i

STRENGTHENING OF CONCRETE SLAB WITH OPENING USING

EXTERNAL FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER (FRP) STRIP

TEE BUN PIN

A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the award of the degree of
Master of Engineering (Civil – Structure)

Faculty of Civil Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

OCTOBER, 2004
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I declare that this project report entitled “Strengthening of Concrete Slab With
Opening Using External Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Strip” is the result of my
own research except as cited in the references. The report has not been accepted
for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature of other degree.

Signature : ……………………………
Name of Author : TEE BUN PIN
Date : 8 OCTOBER 2004
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We hereby declare that we have read this project report and in our opinion this report
is sufficient in terms of scope and quality for the award of the degree of Master of
Engineering (Civil – Structure).

Signature : ………………………………………
Name of Supervisor : ASSOC. PROF. DR. ABDUL RAHMAN
MOHD. SAM
Date : 8 OCTOBER 2004

Signature : ………………………………………
Name of Co-Supervisor : IR. MOHD. SALLEH YASSIN
Date : 8 OCTOBER 2004
 iv

To My Beloved Family and Friends...

 v

ABSTRACT

This study presents the result of computational modeling and analysis for
evaluating the effect of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) as external strengthening
material to concrete slab with opening. A uniformly distributed load was applied to
several two-way slab with opening models. A finite element method was used. The
results show that the external FRP strengthening strip was able to increase the
structural strength capacity of the slab with opening up to about 8 times. From the
strain contour, the failure mechanism observed show that the strengthened concrete
slab fail in compression zone. The possible failure of the strengthened slab maybe
due to crushing of concrete near the opening edge. This type of failure generally
occurs when adhesion is strong enough to prevent FRP plate debonding. Therefore,
structural strength of this strengthening system is highly depending on the structural
strength of the concrete.
 vi

ABSTRAK

Kajian ini mengemukan keputusan analisis komputer untuk menentukan

kesan pengukuhan papak konkrit berlubang menggunakan FRP. Beban tersebar
sekata telah dikenakan terhadap beberapa papak dua hala yang berlubang dan yang
tidak berlubang. Kaedah analisis unsur terhingga telah digunakan. Pada kajian ini,
keputusan menunjukkan pengukuhan dapat meningkatkan kekuatan struktur papak
yang berlubang sebanyak 8 kali ganda. Daripada kontur terikan, mekanisme
kegagalan papak diperhatikan dan berlaku di bahagian mampatan. Mekanisme
kegagalan yang mungkin adalah berlakunya hancuran pada sisi-sisi tepi lubang
papak. Mekanisme kegagalan ini berlaku apabila bahan pelekat cukup kuat untuk
mengelakkan FRP tertanggal daripada konkrit. Disebabkan itu, kekuatan sistem ini
adalah amat bergantung kepada kekuatan struktur konkrit.
 vii

CONTENTS

CHAPTER ITEM PAGE

PREFACE i
ADMISSION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xii
LIST OF FIGURES xiii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of the Study 1

1.2 Problem Statement 2
1.3 Objectives of the Study 3
1.4 Scope of Study 4
1.5 Importance of Study 5

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW 6

 viii

2.1 Historical Background

2.1.1 Steel Plate Bonding 6
2.1.2 Fiber Reinforced Polymer
Strengthening System 7
2.2 General FRP Properties 9
2.2.1 Fibers 10
2.2.1.1 Carbon Fibers 10
2.2.1.2 Glass Fibers 11
2.2.2 Resins (Matrix) 12
2.2.2.1 Epoxies 13
2.2.2.2 Polyesters 13
2.2.2.3 Vinylesters 14
2.3 Structural Adhesive Materials 15
2.3.1 Epoxy Adhesives 16
2.3.2 Properties of Adhesives 17
2.3.3 Mechanical Characteristics 18
2.4 Flexural Strengthening 19
2.4.1 Material Modeling 21
2.4.2 Failure Modes 22
2.4.3 Failure Mechanism 26
2.4.3.1 FRP Plate-end Shear
Failure 26
2.4.3.2 FRP Peeling-off at
Flexural Cracks in the
Constant Moment
Region 27
2.4.3.3 FRP Peeling-off Caused
by Shear Cracks 27
2.4.3.4 FRP Peeling-off Caused
By Unevenness of the
Concrete Surface 28
2.4.3.5 Bond Failure in the
Adhesive 28
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2.4.3.6 Bond Failure in the

Interfaces Between
FRP, Adhesive and
Concrete 29
2.4.3.7 Shear Failure in the
FRP (Interlaminar
Shear) 29
2.5 Durability and Serviceability of FRP
Strengthening System 30
2.5.1 Performance History 30
2.5.2 Material Durability of System
Components 31
2.5.2.1 Concrete 31
2.5.2.1.1 Internal
Concrete
Condition 31
2.5.2.1.2 Surface
Concrete
Condition 33
2.5.2.1 Interface 33
2.5.3 Environmental Damage
Mechanisms 34
2.5.3.1 Accumulation of
Water 35
2.5.3.2 Pressure Build-Up 36
2.5.3.3 Climatic Cycle 36
2.5.3.3.1 Temperature
Cycle 37
2.5.3.3.2 Freeze-Thaw 37
2.6 Finite Element Analysis (FEA) 39
2.6.1 Finite Element Analysis by Other
Researchers 40
2.6.2 Material Properties 41
CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY 42
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3.1 Introduction 42
3.2 General Description of LUSAS 43
3.3 General Description of Slab Model 43
3.4 Finite Element Modeling 44
3.4.1 Geometry Modeling 44
3.4.1.1 Concrete-FRP Strip
Interaction 47
3.4.2 Material Properties 48
3.4.2.1 Material Curve For Concrete 49
3.4.2.2 Material Curve For Steel 50
3.4.2.3 Material Curve For FRP 50
3.4.3 Meshing 51
3.4.4 Boundary Condition And Loading 53
3.4.5 Termination Criteria 54
3.4.6 Results And Its Interpretation 55
3.5 Yield Line Method 55

CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DICUSSION 57

4.1 Concrete Slab with Opening (Without

Strengthening) 57
4.2 Concrete Slab Strengthen with External
FRP Strip 60
4.2.1 Concrete Slab Strengthen with
External 50 mm Width FRP Strip 61
4.2.2 Concrete Slab Strengthen with
External 100 mm Width FRP Strip 63
4.3 Summary of Result 65
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CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR

FUTURE WORK 67

REFERENCES 70
 xii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Virgin filament properties for E-glass and S-glass 11

2.2 Typical properties of epoxy adhesives 18
2.3 Typical characteristics of epoxy adhesives 19
3.1 Output data for linear solution control 54
4.1 Result comparison of FEA and Yield Line Method 60
4.2 Summary of result from Finite Element Analysis 65
 xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Flexural strengthening of reinforced concrete beam and it’s

cross section 20
2.2 Flexural strengthening of reinforced concrete beam with
CFRP strip 20
2.3 Idealized stress-strain curve for (a) concrete in compression;
(b) steel in tension or compression; (c) FRP in tension 21
2.4 FRP peeling-off at outmost crack in the anchorage zone 22
2.5 FRP plate-end shear failure 23
2.6 FRP peeling-off at flexural cracks 23
2.7 FRP peeling-off at shear cracks 24
2.8 FRP peeling-off due to unevenness of concrete surface 24
2.9 Failure of concrete slab due to delamination or peeling-off
of FRP strip 25
2.10 (a) Concept of fictitious shear span; (b) modelling analogy for
the analysis of plate-end shear failure 26
2.11 System level interaction 34
2.12 Schematic of water infiltration locations 35
3.1 Slab with opening strengthen using FRP strip model 43
3.2 Model of FRP strip elements 45
3.3 Model of concrete elements 46
3.4 Full model of the slab with opening (solid view) 46
3.5 Full model of slab with opening (line view) 47
3.6 Stress-strain curve adopted by Shanmugam, Kumar 49
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and Thevendran
3.7 Typical stress-strain curve for steel 50
3.8 Typical stress-strain curve for FRP 51
3.9 FRP strip mesh 52
3.10 Concrete slab with FRP strip mesh 52
3.11 Slab model in LUSAS 53
4.1 Maximum principal stress, S1, of concrete slab 58
4.2 Minimum principal stress, S3, of slab 58
4.3 Yield line developing in slab with opening 59
4.4 Minimum principal strain, E3 of concrete slab (2-dimensional) 62
4.5 Minimum principal strain, E3 of concrete slab (3-dimensional) 62
4.6 Medium principal strain, E2 of FRP strip 63
4.7 Minimum principal strain, E3 of concrete slab (2-dimensional) 64
4.8 Minimum principal strain, E3 of concrete slab (3-dimensional) 64
4.9 Medium principal strain, E2 of FRP strip 65
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Concrete structures deteriorate for various reasons and upgrading/retrofit has

been achieved for over 20 years by bonding steel plates using epoxy resins.
Disadvantages in the use of steel plates include transporting, handling and installing
heavy plates, corrosion of plates, limited delivery lengths of plates which necessitate
the work and difficulty of forming joints, the need for massive and expensive
falsework to hold plates in position during adhesive cure and the need to prepare the
steel surface for bonding this being labour intensive and time consuming. (Ramos,
2004)

The use of polymer composite materials overcomes these problems and

provides equally satisfactory solutions. Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) materials
possess the qualities of high strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion resistance,
resulting in low maintenance costs. FRP materials have mechanical and physical
properties superior to those of steel, particularly with respect to tensile and fatigue
strengths and these qualities are observed under a wide range of temperatures. The
 2

prime material types which find uses as reinforcing fibers in FRPs are glass, carbon
and aramid.

The main disadvantages in using these materials are high material cost and
possible brittle failure modes. Currently Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP)
materials are approximately 10 times more expensive than mild steel. However,
material cost usually constitutes approximately 20% of the total cost of a
strengthening project, the remaining 80% being labour costs. The easy handling of
FRP plates reduces labour costs considerably. The problem of having to join limited
lengths of steel plate is overcome by the fact that FRP plates may be delivered to site
in rolls of 300 m or more. Although composite plate bonding is now recognized as an
appropriate strengthening method, it is necessary to have a better understanding of
the factors that are important in its design. The factors those are important in the
design of composite plate bonding, such as the influence of the plate anchorage
length, FRP-to concrete bonded joints behavior and failure mechanisms.

