25 2.34 3.91kW

Instrument Transformers
Current Transformer (CT) – to be used in conjunction with an ammeter to measure very
high current.

I actual I reading x CT ratio

Sample Problem: A 100:5 current transformer is connected to a 5A ammeter.
What will be the ammeter deflection for a line current of 80A?
Answer :
I actual I reading x CT ratio
80 I reading x (100 / 5)
I reading 4A

Potential Transformer (PT) – to be used in conjunction with a voltmeter to measure

very high voltage.

Vactual Vreading x PT ratio

79
 Sample Problem: A 100:1 potential transformer is connected to a 150V voltmeter
to monitor the transmission line voltage. If the voltmeter registers 138V, what is the
transmission line voltage?
Answer :
Vactual Vreading x PTratio 138 x (100 /1) 13.8kV

Wattmeter Reading Using a PT and CT:

Pactual Wreading x Multiplier Multiplier CTratio x PTratio

Where: Pactual = actual power consumption (watt)
Wreading = wattmeter reading (watt)
CTratio = current ratio of the current transformer
PTratio = voltage ratio of the potential transformer

Sample Problem 1: At a 115kV substation, the PT ratio is 1000 and the CT ratio is
1200/5. The potential going into the wattmeter is 115 volts. What is the MW indicated
when the wattmeter reads 800 watts?
Answer :
Pactual Wreading x CTratio x PTratio (800)((1200 / 5)(1000 /1) 192MW

Sample Problem 2: A power plant customer draws power at 220V from

transformer on a pole. Current transformers with ratio of 200/5 are used to meter the
electrical usage. What is the multiplier of the kW-hr and demand meters?
Answer :
Multiplier CTratio x PTratio (200 / 5)(1) 40

6.12. Transformer Bank

6.12.1. Delta-Delta

80
Equivalent circuit diagram:

I p1 N2 V p1 N1 I L1 3 I p1 IL2 3I p 2
I p2 N1 Vp 2 N2 VL1 V p1 VL 2 Vp2
Phasor Diagram:

Where: Vp1 = voltage induced in the primary winding

Vp2 = voltage induced in the secondary winding
VL1 = line to line voltage in the primary winding
VL2 = line to line voltage in the secondary winding
Ip1 = phase current in the primary winding
Ip2 = phase current in the secondary winding
IL1 = primary line current
IL2 = secondary line current
N1/N2 = turns ratio of each transformer

Sample Problem: To monitor the voltage of a 230kV line, PTs are to be installed. The
PTs are to be connected delta-delta. The desired secondary voltage is 115 volts, 3-phase.
What shall be the PTs voltage ratio?

Answer :
VL 2 115V VL1 230kV
Vp 2 VL 2 115V
V p1 VL1 230kV
N1 V p1 230kV
N2 Vp 2 115V

Therefore, the PTs voltage ratio is 230kV/115V.

81
6.12.2. Delta-Wye

Equivalent circuit diagram:

I p1 N2 V p1 N1 I L1 3 I p1 IL2 I p2
I p2 N1 Vp 2 N2 VL1 V p1 VL 2 3V p 2

Phasor diagram:

Sample Problem: What should be the turns ratio of a three phase transformer to transform
10,000 kVA from 230kV to 4160V if the transformer is to be connected -
Answer :
VL 2 4.16
VL 2 4.16kV Vp 2 2.4kV
3 3
VL1 230kV V p1
N1 V p1 230kV
95.83
N2 Vp 2 2.4kV
Therefore : turns ratio 96

82
6.12.3. Wye-Delta

Equivalent circuit diagram:

I p1 N2 V p1 N1 I L1 I p1 I L2 3I p 2
I p2 N1 Vp 2 N2 VL1 3V p1 VL 2 Vp 2

Phasor diagram:

Sample Problem: The potential transformer of a line has a ratio 132,000/66. These are
connected wye-delta. The voltmeter reads 64 volts. What is the voltage of the line?

Answer :
VL 2 64V Vp 2
V p1 N1 N1 132, 000
V p1 V p 2 64 128kV
Vp 2 N2 N2 66
VL1 3V p1 3(128) 221.7kV

83
6.12.4. Wye-Wye

Equivalent circuit diagram:

I p1 N2 V p1 N1 I L1 I p1 IL2 I p2
I p2 N1 Vp 2 N2 VL1 3V p1 VL 2 3V p 2

Phasor diagram:

Sample Problem: The PTs of a 220 kV transmission line have ratio of 132.76kV/66.375V
and are connected wye-wye. A voltmeter connected line to ground reads 66 volts. What is
the transmission line voltage?
Answer :
V p 2 66V
V p1 N1
Vp 2 N2
N1 132, 760
V p1 V p 2 66
N2 66.375
V p1 132kV
VL1 3V p1 3(132kV ) 228.63kV

84
6.12.5. Open-Delta or V-V

Equivalent circuit diagram:

