ANTIBIOTICS

BY MAHIBAH IMRAN
11sA

INVESTIGATORY PROJECT REPROT

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INDEX
1. INTRODUCTION
2. WHAT ARE ANTIBIOTICS
3. HOW DO ANTIBIOTICS WORK
4. USES
5. WHEN TO USE ANTIBIOTICS
6. WHEN NOT TO USE ANTIBIOTICS
7. SIDE EFFECTS
8. ALLERGY
9. HOW TO USE
10. SOME COMMON TYPES OF ANTIBIOTICS
11. MECHANISMS OF ANTIBIOTICS
12. SUMMARY
13. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My self Mahibah Imran student of class 11sA
I would like to extend my sincere and heartfelt gratitude to my
Biology teacher Ms. Kavita Prasad who has helped me in this
endeavor and has always been very cooperative and without
her help, cooperation, guidance, and encouragement, the
project couldn't have been what it evolved to be.

SOME FACTS   
INTRODUCTION

Antibiotics, also known as antibacterials, are medications

thaMNDJt destroy or slow down the growth of bacteria.

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WHAT ARE ANTIBIOTICS ?

Antibiotics cannot treat
viral infections, such as
cold, flu, and most
coughs

Antibiotics are powerful medicines that fight certain They include a range of
infections and can save lives when used properly. They either stop powerful drugs and are
bacteria from reproducing or destroy them.Before bacteria can multiply used to treat diseases
and cause symptoms, the immune system can typically kill them.
caused by bacteria.
White blood cells (WBCs) attack harmful bacteria and, even if
 Alexander Fleming
symptoms do occur, the immune system can usually cope and fight off
discovered penicilli
the infection. Sometimes, however, the number of harmful bacteria is
n, the first natural
excessive, and the immune system cannot fight them all. Antibiotics
antibiotic, in 1928.
are useful in this scenario.

RESISTANCE
Some medical professionals have concerns that people are overusing
antibiotics. They also believe that this overuse contributes toward the
growing number of bacterial infections that are becoming resistant to
antibacterial medications.

Alexander Fleming, speaking in his Nobel Prize acceptance speech in 1945, said: “Then

there is the danger that the ignorant man may easily underdose himself and by
exposing his microbes to non-lethal quantities of the drug, make them resistant.

HOW DO ANTIBIOTICS WORK ?

There are different types of antibiotic, which work in one of two
ways:

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 A bactericidal antibiotic, such as penicillin, kills the

bacteria. These drugs usually interfere with either the
formation of the bacterial cell wall or its cell contents.
 A bacteriostatic stops bacteria from multiplying.
USES

Antibiotics are ineffective against

viruses.
If people overuse antibiotics or use them incorrectly, the
bacteria might become resistant. This means that the antibiotic
becomes less effective against that type of bacterium, as the
bacterium has been able to improve its defences. Some
antibiotics attack aerobic bacteria, while others work against
anaerobic bacteria. Aerobic bacteria need oxygen and
anaerobic bacteria do not.

In some cases, a healthcare professional may provide

antibiotics to prevent rather than treat an infection, as might be
the case before surgery. This is the ‘prophylactic’ use of
antibiotics. People commonly use these antibiotics before
bowel and orthopaedic surgery.

WHEN TO USE ANTIBIOTICS

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Antibiotics are specific for the type of bacteria being treated

and, in general, cannot be interchanged from one infection to
another. When antibiotics are used correctly, they are usually
safe with few side effects. Health care providers are able to
assess each patient individually to determine the correct
antibiotic, dose and length of treatment.

However, as with most drugs, antibiotics can lead to side

effects that may range from being a nuisance to serious or life-
threatening. In infants and the elderly, in patients with kidney
or liver disease, in pregnant or breastfeeding women, and in
many other patient groups, antibiotic doses may need to be
adjusted based upon the individual patient. Drug interactions
can also be common with antibiotics.

WHEN NOT TO USE ANTIBIOTICS

Antibiotics are not the correct choice for all infections. For
example, most sore throats, cough and
colds, flu, COVID or acute sinusitis are viral in origin (not
bacterial) and do not need an antibiotic. These viral infections
are “self-limiting”, meaning that your own immune system will
usually kick in and fight the virus off.