1.2 Problem Statement

Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composite materials are very attractive for
use in civil engineering applications due to their high strength-to-weight and
stiffness-to-weight ratios, corrosion resistance, light weight and potentially high
durability. Their application is of most importance in the renewal of constructed
facilities infrastructure such as buildings, bridges, pipelines, etc. Recently, their use
has increased in the upgrading or retrofit of concrete structures. In some cases, it is
necessary to change the existing structural system due to the change of usage rather
than rebuilt a new structure. A common example is removal of slab sections for
staircase or lift core opening. As the opening take place, the strength capacity of the
existing slab significantly reduced. Cracks occur at the edge of the opening with the
increase of load due the stress concentration.
 3

The application of FRP reinforcement able to overcome this problem. FRP in

the composite overlay are oriented horizontally to cross diagonal or shear cracks,
while allowing horizontal or flexural cracks to open. Forces to be transferred in the
composite overlays are limited by the laminar shear or principal tensile strength of
existing concrete slab materials, since the polymer resin typically features
significantly higher tensile capacities than the concrete substrate.

Numerous papers dealing with structural strengthening application of FRP

have been published recently. However, most of the studies on strengthening by
external bonding of FRP plates or strips are purely experimental. Therefore, they do
not lend themselves to a general design procedure for at least two reasons. Firstly,
these studies often fail to cover all influencing design parameters. Secondly, the
design methods proposed is quite often resort to calibration factors that are only valid
for those particular studies. Therefore, they are not design oriented.

So the role of computational modeling and analysis become particularly

important. Computational modeling and analysis can be utilized in most of the cases
as a method to analysis and predict the behavior of structure.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objectives of this study are as follows:

To carry out a linear finite element analysis (LFEA) of the proposed slab using
LUSAS Version 13.5.

To obtain the effect of FRP strengthening strip to the strength capacity of slab
with opening.
 4

To predict the ultimate load and failure stresses, and hence deduce the
behaviour of the slab, before and after failure.

To predict the failure modes of reinforced concrete slab with opening.

To compare the analysis result of Yield Line Method and Finite Element
Analysis (FEA) Method.

1.4 Scope of Study

It is impossible to study every parameter that will influence the behaviour of

the slab in linear finite element analysis. Therefore, the study will focus on the
application of typical slab and opening geometry in Malaysia. The overall
dimensions of the slab model under study is 10000 mm x 8000 mm. The overall
thickness of the slab is 300 mm while the geometry of the slab opening is 2500 mm x
2500 mm. The slab is two-way slab system; therefore a simply supported restraint of
pin is applied at four edges of the slab.

There are a total of three FE models that need to be modeled and analyzed in
this study. The first model is purely reinforced concrete slab with opening without
strengthening with FRP strip. This model is used as a control specimen to compare
the result with other model. The second and third model is reinforced concrete slab
with opening, which are strengthen with 50 mm and 100 mm FRP strip.

Linear static analysis was conducted on the entire three models. Single
uniform distribution loads is applied to the reinforced concrete slabs with and
without FRP strip. An incremental of 0.5 kN/m2 uniform distribution load was
applied to trace the stresses and displacement of the models. The loading continued
 5

until failure occurs at the model. The analyses were terminated and the critical stress
or strain of the slab was recorded.

1.5 Importance of Study

The study will give a clear understanding on the behaviour and failure
mechanisms of a proposed concrete slab with opening strengthen with FRP strip. The
output of the study will be beneficial as the detail measure to produce efficient
strengthening method to slab with opening. If the concept of strengthening using
FRP is commercially accepted, thus a strengthening process can be conducted much
easier with equally satisfactory solutions.
 CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Historical Background

2.1.1 Steel Plate Bonding

Structural retrofit work has come to the forefront of industrial practice in

response to the problems of an aging infrastructure. These problems, coupled with
revisions in structural codes to better accommodate natural phenomena, create the
need for the development of successful structural retrofit technologies. The important
characteristics of repair-type work are: a predominance of labour and shut-down
costs as opposed to material costs; time and site constraints; long-term durability;
difficulty in methodology selection and design; and effectiveness evaluation.

An established method for upgrading reinforced concrete (RC) members,

including prestressed members, is steel plate bonding. This method originated from
the strengthening of steel beams with epoxy-adhered steel plates. The idea was
proposed for the repair of concrete members, and was followed by several years of
research until it became an accepted field practice. Experimental projects that have
 7

been conducted investigate the influence of several factors, such as plate thickness,
type of adhesive, and anchoring conditions.

In general, bonding steel plates to the tension flange of concrete beams or

structures increases both strength and stiffness of the girder and reduces cracks.
However, corrosion of the steel can be a problem as corrosion can damage the bond
and eventually lead to the failure of the repair and structure. Also, shear and flexure
peeling could develop after the formation of shear diagonal cracks, or when the
curvature in the beam is increased.

Reinforced concrete beams can be strengthened and stiffened by bonding

mild steel plates to the tension face of the beam. The technique of bonding mild steel
plates to the soffits of reinforced concrete beams and slabs is often used to improve
the flexural performance of existing structures, as it increases the strength and
stiffness of the beams and also reduces the crack widths in the concrete. This
bonding technique has further advantages, as it has been found in practice to be
simple and rapid to apply, does not significantly reduce the height of the structure,
and can be applied while the structure is in use. This procedure has been used to
repair buildings, strengthen bridges and it has been used in Belgium, France, Japan,
Poland, South Africa, Switzerland, and in the United Kingdom. However,
experimental tests show that these externally bonded plates have a tendency to peel
away after the formation of the diagonal shear cracks or when the curvature in the
beam is increased.

2.1.2 Fiber Reinforced Polymer Strengthening System

In response to the increasing need for repair or retrofit of reinforced concrete

structures in the world, a new structural strengthening technology has emerged.
Ongoing development of cost-effective production techniques for Fiber Reinforced
polymers (FRP) has progressed to the level that these once-referred to as the “space-
 8

age” materials are ready for the construction industry. Reduced material cost,
coupled with labor savings inherent with its low weight and high strength make FRP
an attractive alternative to steel plates for post strengthening. Steel-plate bonding has
been a tool of the concrete-repair industry for the past twenty years. However, the
high cost of labor to set the usually heavy plates, the difficulties with splicing the
plates, and concerns about corrosion of the steel plates have limited the use of this
technique. Because of its excellent weight-to-strength properties, recently reduced
material costs, relatively unlimited material length availability, comparably simpler
installation, and immunity to corrosion, the use of FRP presents an evaluation,
advance of externally bonded strengthening.

The principles behind externally bonding FRP plates or wraps to concrete

structures are very similar to the principles used in application of bonded steel plates.
In general, the member’s flexural, shear, or axial strength is increased or better
mobilized by the external application of high-tensile-strength material. External
reinforcement with FRP is fit for many structural applications, such as:

• Capacity upgrade due to a change in use.

• Passive confinement to improve seismic resistance.
• Crack control and crack stitching
• Strengthening around new openings in slabs.

Notwithstanding its promise, the use of FRP for structural strengthening has a
fairly short history, and there is a need for additional laboratory tests and analytical
data substantiation to broaden its use. Consequently, the use of FRP in structural
strengthening and retrofit application should be approached with caution and with
sound engineering judgement. FRP should not be used in the following situations
(Kelly et al., 1997):

• The condition of the substrate is unknown or largely deteriorated

• There is ongoing substantial corrosion of the mild-steel reinforcement
• There is no mild-steel reinforcement to provide ductile behavior, etc.
 9

Engineers attempting to use FRP in external reinforcement applications today

are faced with the challenge of the innovation. No clear rules for concrete design
with FRP reinforcement exist at present.

2.2 General FRP Properties

Fiber-reinforced composite materials are blends of a high strength, high

modulus fiber with a hardenable liquid matrix. In this form, both fibers and matrix
retain their physical and chemical identities yet they produce a combination of
properties that cannot be achieved with either of the constituents acting alone. The
bonding of these aligned fibers into the softer matrix material results in a fiber-
reinforced composite material with superior properties in the fiber direction. Due the
fibers are highly directional, the resultant composite will exhibit anisotropic behavior
much like steel reinforced concrete. This anisotropic behavior gives the designer
freedom to tailor the strengthening system to reinforce specific stresses. (Kelly et al.,
1997)

Typical composite material properties include low specific gravity, high

strength-to-weight ratio, and high modulus-to-weight ratio. Most FRP materials are
very resistant to corrosion. Another characteristic of FRP materials is the almost
linear elastic stress-strain curve to failure. Matrix materials deform plastically,
whereas the fibers, in general, do not. Since the FRP composite behavior is generally
dominated by the reinforcement, this plastic deformation or yield is seldom exhibited
by the composite designed for structural purposes. Brittle failure is the typical failure
mode for FRP composite under excessive stress.
 10

2.2.1 Fibers

Fibers ideally comprise no more than 60% (by volume) of the composite and
are the principal loads carrying members. Hand lay-up methods may produce
laminates with lower fiber volumes, which may range between 30 to 50% of fiber
content. Fibers primarily act in tension and tend to have low transverse strength. For
handling purposes in some forms of composites, the individual fibers are brought
together in “bundles” called tows or rovings. The fibers can be used in this form or
further processed into tow sheets, fabrics or mats. The three most common types of
fibers used in polymer matrix composites are carbon, glass and aramid. (Kelly et al.,
1997)

2.2.1.1 Carbon Fibers

Carbon fibers have been commercially available since 1959. Carbon is made
from either PAN (polyacrylonitrile), pitch (a petroleum-processing by product), or
rayon fiber precursors. The individual fibers are produced by stripping off hydrogen
and other side groups from a carbon-carbon backbone polymer under tension, and
thus a crystalline carbon matrix is formed. These nitrile groups and hydrogen atoms
are stripped away by heating in an inert atmosphere at very high temperatures (often
up to 3000oC). Tension is applied to orient the precursor polymer chains and later in
the processing, tension is used to orient the crystalline sheets parallel to the fiber
axis. This consolidates the crystal sheets into an “optimum” alignment with respect
to each other.

