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Module 23
Module 23
2. Concept Map
Steroids are structurally related and widely distributed compounds in animals and plants. Apart
from sterols (which includes cholesterol), vitamin D, bile acids, adrenal cortex hormones, the so
called sex hormones, sapogenins are included in the list.
At one time, a steroid was defined as any compound which gives Diel‟s hydrocarbon when
distilled along with selenium at 360 oC. At higher temperature of 420 oC, chrysene and picene are
obtained.
One way of classifying lipids is into two classes of saponifiable and nonsaponifiable. Most of the
lipids are saponifiable.
Saponifiable lipids upon hydrolysis by alkali give rise to products which become water soluble.
More strictly speaking, at least the products become more water soluble than reactants.
It was Chevreul who in 1812 observed that all lipids are not saponifiable. Colloid and Young in
1936 suggested to Royal Society of Chemistry, UK that compounds related to cholesterol should be
called steroids.
Earlier, the word sterol existed for crystalline alcohols (Greek Stereos: solid). Cholesterol was
recognized as a C27 sterol. Sterols were known to be unsaponifiable or non saponifiable lipids.
Cholesterol
Thus, cholesterol the most widely known steroid is actually responsible for this class of compounds
named after it. The cholesterol structure determination involved some well known scientists of that
era: Wieland, Windans, Diels, Rosenheim and King.
The fundamental C-skeleton in cholesterol is cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene.
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Quite a few steroids are synthesized by the mammals and this includes cholesterol. In fact in
humans, cholesterol is the steroid which is present in largest amount.
Human blood plasma contains total cholesterol of about 200 mg/ 100ml, about 25% of this as free
cholesterol. Almost all cholesterol, free and its esters are present as lipoproteins.
A standard test for cholesterol is Liebermann-Burchard reaction. In this test, acetic anhydride in
CHCl3 solution in added to cholesterol sample in conc. H2SO4. Formation of a green colour
indicates presence of cholesterol.
In fact, cholesterol and other sterols as well give this and few other tests.
Addition of conc. H2SO4 itself to cholesterol solution in CHCl3 turns the CHCl3 layer red. This is
called Salkowski reaction.
Figure 2: Isoprene
In the 1940, Bloch fed isotopically labeled acetate and found that both carbons were part of
cholesterol molecules in liver tissue slices.
The incorporation of methyl group and carboxyl group carbons of acetate was treated in the
synthesized cholesterol molecule and is indicated as „m‟ and „c‟ respectively.
This was one of the early triumphs of use of radioactive labels in determining biosynthetic and
catabolic pathways of biological important molecules. Before the simple precursors with
radioactive labels were available, scientists did not have this approach available.
Establishing the entire biosynthetic pathway involved extensive efforts by Bloch, Cornforth,
Popjak, Lynen. The importance of steroids was recognized by the industry very early. So, Foekev‟s
group at Merck also made some key contributions.
The determination of this pathway paved the way for many other important pathways as much of
the pathway is common to those pathways.
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The compounds related to cholestane are referred to as allo- compounds. Those related to
coprostane were called normal compounds. For the sake of simplicity, normal prefix is dropped
and absence of any prefix means it is a “normal” steroid.
Callow‟s group (1936) used optical rotations to characterize steroids. It was found that all steroids
with a double bond at 5:6 position are laevorotatory.
Cholesterol is a white crystalline compound with a melting point of 149 oC and is laevorotatory. It
can be easily isolated from yellow portion of hen egg yolk. Many a times, nuts like almonds and
plant oils are described as “cholesterol free”. Plants do not contain cholesterol. So, such
advertisements are actually misleading.
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Bile salts
The metabolism of dietary lipids present a challenge as lipids are insoluble in water rich milieu of
digestive tract of animals. The problem is solved by dispersing lipid in emulsions.
Bile salts are more polar than cholesterol. This structural design makes these the designated
amphipathic molecules for emulsifying the lipid molecules.
Emulsions not only make lipids accessible to water soluble enzymes, these also increase the surface
area of the substrate lipids. This increased surface area also promotes intestinal absorption.
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Liver is the site of synthesis for bile salts. From there these molecules reach gall bladder and are
stored there. When needed, gall bladder releases bile salts in the small intestine. It is here that bile
salts emulsify dietary lipids like fats/oils.
Cholesterol itself is made in the liver. While small % of it is incorporated as components of the
membranes of hepatocytes. The other fates of cholesterol are export from the liver as biliary
cholesterol, bile acids and cholesterol esters. Thus, cholesterol is the precursor of bile acids.