I p1 N2 V p1 N1 I L1 I p1 IL2 I p2
I p2 N1 Vp 2 N2 VL1 V p1 VL 2 Vp 2

Phasor diagram:

SV V 3 (VA rating of one transformer )

S 3 (VA rating of one transformer )
SV V 57.73% S

Where: SV-V = total apparent power that an open delta bank can deliver
S - = total apparent power that a delta-delta bank can deliver

Sample Problem: Two single-phase transformer in an open-delta bank served a three-

phase balanced load of 43.3kVA. (a) What should be the kVA rating of each transformer?
(b) if a third transformer is added for delta operation, what is the rated capacity of the bank?
(c) what percent increase in load does this represent?
Answer :
SV V 43.3
A. SV V 3Rating Rating 25kVA
3 3
B. S 3( Rating ) 3(25) 75kVA
75 43.3
C. Percent increase x100% 73.21%
43.3
85
 6.12.6. Scott or T-T Connected
This connection is used to transform three-phase to three-phase system or three-
phase to two-phase system. It consists of two identical single-phase transformers, one
having a 50% tap (main transformer) and the other an 86.6% tap (teaser transformer).

Equivalent circuit diagram:

Phasor Diagram:

V12 2V31 2V32

Sample Problem: A T-T bank is used to transform 150kVA from 2,200V three-
phase system to 220 volts two-phase system. Determine (a) currents in the primary windings of the main and
teaser transformers. (b) currents in the secondary windings of the main and teaser transformers (c) the kVA
rating of each transformers.
Answer :
S 150, 000
A. I1 39.36 A
3V1 3(2200)
B. Note : each transformer caries 75kVA
Scarried 75, 000
I2 341A
V2 220
C. kVA rating V1 I1 2200(39.36) 86.6kVA

86
6.13. Parallel Operations of Transformer

Requirements:
1. The voltage ratings of both primaries and secondaries must be identical.
2. The transformers must be properly connected with regards to polarity.
3. The ratio of the equivalent resistance to reactance of all transformers should be the
same.

Equivalent circuit referred to the secondary side:

Where: Z1 = equivalent impedance of transformer 1 referred to the secondary

Z2 = equivalent impedance of transformer 2 referred to the secondary
I1 = current delivered by transformer 1
I2 = current delivered by transformer 2
IT = total current or current drawn by the load
V2 = load voltage or terminal voltage
E2 = voltage induced in the secondary winding

Load operations for transformers with unequal turns ratio.

(a2 a1 )V2 (a2 Z e 2 I t ) (a1 a2 )V2 (a1Z e1 I t )

I1 I2
a1 Z e1 a2 Z e 2 a1Z e1 a2 Z e 2

Where: a1 and a2 = voltage ratios of transformer 1 and 2.

Load operations for transformers with equal turns ratio (given their ohmic equivalent
impedances).

It Ze2 I t Z e1
I1 I2
Z e1 Z e 2 Z e1 Z e 2
St Z e 2 St Z e1
S1 S2
Z e1 Z e 2 Z e1 Z e 2

87
 Where: Ze1, Ze2 = equivalent impedances referred to the secondary side of transformer 1 and 2
It = total current or load current
I1, I2 = current delivered by transformers 1 and 2
S1, S2 = apparent powers delivered by transformers 1 and 2

Sample Problem: Two transformers are connected in parallel to supply a common load of
175kVA. Transformer A is rated 100kVA with equivalent impedance of 9.6 ohms while transformer B is rated
75kVA with equivalent impedance of 12.5 ohms. Find the kVA load of each transformer.
Answer :
St Z e 2 175(12.5)
S1 98.98kVA
Z e1 Z e 2 9.6 12.5
St Z e1 175(9.6)
S2 76.02kVA
Z e1 Z e 2 9.6 12.5
Load operations for transformers with equal turns ratio (given their per unit impedances
with different power base)
Note: Assume a common power base and express all per unit impedances with respect
to this new power base.
Snew base
Ze ' Ze
Sold base

It Ze 2 ' I t Z e1 '
I1 I2
Z e1 ' Z e 2 ' Z e1 ' Z e 2 '
St Z e 2 ' St Z e1 '
S1 S2
Z e1 ' Z e 2 ' Z e1 ' Z e 2 '
Where: Snew base = selected new power base
Sold base = old power base (rating of the transformer considered)
Ze1’, Ze2’ = equivalent per unit impedances of transformer 1 and 2 based on the
new selected power base.

Sample Problem 1: A 100 kVA, 20kV/230V single phase transformer with 3% impedance
is connected in parallel with another transformer 150kVA, 20kV/230V and 3% impedance. The total load is
200kVA at 80% power factor. What is the secondary current of each transformer?