Theoretically, carbon fibers could obtain mechanical properties of 100 GPa

(15 msi) tensile strength and 1000 GPa (140 msi) modulus if the crystal structure can
be correctly oriented and packed. If the polymer chains are somehow folded in the
crystalline state, neither the strength nor modulus could be fully developed. Current
“state of the art” carbon fibers have tensile strengths in the 5500 MPa (800 ksi)
 11

neighborhood, and modulus values of 103 GPa (15 msi), both significantly below the
theoretical values. Elongation is in the 0.8 to 2.0% range, depending on fiber type
and method of manufacturing. Carbon fibers are largely inert to most common
solvents. Acids and bases, and are extremely heat-resistant. Carbon/epoxy laminates
show good fatigue resistance, do not creep and are extremely resistant to stress-
rupture and stress corrosion.

2.2.1.2 Glass Fibers

Glass fiber become commercially available in 1939 with the start-up of an

Owens Corning production facility. Glass is a super colled liquid. It possesses neither
a crystalline structure, nor flow properties. There are six commercially available
variants of fiber glass The two glass types most commonly used in structural
applications are S-glass and E-glass, with E-glass being the workhorse of the
industry. Annual production of E-glass is approximately 1.2 billion pounds per year
(Reis, 2003). Virgin filament properties for the two fibers are given below:

Table 2.1: Virgin filament properties for E-glass and S-glass (Kelly et al., 1997)
Property E-glass S-glass
Tensile strength MPa (ksi) 3450 (500) 4600 (660)
Tensile modulus GPa (msi) 73 (11) 86 (12)
Elongation % 4.8 4.7
Coefficient of Thermal 5.0 5.6
Expansion mm/mm/oC
Density g/cc 2.54 2.48

Glass is generally partially resistant to most solvents, mild acids and bases.
Strong alkalis and some strong acids will attack both S and E-glass. Glass is an
excellent thermal and electrical insulator. Glass laminates have less fatigue reistance
than either aramid or carbon laminates, but better than most metals. Glass, like
 12

carbon, does not creep but is susceptible to both stress-rupture and stress corrosion.
The generally accepted maximum level of sustained stress is between 25 and 30% of
ultimate tensile strength. These figures can be significantly affected by
environmental conditions and resin selection.

2.2.2 Resins (Matrix)

Resins by their nature are at least an order of magnitude weaker than the
reinforcing fibers embedded in them. They are more susceptible to heat and fire and
generally more susceptible to solvents, water, acids and bases than the fibers. All
resins exhibit substantial levels of creep and have large coefficient of thermal
expansion compared to traditional construction materials. However, FRP’s could not
exist without them.

Resin matrices allow stresses to be shared across the reinforcing fibers in a

laminate. This sharing action allows the laminate to act in a more homogeneous
manner that develops the generally superior properties of the FRP. Resins also
provide protective coverings that shield the fibers from abrasion and from certain
environmental conditions.

Long-term durability of polymer matrices is associated with a gradual change

in physical properties, which occurs with time and loading. Pre-stressing composite
materials may have significant long-term effects on the polymer matrix. Creep
rupture has been known to occur in FRP composite due to the viscoplastic behavior
of the polymer matrix and is not a function of the fibers. The three most commonly
used resin systems in the construction field are epoxies, polyesters, and vinylesters.
Each of these will be discussed briefly in the following sections (Kelly et al., 1997) .
 13

2.2.2.1 Epoxies

Epoxy resins are generally considered to be the best matrix material for use in
FRP systems, due to their superior strength, adhesive properties, fatigue resistance,
chemical resistance, and low shrinkage. As with other systems, epoxy properties can
be widely varied, depending on the base resin and the curing agents used. Most
epoxies are cured with amines, anhydrides and Lewis acids.
Epoxies tend to have higher viscosities than both polyesters and vinylesters
systems. They also have longer cure times and are the most expensive of the three
systems. Typical properties are given below (Kelly et al., 1997):

• Tensile strength (MPa) 55 - 130

• Tensile modulus (GPa) 2.8 - 4.1
• Elongation (%) 3.0 – 10.0
• Density (g/cc) 1.2 – 1.3
• Shrinkage (%) 1–5

2.2.2.2 Polyesters

These systems comprise the bulk of the laminating systems used in the FRP
industry. They are unsaturated polyesters, manufactured by reacting glycols with
either dibasic acids or anhydrides. Given the broad range of these ingredients that is
available. The properties of polyesters may vary significantly.

Polyesters are mildly resistant to most solvents and acids. They are
susceptible to attack by bases and elevated-temperature water. Polyesters have
generally less resistance to fatigue than either vinylesters or epoxies. Elongation is
generally in the 1 % range. Perhaps the greatest drawback to polyester use in
inhabited structures is the presence of the styrene monomer. The odor from the
 14

monomer is pungent and lingering. Incompletely cured systems can continue to

outgas styrene for extended time periods (years). Basic mechanical properties are
listed below (Kelly et. al., 1997):

• Tensile strength (MPa) 35 – 104

• Tensile modulus (GPa) 2.1 – 4.1
• Elongation (%) <5.0
• Density (g/cc) 1.10 – 1.46
• Shrinkage (%) 5 – 12

2.2.2.3 Vinylesters

Vinylester resins are hybrids most commonly constructed of an epoxy

backbone with reactive chain terminations of either acrylate or methacrylate groups.
Urethanes and polyesters can be used as the resin less reactive groups, as only the
chain ends are responsive to the curing mechanism used.

Since they share the monomer curing mechanism with polyesters, they also
share the odor problem. Shrinkage on curing is on the order of 5 to 10%. Typical
properties are listed below (Kelly et. al., 1997):

• Tensile strength (MPa) 73 - 81

• Tensile modulus (GPa) 3.0 – 3.5
• Elongation (%) 3.5 – 5.5
• Density (g/cc) 1.12 – 1.32
• Shrinkage (%) 5 – 12

Vinylesters are generally priced between polyester and epoxies. As a group,

vinylesters are used where more toughness or a higher degree of chemical resistance
is required than is available with polyesters.
 15

2.3 Structural Adhesive Materials

The purpose of the adhesive is to produce a continuous bond between fiber

reinforced polymer and concrete to ensure that full composite action is developed by
the transfer of shear stress across the thickness of the adhesive layer. For this to
occur, an excellent degree of adhesion to the surfaces involved must be achieved and
sustained.

Extensive research works have shown that the best chance of success is likely
to be achieved by using two-part ambient curing structural epoxy adhesives which
have been specially developed for use in the construction industry and specifically
for bonding external plates. Mays and Hutchinson (1998) identified the principal
requirements for bonding steel plates to concrete to enchance the strength capacity
and these are very similar for the case of bonding FRP to concrete. In summary, the
adhesive requirements are that:

• It should exhibit adequate adhesion to the materials involved (in this

case, concrete and FRP).
• A two-part epoxy resin should be used, which exhibits good moisture
resistance and resistance to creep.
• The glass transition temperature of the adhesive (Tg), should be at
least 45oC.
• The minimum shear strength at 20oC, measured by the thick adherend
shear test (TAST), should be 18MPa (720 psi).
• The equilibrium moisture content should not exceed 3% by weight
after immersion in distilled water at 20oC. The coefficient of
permeability should not exceed 5x10-14 m2s-1.
• It should possess gap-filling properties, be thixotropic and be suitable
for application to vertical and overhead surfaces.
• It should be fully resistance to the alkaline nature of concrete.
 16

• It should not be sensitive to normal variations in the moisture content

of prepared surfaces.
• The working characteristics of the material should enable an adequate
bond to be achieved with ease of mixing, application and curing.
• It should exhibit sufficient “grab” to enable FRP materials to be
attached directly to overhead or vertical surfaces without the need for
temporary fixings whilst the adhesive cures.
• The mechanical and thermal properties of the adhesive should be
compatible with those of concrete and FRP materials. The effects of
environmental and other service conditions on the adhesive material
and the bond must also be considered carefully.

2.3.1 Epoxy Adhesives

Epoxies represent an important class of adhesives that have been available

commercially since the 1940’s. As structural adhesives, they are the most widely
used and accepted. Other thermosetting adhesives include polyesters (poor creep and
shrinkage behavior) and particular variants of acrylics (creep and elevated
temperature sensitivity) and polyurethanes (weaker and more susceptible to creep
and moisture) but they are generally not suitable for this particular type of
strengthening applications on site. A detailed consideration of adhesives and their
properties was given by Mays and Hutchinson (1998).

Epoxies adhesives can be formulated in a variety of forms to provide a broad

range of application characteristics and mechanical properties when cured.
Formulations are, complex and sophisticated blends of many components, the most
important being the resin. One of a range of different types of hardener is added to
the base resin, together with fillers, toughening agents, plasticisers, diluents,
surfactants, antioxidants and other materials. The choice of hardener principals
results in the distinction between the adhesives which cure either at ambient or at
 17

elevated temperature. However as a rule of thumb, the rate of reaction is doubled for
every 8-10oC rise in temperature.

This type of epoxy resin has several advantages over other polymers as
structural adhesives for civil engineering use, namely:

• Low creep and superior strength retention under sustained load.

• Low shrinkage compared with polyesters, acrylics and vinyl types;
hence, residual bond-line strain is reduced
• Lack of by-products from curing reaction minimizes shrinkage and
allows the bonding of large areas with only contact pressure.
• Excellent moisture resistance.
• Able to accommodate irregular of thick bond-lines (e.g. concrete).
• Can be made thixotropic for application to overhead and vertical
surfaces.
• May be formulated to have a long open time (for applications with
complex and external fixing). Good wetting properties for concrete
and other substrates.
• High cured cohesive strength; bond failure may be dictated by
substrate strength (particularly with concrete substrates).
• Typically they are suitable for service operating temperatures in the
range –60oC to +60oC.