Cholyl CoA is the intermediate in synthesis of many bile salts. Glycocholate, the product of
reaction of cholyl CoA with glycine is the most important bile salt. Tauro-cholate, another bile salt
is the product of cholyl CoA with taurine (NH2-CH2-SO3-).
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Hormones are secretions of ductless glands. Pituitary hormones are polypeptides. So is well known
hormone insulin which is secreted from islets of Langerhans in pancreases. Adrenal hormones
adrenalin is a catecholamine.
Gonads (testes in males, ovaries in the females) produce so called sex hormones which are steroids
in nature. Their activity is controlled by some pituitary hormones produced by anterior lobe of that
master gland. So, these hormones (Polypeptides) are called primary sex hormones, the gonad
hormones are called secondary sex hormones.
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The steroid hormones are hence either adrenocortical hormones or sex hormones. These are
synthesized in different endocrine tissues and reach the target cells through blood. The word
endocrine is desired from two Greek words: endon: within, krinein: to release.
This distinguishes these from paracrine (which affect neighboring cells) hormones and autocrine
(affects the same cell) hormones. All steroid hormones have nuclear receptors. Binding of
hormones to these receptors alters the gene expression.
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Figure 8
The word Androgens is derived from the Greek word „Andros‟ for male. Two important steroid
male hormones (Androgens) are testosterone and dihydro-testosterone. Dihydrotestosterone is
formed in prostatic tissue by reduction of testosterone by 5α-reductase.
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Estrogens
Involvement of hormone in controlling the uterine cycle was known very early. It was in 1929 that
Butenandt and Doisy independently isolated estrone from urines of pregnant women. Thereafter
two more female sex hormones Estriol and estradiol were isolated.
Esterogens have been isolated from adrenal glands, testes, placenta and urine. Secretion of these
hormones by the follicles of the ovary results in development of sex organs and other secondary
gender characteristics like hair distribution and texture, skin texture, voice and fat distribution. In
the absence of estrogens human female menstrual cycle is disturbed.
The estrogens are derived from androgens in liver and other steroid producing tissues. The
esterogens and their catabolites are excreted in urine as conjugates of glucuronic acid and sulfuric
acid.
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While natural estrogens are active when given parenterally, synthetic estrogens 17α-
ethynylestradiol and stilbestrol can be given orally.
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Progesterones
As we saw, the androgens in turn are synthesized from progesterone. In fact, cholesterol is first
converted to pregnanolone. Pregnanolone in turn produces progesterone.
Cholesterol, a C27 steroid loses a C6 side chain to form pregnanolone. The initial reaction is
hydroxylation at C-20 and C-22. The next reaction is cleavage of the bond between C-20 and C-22.
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The conversion of pregnanolone to progesterone is a two step process. First is the oxidation of 3-
OH to a 3 keto group. The second is shifting of the double bond from 5 positions to 3.
Progesteron is also the precursor of cortisol and aldosterone which is a major glucocorticoid.
These conversions require enzyme catalysed hydroxylation reactions. Conversion to aldosterone
also requires oxidation of C-18 methyl group to –CHO group.
The deficiency of 21-hydroxylase (involved in the synthesis of glucocorticoids and
mineralocorticoids) constitutes most common inherited disorder. High levels of androgens results
in accelerated growth and short stature in males, in females, masculinization of external genital
organs may result.
Corticoids
The adrenal cortex produces corticoid steroid hormones. These are called mineralocorticoids
(example. Aldosterone) or glucocorticoids (Cortisone or hydroxycortisone). These have multiple
physiological effects.
Production of glucocorticoids is controlled by ACTH, a hormone of anterior pituitary. Decreased
production of glucocorticoid due to deficiency of 21-hydroxylase makes ACTH secretion go up via
feedback loop. Adrenal glands enlarge.
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Figure 13
Many plants are rich in steroid glycosides. Most important among these are so called “neutral
saponins”. The carbohydrate component imparts polarity and hence saponins are very good surface
active agent. This property makes them useful in many industrial applications.
The aglycones are called sapogenins. The important sapogenins are digitogenin, gitogenin and
tigogenin. Sapogenins can hemolyse erythrocytes. The aglycones can be obtained by hydrolysis of
sapogenins.
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We have discussed steroid hormones in this module. A better appreciation of this hormonal action is
possible by integrating the knowledge about all hormones. There is lot of connectivity to be discovered
that way among various hormones and even within steroid hormone.
A case in point is that we exemplified cortisone as a glucorticoid. It does not merely affect
carbohydrate metabolism but nitrogen and even fat metabolism as well. Furthermore, deoxycortisone
also is involved in electrolyte balance so it functions like a mineralocorticoid as well.
Finally, steroid glycosides are fascinating molecules producing diverse physiological actions.
Summary
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