Assume 100kVA as the new power base:

Answer :
Snew base 100
Ze ' Ze 0.03 0.02
Sold base 150
Stotal 200, 000
It 869.56 A
V2 230
It Ze 2 ' 869.56(0.02)
I1 347.82 A
Z e1 ' Z e 2 ' 0.03 0.02
I t Z e1 ' 869.56(0.03)
I2 521.74 A
Z e1 ' Z e 2 ' 0.03 0.02

88
 Sample Problem 2: Two single phase transformers with equal ratings and turns ratio are
operated in parallel to supply a load of 180kW at lagging power factor of 0.90. Transformer A has a resistance
of 1% and a reactance of 6%. Transformer B has a resistance of 2% and a reactance of 5%. Calculate the power
delivered by each transformer.

Answer :
Za 0.01 j 0.06 Zb 0.02 j 0.05 t cos 1 0.9 25.840
Pt 80
St 200kVA
pf 0.9
St Z b (200 25.840 )(0.02 j 0.05)
Sa 79.77 j 50.596
Z a Zb 0.01 j 0.06 0.02 j 0.05
Pa 79.77 kW
St Z a (200 25.840 )(0.01 j 0.06)
Sb 100.23 j36.57
Z a Zb 0.01 j 0.06 0.02 j 0.05
Pb 100.23kW

Problem Exercises:

1. A single-phase transformer rated 75kVA, 8000V primary 240V secondary is given the short circuit
test. With the secondary terminals short-circuited, 440V (60Hz) is impressed on the primary which then draws
rated current and 1125W. Solve for the percentage impedance of the transformer.
a. 5.29% b. 4.93% c. 5.50% d. 5.13%

2. A single-phase, 25kVA, 4800/240 volt transformer was given a short circuit test: With the secondary
terminals short-circuited, 93.75 volts was applied on the primary so that the ammeter reads rated current and the
wattmeter reads 162.74 watts, all on the primary side. Solve for the percentage resistance of the transformer.
a. 1.95% b. 3.39% c. 3.02% d. 2.23%

3. The following data were obtained when a short circuit test was performed upon a 100kVA, 2400/240
volts distribution transformer: ESC = 72V; ISC = 41.6A; PSC = 1,180W. All instruments are on the high side
during the short circuit test. Calculate the equivalent resistance and reactance of the transformer.
a. 0.682 , 1.59 b. 0.682 , 1.73 c. 0.752 , 1.73 d. 0.752 , 1.59

4. The following data were obtained when a short circuit test was performed upon a 100kVA, 2400/240
volts distribution transformer: ESC = 72V; ISC = 41.6A; PSC = 1,180W. All instruments are on the high side
during the short circuit test. Calculate the percent regulation at a power factor of 0.75 lagging.
a. 2.54% b. 2.86% c. 2.62% d. 2.71%

5. A 50kVA, 2300/230V, 60-cycle transformer is tested in the laboratory so that its characteristics
maybe determined. The standard test requires an open circuit test and short circuit test.
Open Circuit Test: I = 6.5A E = 230V P = 187W
Short Circuit Test: I = 21.7A E = 115V P = 570W
Determine the efficiency of the transformer at half load, unity power factor.
a. 97.55% b. 98.70% c. 98.45% d. 97.80%

89
 6. Find the all-day efficiency of a transformer having a maximum efficiency of 98% at 15kVA at unity
pf and loaded as follows:
12 hours - - - - - - - - - - 2kW at 0.5 pf lagging
6 hours - - - - - - - - - - - 12kW at 0.8 pf lagging
6 hours - - - - - - - - - at no-load

a. 95.3% b. 91.7% c. 94.6% d. 93.3%

7. A 30kVA 2400/240V, 60Hz transformer has a full load power of unity over the period of 24 hours.
The maximum efficiency is 95% and it occurs at full load. Calculate the all-day efficiency if loaded as follows:
6 hours at full load
6 hours at quarter load

a. 91.53% b. 92.45% c. 90.37% d. 93.86%

8. What should be the kVA rating of each two transformers in an open-delta bank when the three-phase
balanced load is 290.4kVA?
a. 155.60kVA b. 173.40kVA c. 150.25kVA d. 167.66kVA

9. Two single-phase distribution transformers are banked in V (open delta). If each transformer is rated
37.5kVA, solve for the maximum 3-phase load that the bank can carry without overloading, considering that the
load has a power factor of 0.85 lagging.
a. 52.5kW b. 49.5kW c. 53.6kW d. 55.2kW

10. A power transformer rated 50,000kVA, 34.5kV/13.8kV is connected wye-wye. What are the line
currents at full load?
a. 525.2A, 1725.4A b. 836.7A, 2092A c. 483.1A, 1207.7A d. 1449.3A, 3623.2A

References:

Theraja, B.L. and Theraja, A.K. A Textbook of Electrical Technology in S.I. Units Volume II (AC and
DC Machines). MultiColour Illustrative edition. 2007.

Siskind, Charles S. Electrical Machines – Direct and Alternating Current. 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York. 1979.

Rojas, Romeo Jr. A. Complete Electrical Engineering Formulas and Principles. Benchmark Publishing,
Republic of the Philippines. 2004.

90