2.3.2 Properties of Adhesives

The Engineer, must be aware of the behavior and performance of the selected
adhesive from the time it is delivered, through storage, mixing, application and
curing phases to its properties in the hardened state over the intended design life.
Thus the properties of interest in approximate chronological order are likely to
include:
 18

• Unmixed – shelf life (storage temperature is critical)

• Freshly mixed – viscosity, pot life, wetting ability, open time
• During cure – rate of strength development
• Hardened – strength and elastic modulus, fracture toughness,
temperature resistance, moisture resistance, creep, fatigue.

2.3.3 Mechanical Characteristics

The properties of adhesive polymers are generally determined by their

internal structure, but the blend or components in many commercial formulations
prevents simple relationships from being drawn. A comparison of the typical
properties and characteristics of epoxy adhesive are shown in Table 2.2 and Table
2.3.

Adhesives posses a relatively low modulus which decreases with increasing

temperature. Variations in temperature can transform materials which are tough and
strong at 20oC to ones which are soft and weak at 100oC. The glass transition
temperature, Tg, denotes a marked change in the mechanical properties of a polymer.
Above Tg, the material will be rubbery and below it will be glass-like and stiff. By
warming or heat-curing adhesives, their Tg values are increased.

Table 2.2: Typical Properties of Epoxy adhesives (Kelly et al., 1997)

Property [at 20oC] Typical Range
Shear Strength [Mpa] 15 - 35
Tensile Strength [MPa] 20 - 40
Tensile Modulus [GPa] 1 - 10
Tensile Strain to Failure [%] 1-4
Fracture Energy [kJm-2] 0.2 – 1.0
Glass Transition Temperature [oC] 40 - 60
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion [10-6 mm/mm/E] 30
 19

Table 2.3: Typical Characteristics of Epoxy adhesives (Kelly et al., 1997)

Characteristics
Creep Resistance Excellent
Moisture Resistance Excellent
Heat Resistance Good
Cold or Hot Cure Cold/Hot
Cure Time Medium/Long
Gap Filling Yes

2.4 Flexural Strengthening

Reinforced concrete elements, such as beams and columns, may be

strengthened in flexure through the use of FRP composites epoxy-bonded to their
tension zones, with the direction of fibers parallel to that of high tensile stresses
(member axis). The concept is illustrated in Fig. 2.1, where unidirectional FRP
laminates or fabrics are use to strengthen a reinforced concrete element in flexure,
and in Fig. 2.2, which shows a practical application. The failure analysis of such
elements may follow well-established procedures for reinforced concrete structures,
provided that:

(a) the contribution of external FRP reinforcement is taken into account

properly; and
(b) special consideration is given to the issue of bond between the
concrete and the FRP.
 20

Figure 2.1: Flexural strengthening of reinforced concrete beam and

it’s cross section

A basic understanding of the failure analysis and design of reinforced

concrete elements (e.g., beams, slabs, columns, shear walls) strengthened in flexure
with externally bonded FRP is provided in the following.

CFRP

Figure 2.2: Flexural strengthening of reinforced concrete beam with CFRP strip
 21

2.4.1 Materials Modeling

Figure 2.3 illustrates idealized stress-strain curves for concrete in

compression (a), steel in either tension or compression (b) and FRP in tension (c).
These curves, along may be ignored (an assumption that is justified for most
structural adhesives applied at thickness in the order of 1.0-1.5 mm, in which case
viscoelastic phenomena, such as axial and interlaminar shear creep as well as
relaxation, are negligible), form the basis for the failure analysis of concrete elements
strengthened in flexure. Central to the analysis of these elements is the identification
of all the possible failure modes; this is presented in the next sections.

Figure 2.3: Idealized stress-strain curve for (a) concrete in compression;

(b) steel in tension or compression; (c) FRP in tension
 22

2.4.2 Failure Modes

A reinforced concrete element strengthened in flexure with externally epoxy-

bonded FRP reinforcement may fail according to one of the failure modes described
below (Gdoutos et al.,2000).

• Steel yielding followed by concrete crushing.

The flexural strength may be reached with yielding of the tensile steel
reinforcement followed by crushing of the concrete in the compression zone, while
the FRP is intact.

• Steel yielding followed by FRP fracture.

For relatively low ratios of both steel and FRP, flexural failure may occur
with yielding of the both steel and rupture of FRP, flexural failure may occur
with yielding of the tensile steel reinforcement followed by tensile fracture of
the FRP.

• Concrete crushing.
For relatively high reinforcement ratios, failure of the reinforced concrete
element may be caused by compressive crushing of the concrete while both
the steel and the FRP are intact.

• FRP peeling-off at the outermost crack in the anchorage zone.

The FRP may peel off in the anchorage zone as a result of shear fracture
through the concrete as shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: FRP peeling-off at outermost crack in the anchorage zone

 23

• FRP plate-end shear failure.

FRP plate-end shear failure will occur when the shear capacity of the
concrete at the end of the FRP is exceeded as shown in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5: FRP plate-end shear failure

• FRP peeling-off at flexural cracks.

Flexural (vertical) cracks in the concrete may propagate horizontally and thus
cause peeling-off of the FRP in regions far from the anchorage as shown in
Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6: FRP peeling-off at flexural cracks

• FRP peeling-off caused by shear cracks.

Shear cracking in the concrete generally results in both horizontal and vertical
opening as shown in Figure 2.7, which may lead to FRP peeling-off.
 24

Figure 2.7: FRP peeling-off at shear cracks

• FRP peeling-off caused by unevenness of the concrete surface.

The unevenness or roughness of the concrete surface may result in localized
debonding of the FRP, which may propagate and cause peeling-off as shown in
Figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8: FRP peeling-off due to unevenness of concrete surface

• Bond failure in the adhesive.

In the rather extreme case where the strength of the adhesive is lower than the
strength of concrete, the debonding or peeling-off mechanisms described
above could involve failure of the adhesive.

• Bond failure in the interfaces between FRP, adhesive and concrete.

Debonding through the FRP-adhesive or adhesive-concrete interface is very
rare and might occur only when the surface conditions during the FRP
application are insufficient.
 25

• Shear failure in the FRP (interlaminar shear).

Shear failure in the FRP might occur as a result of tensile stress transfer in the
fibers. This failure mechanism will initiate when the maximum shear stress in
the FRP reaches its shear strength.

A series of four tests on large-scale slabs with a rectangular cutout in the

center retrofitted with CFRP strips was conducted by Zhao et al. (2003) to evaluate
the use of FRP strengthening method for typical upgrading. They found that the
failure of the strengthened test units was due to delamination or peeling-off of the
strips as show in Figure 2.9.

Delamination of the
FRP strips

Figure 2.9: Failure of concrete slab due to delamination or peeling-off of FRP

strip
 26

2.4.3 Failure Mechanism

2.4.3.1 FRP Plate-end Shear Failure

Tests by several investigators (Chaallal, 1998, Ramos, 2004), have indicated

that when externally bonded plates stop at a certain distance from the supports (as is
typically the case in strengthening applications) a nearly vertical crack can initiate at
the plate end (plate end crack) and then grow as an inclined shear crack as shown in
Figure 2.10b. However, by virtue of internal stirrups, the shear crack may be arrested
and the bonded-on plate separated from the concrete at the level of the longitudinal
reinforcement as shown in Figure 2.10b. This failure mechanism will be activated
when the maximum shear stress near the plate end reaches a critical value. Jansze
(1997) employed this modeling approach along with the fictitious shear span concept
as illustrated in Figure 2.10 to compute the shear resistance of plated beams along the
lines of an expression provided by the CEB-FIP Model Code.

Figure 2.10: (a) Concept of fictitious shear span; (b) modeling analogy for the
analysis of plate-end shear failure
 27

2.4.3.2 FRP Peeling-off at Flexural Cracks in the Constant Moment Region

Another failure mechanism of FRP-plated elements may initiate from near

vertical (flexural) cracks in high-moment regions. When such cracks become wide,
the tensile stress in the FRP must be redistributed, and this leads to local debonding
as shown in Figure 2.6; final failure is reached by propagation of debonding towards
the end of the plate. The current practice toward suppressing this failure mechanism
requires that the maximum strain in the FRP, εfmax, be limited below a certain value,
which may be derived based on testing and supported by analysis. Neubauer and
Rostasy (1997) have suggested that this value should be taken as the minimum of
five times the yield strain of the internal tensile steel reinforcement, εys, and 50% of
the FRP strain capacity, εfu.

2.4.3.3 FRP Peeling-off Caused by Shear Cracks

Shear cracks in concrete elements are inclined, and are associated with both
horizontal, w, and vertical, v, opening displacements, primarily due to the aggregate
interlock and dowel action mechanisms. Similarly to what was described in the
previous section, the horizontal crack opening displacement may initiate debonding.
But the vertical crack opening displacement may also cause debonding, as it induces
direct tension in the concrete layer between the FRP and the embedded longitudinal
steel reinforcement as shown in Figure 2.7. Whether peeling-off will initiate or not in
this case (for a given horizontal crack opening displacement) depends on a number of
parameters, including the vertical crack opening displacement, the flexural and shear
rigidity of the FRP, and the tensile strength of concrete. Gdoutos (2000) opinion is
that this failure mechanism has not yet been quantified properly by the research
community (although some attempts have been made), and hence no attempt at
detailed analytical treatment will be made here.
 28

2.4.3.4 FRP Peeling-off Caused by Unevenness of the Concrete Surface

Debonding of the FRP due to possible unevenness of the concrete surface is

another failure mechanism that has not been studied thoroughly. Experimental
evidence suggests that this mechanism may be avoided by adopting certain practical
execution rules and limitations on concrete surface roughness. Most of these
limitations refer to a maximum concrete roughness over a given length, and depend
on FRP type and dimensions (e.g., thickness). Specific details should be looked for in
specifications normally provided by suppliers of FRP strengthening systems.

2.4.3.5 Bond Failure in the Adhesive

Debonding of the FRP through the adhesive is a very rare failure mechanism
that will not be activated under normal circumstances, that is, when typical high
quality structural epoxies are employed. Such epoxies have shear and tensile
strengths that exceed those of concrete by far, and hence this mechanism will always
be preceded by one that involves failure through the concrete. Possible exceptions
might be encountered at relatively high-temperature applications (where the strength
of adhesives drops) or when the concrete substrate has unusually high strength.