Using antibiotics for viral infections can increase the risk for
antibiotic resistance. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria cannot be
fully inhibited or killed by an antibiotic, even though the
antibiotic may have worked effectively before the resistance

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occurred.  This can also lower your options for effective

treatments if an antibiotic is needed eventually due to a
secondary infection. Using unnecessary antibiotics also puts
you at risk for side effects and adds extra cost .

SIDE EFFECTS
Antibiotics commonly cause the following side effects:

 diarrhea
 nausea
 vomiting
 rash
 upset stomach
 with certain antibiotics or prolonged use, fungal infections
of the mouth, digestive tract

Less common side effects of antibiotics include:

 formation of kidney stones, when taking sulphonamides

 abnormal blood clotting, when taking some
cephalosporins)
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 sensitivity to sunlight, when taking tetracyclines

 blood disorders, when taking trimethoprim
 deafness, when taking erythromycin and the
aminoglycosides

Some people, especially older adults, may experience

bowel inflammation, which can lead to severe, bloody diarrhea.

In less common instances, penicillin, cephalosporins, and

erythromycin can also cause

Most antibiotics fall into their individual

antibiotic classes. An antibiotic class is a
grouping of different drugs that have similar
chemical and pharmacologic properties.
Their chemical structures may look
comparable, and drugs within the same class
may kill the same or related bacteria.
inflamed
However, it is important not to use an bowels.
antibiotic for an infection unless your doctor
specifically prescribes it, even if it's in the
same class as another drug you were
previously prescribed. Antibiotics are specific
for the kind of bacteria they kill. Plus, you
would need a full treatment regimen to
effectively cure your infection, so don't use
or give away leftover antibiotics.

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ALLERGY
Some people may develop an allergic reaction to antibiotics, especially
penicillins. Side effects might include a rash, swelling of the tongue
and face, and difficulty breathing.

Allergic reactions to antibiotics might be immediate or delayedTrusted

Source hypersensitivity reactions.

Anyone who has an allergic reaction to an antibiotic must tell

their doctor or pharmacist. Reactions to antibiotics can be serious
and sometimes fatal. They are called anaphylactic reactions.

People with reduced liver or kidney function should be cautious when

using antibiotics. This may affect the types of antibiotics they can use
or the dose they receive.

Likewise, women who are pregnant or breast-feeding should speak

with a doctor about the best antibiotics to take.

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HOW TO USE

People must not stop a course of antibiotics halfway through. If in doubt, they can
ask their doctor for advice.

People usually take antibiotics by mouth. However, doctors can administer them by
injection or apply them directly to the part of the body with infection.

Most antibiotics start combating infection within a few hours. Complete the whole
course of medication to prevent the return of the infection.

Stopping the medication before the course has finished increases the risk that the
bacteria will become resistant to future treatments. The ones that survive will have
had some exposure to the antibiotic and may consequently develop resistance to it.

People must not stop a course of antibiotics halfway through. If in doubt, they can
ask their doctor for advice.

People usually take antibiotics by mouth. However, doctors can administer them by
injection or apply them directly to the part of the body with infection.

Most antibiotics start combating infection within a few hours. Complete the whole
course of medication to prevent the return of the infection.

Stopping the medication before the course has finished increases the risk that the
bacteria will become resistant to future treatments. The ones that survive will have
had some exposure to the antibiotic and may consequently develop resistance to it.

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An individual needs to complete the course of antibiotic treatment even after

they see an improvement in symptoms.

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SOME COMMON TYPES OF ANTIBIOTICS

1.PENICILLINS
Another name for this class is the "beta-lactam" antibiotics, referring to

their structural formula. 

Penicillin antibiotics are used to treat many types of infections caused by susceptible bacteria.
They are used to treat infections of the middle ear, sinuses, stomach and intestines, bladder, and
kidney. They also are used for treating

 pneumonia,

 blood infections (sepsis),

side effects of penicillin
 uncomplicated gonorrhea,
 meningitis,  diarrhea,
 endocarditis, and  dizziness,
 other serious infections.  heartburn,
 insomnia,
 nausea,
 itching,
 vomiting,
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2.CEPHALOSPORINS
There are five generations of cephalosporins, with increasing expanded
coverage across the class to include gram-negative infections. Newer generations
with updated structures are developed to allow wider coverage of certain
bacteria. Cephalosporins are bactericidal (kill bacteria) and work in a similar way
as the penicillins.