The failure analysis for the adhesive debonding mechanism could be either
strength-based or fracture energy-based. The strength-based approach would involve
calculation of the maximum shear stress in the adhesive and comparison of this with
the adhesive’s shear strength. Similar arguments hold for more complex states of
stress, say a combination of shear and tensile stresses, in which case the use of an
appropriate failure criterion for the adhesive would be imperative. The fracture
energy-based approach would involve determination of the mode II – shear mode (in
combination with mode I – opening mode, if tensile stresses are important too) stress
intensity factor and comparison with the critical stress intensity factor. As mentioned
earlier, debonding through the adhesive is highly unlikely to occur, and thus the
 29

elaborate treatment of either of the two approaches mentioned above is not justified
in the framework of this book.

2.4.3.6 Bond Failure in the Interfaces between FRP, Adhesive and Concrete

Debonding through the interfaces between FRP and adhesive or adhesive and
concrete is another failure mechanism that is rather unlikely to occur, unless the
concrete or FRP surface conditions are insufficient during the adhesive application
process. This may be avoided through proper quality control, which would call for a
number of surface preparation steps (normally specified by the FRP strengthening
system supplier). In the extreme case where poor quality control results in
insufficient interfaces, debonding through these interfaces may be tackled as
described above, that is, by adopting either strength-based of fracture energy-based
theories (the latter may also be combined with advanced interface mechanics
theories). Since this failure mode may easily be avoided by means of proper surface
preparation (e.g., cleaning of FRP with acetone and sandblasting of concrete), no
detailed analysis will be attempted in this work.

2.4.3.7 Shear Failure in the FRP (interlaminar shear)

Tensile stresses in unidirectional fiber reinforced polymers are carried by the

fibers through shearing of the polymer matrix. If the shear stresses between fibers
reach the shear strength of the polymer or the shear strength of the polymer-fiber
interface, interlaminar shear in the FRP will occur. This failure mode is
(theoretically) possible in pultruded FRP strips as well as between different layers of
FRP sheets. But typical polymer matrix materials (and structural adhesive) have
shear strengths that are several (6-8) times higher than that of concrete, so this failure
mechanism is very rare and hence no further elaboration will be given here.
 30

2.5 Durability and Serviceability of FRP Strengthening System

2.5.1 Performance History

Applied properly, FRP appear to offer the same or improved life cycle cost
estimates compared to other retrofit methods. Although the longevity of composites
and concrete materials is well documented, the combined system is raising warranted
concerns regarding to the overall long-term durability. Accurate durability testing has
been difficult to implement due to physical and chemical constraints related to
accelerating the aging process of the composite systems. The testing of the FRP-
concrete bond line has been of particular interest (Kelly et al., 1997).

The FRP-concrete bond line is the critical component to the effectiveness of

most FRP structural strengthening applications, as this is the location where the
transfer of stresses occurs. The exception to this would be a structural element that
the bond between the composite and concrete cannot always be assured. The bond
can degrade over time, eventually causing the system to become ineffective. Bond
quality is influenced by the condition of the existing concrete, surface preparation of
the concrete substrate, quality of the composite system application, quality of the
composite, and the durability of the epoxy primer and resin.

The material properties of each individual system component should be

evaluated to determine their effect on the composite system behavior. Both the
internal concrete condition and the surface condition affect the durability
characteristics of the existing concrete. The type and condition of the fiber and the
epoxy matrix, combined to make the FRP laminate, will affect the speed of the aging
process. Environmental conditions that cause damage to FRP composites include
both internal and external relative humidity and temperature, as well as exposure to
freeze/thaw and extreme temperature cycle. All of these conditions can be intensified
if excess moisture is entrapped in the concrete by the FRP composite. The material
 31

and environmental influences, as well as suggestions for FRP composite installations

that will improve the durability of FRP strengthening system will be discussed in the
following sections.

2.5.2 Material Durability of System Components

The overall system performance, particularly the bond strength, can be

influenced by the basic material properties of the FRP-concrete system. The system
components are the FRP composite, concrete, and the interface of these two
materials. The basic material properties combined with the environmental stresses
plaguing the system can cause harmful detachment, bubbling, cracking or other flaws
in the FRP-Concrete bond.

2.5.2.1 Concrete

FRP applied to concrete in a poor, untreated condition can result in a faulty

repair and possibly contribute to the further degradation of the concrete core. The
interior concrete condition including the condition of the reinforcing steel should be
assessed before considering FRP as a retrofit solution. Equally as important, the
existing concrete substrate must be in good condition or sufficiently repaired to
ensure a strong bond.

2.5.2.1.1 Internal Concrete Condition

It is critical to consider the condition of the existing concrete prior to

encapsulation. FRP is often used as a solution to structural problems found when
rehabilitating deteriorated concrete is to be conducted. Before any work is done, it is
 32

usually necessary to treat the existing structure in preparation for the FRP composite
system, otherwise the bond quality and system longevity is at risk.

It has been suggested that when using FRP composite plates or fabrics rather
than steel plates on chloride contaminated bridge beams, it is allowable to
encapsulate the beam (Lemming, 1995). This approach disregards the need to correct
the interior reinforcement corrosion or concrete infiltrated with chemicals causing
the damage. As pointed put by Emmons et. al., this “covering” is not sufficient and
basic existing problems need to be addressed before FRP strengthening methods are
implemented. By encapsulating the concrete we are not riding ourselves of the
existing faults. Water and chemicals can still penetrate the concrete to further
deteriorate the system and lead to bond failure between the composite system and
concrete. Dilation of the concrete member due to corrosion induced cracking will
eventually stress the FRP composite and add unnecessary strain into the system. This
action may accelerate the aging process of the composite. Also, the FRP contributes
to the structural system by adding tensile strength to the concrete, assuming adequate
compression strength already exists. By wrapping weak and deteriorated concrete the
improvement on the quality of the overall structure is surface. If the corrosion is
allowed to continue it is likely that the concrete that the composite system is bonded
to will spall prematurely due to increase in normal shear stresses and the expansive
forces of the corroding steel. This phenomenon is often seen in beams and slabs.

The existing concrete can be rehabilitated prior to the application of FRP by

applying corrosion inhibitors and repairing areas where the concrete is at risk of
spalling. In cases of extreme deterioration, the mass of the structural element (usually
columns) may need to be built up before FRP can be applied.
 33

2.5.2.1.2 Surface Concrete Condition

In many FRP composites the FRP bond to the concrete substrate is critical. If
the concrete is not properly prepared prior to wrapping, the FRP sheet composite
may not adhere adequately to the concrete member. Surface preparation should
include removal of all contaminants such as organic growth, old bituminous
products, surface coats, oil and dirt, by high pressure water cleaning and/or sand
blasting. If any of these materials remain, these are higher risks for deterioration of
the bond between the materials by bubbling and/or peeling. The concrete surface
should also be dried and well aged/cured before application of epoxy and FRP. A
dry, open-pore structure in the concrete substrate allows the epoxy primer to be
drawn in, forming “legs” into the concrete which create a mechanical anchoring
bond. The concrete surface should also be free of any impregnating sealers. A simple
test is to sprinkle water on the substrate and check for beading; the water should be
absorbed immediately if an open pour structure exists.

2.5.2.2 Interface

Transfer of environmental and mechanical stresses between the old and the
new structure occurs through the interface between the FRP composite and the
substrate. This interface, or bond, is critical for longevity and durability of the FRP
system. The failures are often seen as debonding or peeling action where localized
stresses occur. These usually occur at three primary interface locations: flexural
cracks, shear cracks, or unevenness of the concrete surface (Mays, 1993). Further
discussion related to the influence of the interface on the environmental durability
will be discussed in the next section.
 34

2.5.3 Environmental Damage Mechanisms

As explained in the previous section, the material properties are subjected to

environmental stresses that plague the system and cause flaws in the FRP-concrete
bond. Examples of environmental problems include temporary water pooling at the
FRP-to-concrete interface or damage due to climatic cycles. These durability
problems are made significantly worse if excess moisture is trapped by the composite
encapsulation of the concrete. Figure 2.11 below provides a schematic of the system
level interactions.

Internal Influences
• Chemical Activity
• Electrochemical Activity
• Alkali content and pH level
• Stress
• Moisture infiltration
• Transport of solutions, salts….

Interfacial Influences
• Moisture entrapment
• Moisture diffusion
• Selective transport of chemicals
• Thermal and elastic mismatch

External Influences
• Humidity
• Moisture
• Temperature
• Temperature Cycle (daily, seasonal, annually)
• Aggressive natural and manmade agents
• UV Exposure
• Oxygen (effecting steel)

Figure 2.11: System level interaction

2.5.3.1 Accumulation of Water

Harmful materials, such as acid rain and siliceous particles, can be

transported through concrete pores and cracks by water. If excess water is allowed to
 35

accumulate or pool along the concrete or it’s reinforcing, the concrete is at a risk of
accelerated aging and reduced function. When the concrete member is rehabilitated
by wrapping or lining with FRP, the epoxy’s secondary function of waterproofing
inhibits moisture transfer. The FRP composite can in this way entrap excess water
against the concrete and increase the risks of deterioration.

For instance, recent practice suggests leaving a gap of 3 to 5 centimeters of

concrete unwrapped at the connection between the column and footing and/or cap
beam face, as shown in Figure 2.12. Although this gap may necessary, it does leave a
path for excess water to potentially enter through any irregularities between the
concrete and the FRP wrap. As gravity forces the water downward, water builds up
between the FRP and the concrete, unable to dissipate. This is also true for the
underside of slabs that have upper surface cracks where water can enter and pool on
the substrate against the FRP. In these cases we often see bubbles of excess moisture
and deteriorates epoxy bonding, such as on epoxy coated concrete floors, slabs and
painted walls.

Figure 2.12: Schematic of water infiltration locations

Excessive flexural strength in the plastic hinge region due to contact between
the column jacket and the adjacent member may possibly result in undesired moment
and shear forces in footings and cap beams during a seismic response.
 36

2.5.3.2 Pressure Build-Up

The internal pore pressure is another concern related to the FRP moisture
barrier properties. These pressures are known to fluctuate due to external
environmental changes, causing moisture vapor transfer and off gassing. Because the
FRP composite has a secondary effect of sealing the concrete, the internal pressure is
allowed to locally accumulate. There is no set rule as to what percentage of an
exposed concrete surface can be covered with the FRP. As a general guideline,
current thinking suggests leaving sections open to allow moisture transfer, but these
same gaps can provide access moisture or deleterious materials.

The use of FRP for structural strengthening can be compared to other

traditional methods that are more established and tested. For instance, structural
strengthening by bonding steel plates to the underside of concrete bridge decks is
fairly common. In this application, the suggested concrete exposure area is at least
50% (Kelly, 1997). It should be noted that steel plate applications are not identical to
FRP applications. The steel-plated-areas are designed as a minimum amount required
to provide the increased capacity for traffic loading. FRP applications may require
continuous fabric along a surface, to provide maximum strengthening and leaving
little available space devoted to adequate concrete surface exposure.

2.5.3.3 Climatic Cycle

Concrete is at risk during rapid cyclic temperature changes or in a freezing

environment if it does not contain proper sized air voids. These voids are needed to
allow adequate space for dissipation or expansion of the excess water.
 37

2.5.3.3.1 Temperature Cycle

Temperature cycle with moisture conditioning is a suitable test to evaluate the

long-term durability of concrete under various environmental effects. Since there are
no “typical” tests, the procedures vary and can influence the results. Most tests fall
into two categories of either rapid or prolonged test cycles for wet and dry situations.
The faster test cycles last less than one day; for instance 6 hour cycles of 35oC and
low humidity, followed by sea water (Toutanji, 1997). The slower test cycles last
more than a week; for instance 2 days of 27oC dry air followed by 5 days of fresh
water (Beaudoin, 1998). The second method aims at providing sufficient water-
absorption time for the concrete.

Established research has shown various results, depending on the test

procedures and sample preparation. As expected, the FRP-wrapped samples
drastically increase the strength and ductility capacity, compared to unwrapped
specimens undergoing the same wet-dry cycle (Toutanji, 1997). On the other hand,
the wrapped specimens were still affected by the wet salt solution and did show some
deterioration or loss of strength after the cyclic test (Toutanji, 1997, Rahman, 1996).
The failure mode often seems to be a peeling off of the FRP sheet initiated at a crack
during load tests (Beaudoin, 1998). It is possible that these capacity loses are due to
imperfections in FRP composite-concrete bond interface. If water is penetrating the
FRP-to-concrete bond and cannot dissipate, then the cycle has a more drastic effect
and could lead to detachment. These cyclic tests need to be further evaluated for
severe conditions and various resin properties. Close attention should be paid to the
quality of the FRP wrapping and epoxy bonding.

2.5.3.3.2 Freeze-Thaw

A more severe test to assess the environmental compatibility of a material is

the free-thaw test. This test is usually done in accordance with ASTM C666 and it
 38

subjects a specimen to numerous cycles of freezing and thawing environments to

determine the quality of concrete after time.

Some basic environmental tests show no significant detrimental effects on

fiber composite sheets (Yagi, 1997), and yet the same freeze-thaw tests on wrapped
concrete cylinders show significant reduction in strength and ductility as compared to
the control cylinder (Soudki, 1997). Freeze-thaw tests show that the compressive
strength of FRP wrapped concrete was significantly higher than the strength of the
unwrapped concrete. Increasing the number FRP layers also increases the confined
concrete strength even after being exposed to freeze-thaw conditions (Soudki, 1997).
FRP wrapped concrete that was freeze-thaw tested exhibits a much more catastrophic
failure (Soudki, 1997), as the FRP fails in a brittle manner and separates from the
concrete.

A problem with the free-thaw tests on FRP-concrete to-date is that most tests
start with bad quality concrete (Soudki, 1997, Toutanji, 1997). This seems to be the
general trend in recent research, although there are many variables that need to be
further investigated. The concrete, which is not considered to be frost-resistant, also
contributes to the strength degradation of the wrapped cylinder. There are
insufficient air voids in concrete to provide basic frost resistance. Therefore, the tests
are checking how well the FRP maintains some strength of poor quality concrete,
rather then testing the freeze-thaw resistance of the whole FRP-concrete system
itself. The penetration to the FRP-wrapped concrete started at an unsealed surface
(usually the top of a cylinder). Therefore, the freeze-thaw damage begins at the
unsealed surface, rather than within the wrapped area (Toutanji, 1997).
 39

2.6 Finite Element Analysis (FEA)

Finite element analysis (FEA) is a computerized method for predicting how a

component/assembly will react to environmental factors such as forces, heat, and
vibration. Though it is called "analysis," in the product design cycle, it is used as a
virtual prototyping tool to predict what is going to happen when the product is used.
Finite element analysis, as related to the mechanics of solids, is the solution of a
finite set of algebraic matrix equations that approximate the relationships between
load and deflection in static analysis and velocity, acceleration, and time in dynamic
analysis.

Finite element techniques have been used successfully to model many types
of elements in a concrete structure. Generally, finite element analysis will only
applicable to two conditions as stated below:

1. Any material in the state of static

2. Any material which comply to the Hooke’s Law

More recently, FEA applications to reinforced concrete structures have

improved remarkably due to research and advances in computer technology. FEA is
ready to become a sufficiently practical tool for researching, designing, maintaining,
and upgrading common constructed facilities. The application of FEA is in great
demand as the analysis method involves visualisation of the user and the result is
much easier to interpret and understand. The FEA using softwares available in
market should be tested and verified thoroughly against experimental data before full
confidence can be put on the reliability of the software.

One of the most important aspects of finite element modelling is the mesh
design. Strain gradients across first order elements are linear, which means if the
mesh used is too coarse then complex areas of the structure are not modelled
accurately. If the mesh size is too small, however, the number of constraints within
the model will increase, this reduces deformations and increases computational costs
 40

and time. To achieve a successful model it is essential to vary the mesh size in
certain areas, this mesh refinement should take place in regions such as compression
zones and other areas of complex behaviour.

2.6.1 Finite Element Analysis by Other Researchers

A number of finite element models to study the behaviour of concrete have

been proposed by various researchers. Hamil, Baglin and Scott (1999) of University
of Durham, U.K., had successfully modelled sixteen specimens of reinforced
concrete beam-column connection using nonlinear finite element techniques.
Dr. Paul S. Baglin is a Senior Research Assistant at the University of Dundee had
past experiences using finite element methods from his doctorate, which involved the
modelling of plate reinforced concrete beams.

The paper titled “a structural analysis of the first Cardington test” by Gillic,
Usmani and Rotter (2001) presents modelling of concrete floor slab using shell
elements. The authors used finite element modelling to specify the behaviour of shell
elements using stress-resultants. They had mentioned in the paper that it is not
necessary to model the entire floor for a realistic finite element mesh to be developed
because the lateral restraint could be accurately represented by rigid horizontal
boundary conditions.

Shanmugam, Kumar, and Thevendran (2002) had been doing researched on

double skin composite slabs (DSC). The paper deals with finite element modelling
of the ultimate load behaviour of DSC slabs. The study is based on finite element
analysis using ABAQUS. Twelve simply supported slabs were tested to failure under
a concentrated load applied at the center. The results have shown that these slabs
displayed a high degree of flexural characteristics, ultimate strength, and ductility.
Close agreement has been observed between the finite element and experimental
results for ultimate loads and load–deflection responses. The finite element model
was thus found to be capable of predicting the behaviour of DSC slabs accurately.
 41

There are still plenty of ongoing researches on concrete structures using finite
element analysis by researchers all over the world.

2.6.2 Material Properties

A clear understanding of the way in which the component materials, concrete,

steel and FRP, react to the applied load is an essential preliminary to full analysis of
an element. One of the important properties is the stress-strain relationship, which
must of necessity be the product of carefully controlled experiment. These
experimental results are not generally suited to direct application and so
simplifications and idealisations are adopted in practice. The use of computers has
made it possible to reduce the amount of idealisation required so that a complex
analysis can be performed using material stress-strain relationship.
 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

In most finite element software package like ABAQUS, ADINA,

COSMOS/M, DIANA, LS-DYNA, LUSAS and NASTRAN provide different types
of elements for one-, two- or three-dimensional problems such as plane stress, plane
strain, three-dimensional solid elements, straight and curved beams, and shell
elements. These programs are easily available in the market.

LUSAS (Version 13.5) has been chosen for the purpose of analysing the
concrete slab with and without external FRP strengthening in this project due to its
flexibility in geometry and materials modelling. The chapter describes step by step of
the modelling procedures, includes all the parameters in the analysis, from the
geometry modelling until the determination of the element failure.

There are totally three FE models that need to be modeled and analyzed in
this study. The first model is purely reinforced concrete slab with opening without
strengthening with FRP strip. This model is used as a control specimen to compared
 43

the result with other model. The second and third model is reinforced concrete slab
with opening, which are strengthen with 50 mm and 100 mm FRP strip.

3.2 General Description of LUSAS

LUSAS is a complete, modular, self-contained finite element system. The

system is capable of solving linear, nonlinear, static and dynamic problems,
including fields of heat transfer, fluid mechanic and electromagnetic problems.

3.3 General Description of Slab Model

Figure 3.1: Slab with opening strengthen using FRP strip model
 44

The general view of the proposed model of the slab with opening is as
illustrated in Figure 3.1. All the three slabs was modelled with length 10000 mm and
width of 8000 mm. The overall thickness of the slabs was 300 mm. There are a
layers of FRP reinforcement strip of thickness 1.2 mm strengthen the slab with
opening. The opening dimension is modelled as square opening with the width of
2500 mm. The first slab with opening was strengthen with 50 mm FRP strips and the
second is strengthen with 100 mm FRP strip.

The grade of concrete is 40 N/mm2. The FRP acts as strengthening material at

the bottom of the slab and the tensile strength of FRP is 2400 N/mm2. The slab is
designed as two-way span slab. The slab is assumed to be simply supported at four
edges. Uniform distributed load was used to act on the slab until the model reach the
failure criteria as noted in Table 3.1.