Cephalosporins treat many types of infections, including strep throat, ear

infections, urinary tract infections, skin infections, lung infections, and meningitis.

Healthcare providers use cephalosporins to treat a variety of bacterial

infections, especially for people who are allergic to penicillin, another
common antibiotic. Some examples of infections that cephalosporins
can treat include: skin or soft tissue
infections.
3.FLUOROQUINOLONES
The fluoroquinolones, also known as the
quinolones, are a synthetic, bactericidal
antibacterial class with a broad-spectrum of
activity used in adults (not children). Due to
risk of multiple serious side effects, the FDA
has advised that they are not suitable for
common infections such as sinusitis,
bronchitis, and uncomplicated urinary tract
infections. They should only be considered
Sometimes it’s
better to let your
body fight for
itself!
Everyone has an immune system.
Your immune system is there to
fight off any bacteria or viruses
that are attacking your body.
Sometimes it is best to let your
body get rid of illnesses naturally.
Your immune system will build up
antibodies and will become
stronger.

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when treatment with other, less toxic antibiotics, has failed. Ask your doctor
about the warnings associated with this class of drug before you take it.

The FDA has issued several strong warnings about this class due to potential

disabling side effects.

Several fluoroquinolones are also available in drop form to treat eye or ear
infections.

4.LINCOMYCINS

This class has activity against gram-positive aerobes and anaerobes

(bacteria that can live without oxygen), as well as some gram-negative
anaerobes.

The lincomycin derivatives may be used to treat serious infections like

pelvic inflammatory disease, intra-abdominal infections, lower
respiratory tract infections, and bone and joint infections. Some forms
are also used topically on the skin to treat acne.

A single-dose vaginal cream is also available

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to treat certain bacterial vaginal infections (bacterial vaginosis).

5.GLYCOPEPTIDE
Members of this group may be used for treating methicillin-
resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections, complicated skin infections, C.
difficile-associated diarrhea, and enterococcal infections such as endocarditis
which are resistant to beta-lactams and other antibiotics. Common drug names
include:

6.AMINOGLYCOSIDES

Aminoglycosides inhibit bacterial synthesis by binding to the 30S

ribosome and act rapidly as bactericidal antibiotics (killing the
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bacteria). These drugs are usually given intravenously (in a vein

through a needle); inhaled and ophthalmic (eye) dose forms are also
available.

GLOBAL CONSUMPTION
Antibiotic consumption varies widely between countries.
The WHO report on surveillance of antibiotic consumption’ published in
2018 analysed 2015 data from 65 countries. As measured in defined daily
doses per 1,000 inhabitants per day. Mongolia had the highest
consumption with a rate of 64.4. Burundi had the lowest at
4.4. Amoxicillin and amoxicillin/clavulanic acid were the most frequently
consumed .  Access group antibiotic consumption accounted
for 60.6% of total global antibiotic consumption, while Watch antibiotics
accounted for 38.6% of total consumption and Reserve antibiotics
accounted for less than 1%. Twenty of the 76 countries reported use of
Not Recommended antibiotics.

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SUMMARY
Antibiotics are medicines that fight bacterial infections in people and animals. They work
by killing the bacteria or by making it hard for the bacteria to grow and multiply.
Antibiotics can be taken in different ways:

 Orally (by mouth). This could be pills, capsules, or liquids.

 Topically. This might be a cream, spray, or ointment that you put on your skin. It
could also be eye ointment, eye drops, or ear drops.
 Through an injection or intravenously (I.V). This is usually for more serious
infections.
Antibiotics do not work on viral infections. For example, you shouldn't take antibiotics
for
 Colds and runny noses, even if the mucus is thick, yellow, or green
 Most sore throats (except strep throat)
 Flu
 Most cases of bronchitis

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You should only take antibiotics when they are needed because they can cause side
effects and can contribute to antibiotic resistance. Antibiotic resistance happens when the
bacteria change and become able to resist the effects of an antibiotic. This means that the
bacteria continue to grow.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. MEDICAL NEWS TODAY
2. HEALTHLINE.COM
3. WIKIPEDIA.ORG
4. NHS INFORMS
5. MEDLINE PLUS

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