3.4 Finite Element Modeling

3.4.1 Geometry Modeling

The concrete slab is modelled as a linear three-dimensional (3-D) model. In

reality, all structures or structural members, including very thin structural elements,
are 3-D. Thus, the FRP strip in finite element modelling can be modelled as a 3-D
eight-node isoparametric hybrid element with solid element as shown in Figure 3.2.
Each node has three translational degrees of freedom whereby no rotations are
considered. Element type SOLID is normally used in the analysis of structural,
thermal and fluid models. The three rotational degrees of freedom are constrained at
each node.
 45

Figure 3.2: Model of FRP strip elements

The major difference between the capacity of a 3-D solid element model and
that of a 2-D shell or plate element model lies on the stress states of the material
under consideration. Unlike the 3-D stress states in a solid element, the normal stress
along the thickness direction in a shell element is basically neglected. As a result, the
shell elements are not capable of accounting for the stress wave propagation in the
target thickness direction. The solid elements have to be employed especially when
the influence of normal stresses on the target failure cannot be ignored.

The same type of element (i.e. SOLID) is also applied to the concrete
element. The concrete is modelled using a layer of eight-node solid elements with
isoparametric hybrid element. Figure 3.3 shows the concrete elements. The steel
reinforcement was not fully modeled in this study. The effect of steel reinforcement
was considered by converting it’s equivalent stiffness into concrete slab stiffness.
This equivalent stiffness was added into the concrete material properties to represent
the cross sectional area of reinforcement and add stiffness and strength to the
concrete finite elements (Mosallam, 2003).
 46

Figure 3.3: Model of concrete elements

The full model of the concrete slab with opening strengthen with FRP strip
model is as illustrated in Figures 3.4 and 3.5.

Figure 3.4: Full model of the slab with opening (solid view)
 47

Figure 3.5: Full model of the precast concrete slab model (line view)

3.4.1.1 Concrete-FRP Strip Interaction

In the geometry modeling of the slab, concrete and FRP strips elements are
sharing the same nodes along the surface of interaction in between both materials.
Perfect bonding is assumed to occur between FRP strips and concrete. This
assumption is made in most finite element analysis. Adhikary and Mutsuyoshi (2001)
in their research paper “Study on the bond between concrete and externally bonded
CFRP sheet” stated that:

1. The average bond stress at failure increases with concrete strength. CFRP
sheet bonded specimens exhibited shearing-off of concrete just below the
sheet with CFRP rupture.
2. The concrete strength is the major factor in determining bond strength on
concrete to CFRP sheet. The simplest expression suggested for bond strength
can be used satisfactorily to predict the bond strength of this type of CFRP
sheet to concrete for practical application.
 48

Adhikary and Mutsuyoshi (2001) concluded that for most structural

concretes, tension failure occurs in the reinforcement region before the development
of maximum bond stresses. Thus, the assumption of perfect bonding is acceptable in
the analysis.

3.4.2 Material Properties

Generally, there are only three materials used for this study; concrete, steel
and FRP strip. Therefore three element groups are created in the analysis. Linear
elastic is assumed for all materials. The material properties input for both groups are
as follows:

Element Group 1 : Concrete

Characteristic strength : 4.0 x 101 N/mm2
Tensile strength : 4.0 x 100 N/mm2
Modulus of elasticity : 2.5 × 104 N/mm2
Mass density : 2.4 x 10-5 N/mm2
Poisson’s ratio : 0.2

Element Group 2 : Steel

Tensile strength : 4.6 x 102 N/mm2
Yield stress : 3.9 x 102 N/mm2
Modulus of elasticity : 2.0 × 105 N/mm2
Mass density : 7.8 x 10-5 N/mm2
Poisson’s ratio : 0.3

Element Group 3 : FRP Strip (value obtained from longitudinal direction of fibers)
Tensile strength : 2.2 x 103 N/mm2
Tensile strength at break : 2.4 x 103 N/mm2
Modulus of elasticity : 1.65 × 105 N/mm2
Poisson’s ratio : 0.25
 49

3.4.2.1 Material Curve For Concrete

Concrete can be modelled using an isotropic material model. Concrete is

generally treated as an isotropic material. Isotropic model is generally used for
materials that exhibit same yield and/or creep behaviour in all directions. According
to Shanmugam, Kumar, and Thevendran (2002), as the analysis progressed, cracking
of concrete in tensile regions introduced instability in the numerical computations,
which forced analysis to stop prematurely. They had adopted stress-strain behaviour
of concrete in compression as shown in Figure 3.6.

σ
COMPRESSION
’
fc

0.0035 ε

Figure 3.6: Stress-strain curve adopted by Shanmugam, Kumar, and

Thevendran (2002)

The strain at which the maximum compressive stress occurs is taken as 0.002
while the strain, at which the concrete crushes, εu, is taken as 0.0035. Concrete is
assumed to have a maximum stress equal to 0.67fcu, where fcu is the cube strength of
the concrete. It is approximately equal to 0.85 f c' , where f c' is the cylinder strength
of concrete. The factor 0.67 accounts for co-relation of cube strength and strength of
concrete in bending as in BS 8110. The model assumes that this value is reached in a
linear elastic fashion and stress inside concrete is directly proportional to strain at the
point in consideration.
 50

3.4.2.2 Material Curve For Steel

Steel is assumed to behave as an elasto-plastic material in both tension and

compression as shown in Figure 3.7. The hardening behaviour is defined using
plastic strain values, which have zero value at yield stress, corresponding to stress in
steel at that particular point. However, steel has been treated as an elastic-perfectly
plastic material for any analysis.

fs
TENSION
fsy

Es
ε y
’
1
εy
εs

fsy’
COMPRESSION
fs

Figure 3.7: Typical stress-strain curve for steel

3.4.2.3 Material Curve For FRP

For the FRP composite strip, an orthotropic elastic material model was
utilized. In this case, the elastic modulus in the direction of the fibers was taken as
Ef11, i.e. 165000 N/mm2 with the other two elastic moduli (Ef22 and Ef33) taken as
relatively very small values (approximately 1% of Ef11). Tensile strength, ft of FRP
used is 2400 N/mm2. Figure 3.8 illustrated the typical material curve of FRP for this
study.
 51

Figure 3.8: Typical stress-strain curve for FRP

3.4.3 Meshing

Meshing is the process of generating nodes and elements. A mesh is

generated by defining nodes and connecting them to define the elements. Finer
meshing produces better output of the stresses. For analysing the slab model, manual
volume meshing function is used. The FRP strip is meshed using hexahedral shape
linear interpolation order element as illustrated in Figure 3.9. The concrete slab is
meshed using the same element. The dimension (x and y axis) of concrete slab
meshing have to follow the dimension of FRP strip meshing. Therefore, the different
type of material able to connect together to produce perfect bond as show in Figure
3.10.
 52

Figure 3.9: FRP strip mesh

Figure 3.10: Concrete slab with FRP strip mesh

 53

3.4.4 Boundary Condition And Loading

After defining the material properties for concrete, steel and FRP strip the
next step of modelling is defining the boundary conditions and loads. LUSAS allows
all input of constraints or loads at individual nodes and elements to be done directly
to the selected entities. The directions of restraints and loading are interpreted with
respect to the active coordinate system. Any coordinate system can be used to
specify these boundary conditions. Since the slab is assumed to be simply supported
along all four edges, all the nodes along the edge of the slab is fixed translation in Z
direction as shown in Figure 3.11. All direction of rotation at the support is set as
free.

Figure 3.11: Slab model in LUSAS

 54

Loading conditions can be applied include point forces, distributed loads and
thermal loading. For this study, face (uniformly distribution) load was applied all
over the top surface of the concrete slab as illustrated in Figure 3.11.

Linear static analysis was conducted on the entire three models. The intensity
of face load was increased until the result of the analysis reach the failure criteria as
show in Table 3.1. The analyses were terminated and stress, strain & maximum
displacement of the slab was recorded.

3.4.5.3 Termination Criteria

A successful analysis must include the termination criteria or schemes. As the

load increases during the analysis process, each result of computation is checked
whether failure criteria are achieved. The analysis will be terminated if the failure
occurs at the model. Table 3.1 shows the termination criteria for the analysis in this
study.

Table 3.1: Output data for linear solution control

Parameter Strengthened Slab Unstrengthened
Slab
Maximum principal strain of 0.002 -
concrete
Medium principal strain of FRP 0.0045 -
strip
Maximum principal stress of - 4.0 N/mm2
concrete

Analysis will be terminated if any of the output result exceeded during

solution procedures. The actual failure of the slab is depending on the strain and
stress occurs.
 55

3.4.6 Results And Its Interpretation

All available results from the linear analysis computed will be notified to the
user when the command “Report Wizard” is selected. Available results will be
displayed in the results window. Model strains and stresses may be listed or
displayed using the commands provided in the “Results Wizard” submenu. Graphical
plot results may be also performed to examine deformations, displacements, stresses
and mode shapes of the slab model. Animation function of deformation is also
available. For this study, results such as maximum and minimum principal strain and
stress for concrete and FRP are needed to determine the concrete failure in cracking
and FRP strip in delamination, respectively.

3.5 Yield Line Method

The method for the limit analysis of reinforced concrete slabs known as yield
line theory is an upper bound method. The ultimate load of the slab system is
estimated by postulating a collapse mechanism which is compatible with the
boundary conditions. The moments at the plastic hinge lines are the ultimate
moments resistance of the sections, and the ultimate load is determined using the
principle of virtual work or the equations of equilibrium. Bbeing an upper bound
approach the method gives an ultimate load for a given slab which is either correct ot
too high.

In this study yield line method was used to determine the ultimate moments
resistance of the slab with opening without strengthen with FRP strips. The failure
load of the slab obtained from FEA result was used to act on the slab. The ultimate
moments resistance and maximum stress due to the failure load was calculated using
 56

yield line method. Stress obtained from yield line method was used to compare with
the result of FEA as verification of the accuracy of FEA result.
 CHAPTER IV

RESULTS AND DICUSSION

4.1 Concrete Slab with Opening (without strengthening)

Two types of failure were observed in this case. The slab either failed by
tensile splitting (cracking) when the tensile strength of 0.1fcu is reached, or by
compression crushing of the concrete when the ultimate compressive strength is
exceeded of 0.8fcu. Maximum tensile stress and maximum compressive stress are
recorded at failure point.

Cracking is assumed to occurre in concrete elements when the maximum

principal stress, P1, of concrete exceeded 0.1fcu i.e. 4.0 N/mm2. 0.1fcu is the limit of
concrete tensile splitting or in other name concrete cracking. Whereas if the
minimum principal stress, P3, of concrete is greater than 0.8fcu i.e. 32 N/mm2, the
concrete element is assumed to have failed in crushing in the compression state.

Figure 4.1 shows the initial crack happen at the edge of slab opening (without
FRP strip strengthening). The maximum principal stress is 4.05 N/mm2 at the edge of
the opening when uniform distribution load of 10.3 kN/m2 is applied to the slab.
 58

Figure 4.1: Maximum principal stress, S1, of concrete slab

At the same stage, Figure 4.2 shows the minimum principal stress of slab is
4.05 N/mm2, which is lower than the ultimate compressive strength of the concrete.
Therefore, concrete crushing is likely will not occur.

Figure 4.2: Minimum principal stress, S3, of slab

 59

By using yield line method the result is as shown below:

Figure 4.3: Yield line developing in slab with opening

Let Wu = ultimate uniformly distributed load per unit area

m = ultimate moment of resistance per unit width

Internal Work = Σ MØ
= m [ (L – width of opening) (2) (Øy) + (B – width of opening) (2)
(Øx)]
= m [ (7.5)(2)(δ/2.75) + (5.5)(2)(δ/3.75)]
= 8.39 m δ

External Work = Σ Wu (area of load) (displacement at center of area)

= Wu [2.5 (8 - 2.5) (1/2) (δ/2) + 7.5 (8 – 2.5)(1/2) (δ/3)](2)
+ Wu [2.5 (10 – 2.5) (1/2) (δ/2) + 5.5 (10-2.5) (1/2) (δ/3)](2)
= 43.75 Wu δ
 60

Internal Work = External Work

8.39 m δ = 43.75 Wu δ
m = 5.21 Wu
From the analysis of Lusas modeling, the ultimate load cause the failure of slab is
10.3 kN/m2

Hence, Ultimate moment resistant, m = 5.21 (10.3)

= 53.66 kNm/m width

Consider 1.0 m width of slab and thickness 300 mm, the stress at the slab,
σ = My / I
= 53.66 x 106 (150) / (2.25 x 109)
= 3.58 N/mm2

The maximum ultimate moment resistant of the slab is 53.66 kNm/m with the
same intensity of uniform distributed load. The analysis show that the stress at the
slab was 3.58 N/mm2 which was about 12% less than the value from Finite Element
Analysis result. The summary of the comparison is as shown in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Result comparison of FEA and Yield Line Method

Analysis Method Result
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) 4.04 N/mm2
Yield Line Method 3.58 N/mm2
Different 12 %

4.2 Concrete Slab Strengthen with External FRP Strip

For the slab strengthened with FRP strip, the failure criteria are either
concrete crushing at the maximum moment location or delamination between the
 61

FRP strip and concrete. The crushing failure was assumed to occur in concrete
elements when the minimum principal strain, E3, of concrete exceeded 0.002.

Delamination between the FRP strip and concrete, as well as peeling-off of

the concrete cover along a plane at the steel reinforcement was reported by some
researchers (Mosallam et al.,2003, Zhao, 2003, Chaallal,1998). Recommendation by
Kelley et al. (1997) in their design guide included an analytical check intended to
prevent the delamination failure mode of flexurally strengthened elements. The
proposed equation accounted for delamination resistance due to shear transfer in the
concrete compression zone, shear transfer by aggregate interlock across the crack,
and due to dowel action of steel and FRP strip. The delamination shear resistance
was then compared to the imposed factored shear loads.

New research shows that the above-mentioned “translational” delamination

will not control for FRP strengthened elements, provided that the strain in FRP
remains at low levels. Based on available experimental test results (Grace 1998,
Hormann et al. 1998), Kelley conservatively recommends limiting the strain in FRP
strip to 0.0045 in the maximum moment regions. This limitation should be compared
to the medium strain values (average strain at and around the cracks).

4.2.1 Concrete Slab Strengthen with External 50 mm Width FRP Strip

The failure criteria in this case are either concrete crushing at the maximum
moment location or delamination between the FRP strip and concrete. The crushing
failure was assumed to occur in concrete elements when the minimum principal
strain, E3, of concrete exceeded 0.002 and the delamination was assumed to occur
when the medium principal strain, E2, (average strain at around the cracks) exceed
0.0045.
 62

From the strain result of analysis, the concrete reach the crushing failure
before delamination. With the load 93.0 kN/m2, the minimum principal strain, E3, of
concrete almost reach 0.002 with the value of 0.001994 at node 174174 as shown in
Figures 4.4 and 4.5.

Figure 4.4: Minimum principal strain, E3 of concrete slab (2-dimensional)

Figure 4.5: Minimum principal strain, E3 of concrete slab (3-dimensional)

 63

At the same stage, Figure 4.6 shows the medium principal strain, E2 of FRP
strip is 0.0002993 at node 12767, which is about 10% of the delamination failure
criteria. Therefore, delamination between the FRP strip and concrete slab was not
occurring at this stage.

Figure 4.6: Medium principal strain, E2 of FRP strip

4.2.2 Concrete Slab Strengthen with External 100 mm Width FRP Strip

The failure criteria in this case also are either concrete crushing at the
maximum moment location or delamination between the FRP strip and concrete. The
crushing failure was assumed to occur in concrete elements when the minimum
principal strain, E3, of concrete exceeded 0.002 and the delamination was assumed to
occur when the medium principal strain, E2, (average strain at around the cracks)
exceed 0.0045.
 64

From the strain result of analysis, the concrete reach the crushing failure
before delamination. With the load 93.0 kN/m2, the minimum principal strain, E3, of
concrete almost reach 0.002 with the value of 0.001986 at node 83284 as shown in
Figures 4.7 and 4.8.

Figure 4.7: Minimum principal strain, E3 of concrete slab (2-dimensional)

Figure 4.8: Minimum principal strain, E3 of concrete slab (3-dimensional)

 65

At the same stage, Figure 4.9 shows the medium principal strain, E2 of FRP
strip is 0.0002606 at node 12134, which is about 6% of the delamination failure
criteria. Therefore, delamination between the FRP strip and concrete slab was also
not occurring at this stage.

Figure 4.9: Medium principal strain, E2 of FRP strip

4.3 Summary of Result

Table 4.2 shown the summary of result from this computational analysis:

Table 4.2: Summary of result from Finite Element Analysis

Parameter Without Strengthening 50 mm FRP strip 100 mm FRP strip
Failure Load (kN/m2) 10.3 93.0 93.0
Tensile strain of FRP - 0.0002993 0.0002606
strips at failure load
 66

From the FEA result, the failure load for slab without strengthen with FRP
strips is 10.3 kN/m2. For the slabs strengthen with 50 mm and 100 mm FRP strips,
the failure load are the same which are 93.0 kN/m2. The failure load for slabs
strengthen with FRP strips are about 8 times higher than failure load for slab without
strengthening. The tensile strain for the 50 mm and 100 mm FRP strip at failure load
are 0.0002993 and 0.0002606. The tensile strain for the 50 mm and 100 mm FRP
strips are about 6 – 10% of the delamination failure criteria.
 CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK

The proposed slab models have been successfully modelled using linear finite
element approach using LUSAS. For the concrete slab without externally
strengthened with FRP strip, the failure criteria is based on concrete stresses.
Concrete cracking will occur if the maximum principal stress, S1, exceeds 10% of the
tensile strength of concrete whereas concrete crushing will only occur if the
minimum principal stress, S3, exceeds 80% of the compressive strength of concrete.

For the concrete slab externally strengthened with FRP strip, the failure
criteria is based on concrete and FRP strains. Concrete crushing will occur if the
minimum principal strain, E3, exceeds 0.002 whereas delamination between FRP
strip and concrete will only occur if the medium principal strain, E2, exceeds 0.0045.

The conclusion that can be drawn from this study are as follows:

1. The strength of the strengthened slab was increased about 8 times compared
to control slab. Under such loading conditions, the strengthening was
successful in increasing the structural strength of the slab and also increasing
the slab stiffness.
 68

2. The FRP strengthening enhanced the development of more evenly distributed

crack pattern.

3. The possible failure of the strengthened slab was due to concrete crushing.
The concrete crushing occurs at the edge of the opening (maximum
compressive stress) before the delamination failure occurs.

4. The failure will not occur at the FRP strip due to the small tensile stress.
Therefore, the strength increase of the slab is highly depending on the
strength of the concrete. By improving the concrete tensile strength, the FRP
capacity can be optimised and thus increase the overall efficiency of the
strengthening system.

Several suggestions are proposed for future studies of this new type of the
strengthening concrete slab. The suggestions are as follows:

Study may be conducted on other common dimension of floor slab and opening.
Basically, it may be done by repeating the same procedures.

Conduct the finite element analysis with full 3-D model including the steel
reinforcement. The difference in theratio of steel reinforcement can be modelled
to determined the ductility effect to slab with externally strengthen FRP strip.

Re-analyse the slab to various conditions such as different grade of concrete, fcu,
and difference grade of steel, fy.

Re-analyse the slab with Non-linear Finite Element Analysis to obtain the non-
linearity behaviour of the strengthening system

Re-analyse the slab by using smaller element meshing so that the higher
percentage of accuracy of stresses of the FEA results can be achieved.
 69

Re-analyse the slab by changing the boundary condition (restraint) to one-way

slab.

Small-scale models can be done in the laboratory to validate the finite element
analysis. The FEA analysis can be validated with the results from the laboratory
works to prove that modelling and input-output data are correct.

The use of FRP strengthening system is a well-established technique in the

construction industry. Therefore, efforts to developed a better, save and effective
way of using this strengthening system will be beneficial to the client and builders.
 70

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