Module 8 : Teaching and Assessment of the Macro Skills

Writing

Writing refers to the act of putting ideas in text whether print or nonprint. It is a “non-linear,
exploratory, and generative process” as they discover ideas and reformulate them .Writing allows the
writer to reflect on the world around her/him; it makes communication effective; it documents and
captures thoughts and ideas relevant to decision making; and it provides knowledge to both the
reader and the writer. Any composition we write can either be short or long. It can range from
short paragraphs to long essays. With regard to the text type written by students, at elementary level,
the most common types of writings are personal narratives; for secondary, it is expository with
emphasis on writing about literature; and for tertiary, they expand their writing to argumentative
essays (Sperling & Freedman, 2001). As regards L1-L2 writing relationship, Kobayashi and Rinnert
(2008) claimed that transfer of writing skills happen in a bidirectional way; that is, from L1 to L2 and
vice versa. He further concluded that writing competence can be transferred across languages. This
may be the reason why in Krapels’s (1990) review, findings revealed that even advanced L2 writers
consider themselves stronger when composing using their native language; that is, an increase use
of L1 in writing correlates with better L2 writing especially if the topic is culture bound.

Currently, there are five approaches to teaching writing: product approach, process approach,
genre approach, process genre approach, and post-process pedagogy. Product approach
focuses on what a final piece of writing will look like and measures the product using vocabulary use,
grammar, mechanics, content, and organization as criteria (Brown, 1994). The procedure includes
four
stages: familiarization, controlled writing, and free . writing. From a teacher’s perspective, it involves
assigning a piece of writing, collecting it, and returning it for further revision. The concerns with
using product approach is it ignores the actual process used by the students in producing a piece
of writing, focuses on imitation and churning out a perfect product on the first draft, requires
constant error correction that affects students’ motivation, and does not prepare students for real
world.

Writing is perhaps the most complex of the communication skills and takes the most time to master.
As with any other skill, the craft of putting words on paper is improved through practice and a
willingness to improve on past attempts. The more you practice, the better you will get! Moving
beyond the basics, many types of writing can be used, depending on audience and purpose. Writing
can be a basic means of conveying information—such as in newspapers—or it can be a tool to create
elaborate new worlds, much like those found in fiction novels.

 Writer may write for personal enjoyment or use, or for an audience of one person or more. The
audience may be known (targeted) or unknown. Taking notes for study purposes is an example of
writing for one's self. Blogging publicly is an example of writing for an unknown audience. A letter to a
friend is an example of writing for a targeted audience. As with speaking, it is important to consider
your audience when writing. There are many different styles of writing, from informal to formal.
7 Writing Tasks for Young ESL Learners:

1. Word Jumble
This activity is useful for those who have just started writing in English.  Since writing whole
sentences on their own can be rather challenging, this activity can help students
understand word order, and yet, it gives them the support they need.
Divide students into small groups of three or four, or into pairs. Give each group a set of cards
containing words that can be used to form a sentence. These words are clearly jumbled, in
other words, in the wrong order. Students have to put them in order to make the sentence, and
then copy the sentence onto their notebook or separate worksheet.
You may be tempted to give them a worksheet with a list of sentences where the words are in
the wrong order, but with very young learners, it is essential for them to have cards they can
manipulate and move around.

2. What Happens Next?

Give students the first sentence or beginning of a story, and ask them to complete
the story. To make it fun, they can be given funny or even ridiculous sentences/situations (It
was a clear, starry night when the cow jumped over the moon or Michael opened his sock
drawer, and all his socks had disappeared.)
This helps students use their creativity and understand how sentences relate to one another to
make a cohesive text.

3. What is Happening in This Picture?

This is a simple writing activity where you show students an illustration and ask them to write
about what they see. illustrations that show a lot of things happening at the same time are
great for this activity; students can choose or even create a small story that revolves around
the whole scene.
Most often, if we ask students to “write” they have no idea where to begin. You can give them
a visual prompt to get them started and to guide them in terms of content so that they won’t
stray too far from the topic.

4. Story with a Twist

This is a great post-reading writing activity. After the reading, ask your students to change the
ending. You can read a well-known classic or a story that is completely new to them. They can
change a few details or change the outcome altogether. They will need to get creative here but
they will be using a story they are familiar with and have that extra, needed support.

5. Let’s Write Together

This is a classic writing activity when you have a large group of young ESL students who don’t
feel confident enough to write an entire story on their own.One student writes a sentence (or
you can get the ball rolling yourself), and the next has to write the sentence that follows and so
on till the story is complete. And it doesn’t have to be a “story”; they can write a  news article or
a journal entry.
 This is a great task to promote cooperation and collaboration among students. Also, since
each one will be completing a part of the text, they will have to make choices regarding text
structure, i.e, decide if they need to start a new paragraph.

6. Yummy Writing
Give or show students a series of pictures that illustrate how a dish is prepared.The pictures
should show the series of steps involved in a recipe but students have to write the instructions
that go with each picture.
This is a great activity to practice imperatives and also how to give instructions.

7. What’s Missing?
Give students a text; it can be an e-mail, a report, a newspaper article or even a story. A part is
taken out and students have to complete it with the missing information. Of course, they will
completely make up what is missing. The important thing is not for the information to be
accurate (for example, the time or day something happened) but coherent with the rest of the
text.

Writing can be hard for young ESL learners – it’s hard enough in their native language.
But don’t make the mistake of discounting it as “too hard”. Instead, give them a nudge, a prompt and
a little support, whether it is through the first words or images that go with the text. You will boost their
confidence and make them happy little writers!

GENRES OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE :

The most common genres of the language that students might produce , within and beyond the
requirements of a CBC . Even though this list is slightly shorter , we should be aware of the
multiplicity of options of written genres that learners nee to acquire .

They are as follows :

1. Academic writing Papers and general subject reports Essays, compositions Academically
focused journals Short-answer test responses Technical reports ( e.g, lab reports ) Theses,
dissertations

2. Job-related writing Messages ( e.g., phone messages ) Letters/emails Developing the macro
skills in a competence based curriculum 40 Memos (e.g., interoffice ) Reports (e.g., job evaluations,
project reports ) Schedules, labels, signs Advertisements, announcements Manuals

3. Personal writing Letters, emails, greeting cards, invitations , messages, notes Calendar entries,
shopping lists, reminders Financial documents (e.g., checks, tax forms, loan applications ) Forms,
questionnaires, medical reports, immigration documents, diaries, personal journals Fiction (e.g. short
stories, poetry )

Types of writing performance : Four categories of written performance that capture the range of
written production are considered here . Each category resembles the categories defined for the other
three skills, but these categories, as always, reflect the uniqueness of the skill area.

1. IMITATIVE : To produce written language, the learner must attain skills in the fundamental, basic
tasks of writing letters, words, punctuation, and very brief sentences. This category includes the
ability to spell correctly and to perceive phoneme-grapheme correspondences in the English spelling
system . It is a level at which learners are trying to master the mechanics of writing .At this stage,
form is the primary if not exclusive focus, while context and meaning are of secondary concern.

2. INTENSIVE ( Controlled ): Beyond the fundamentals of imitative writing are skills in producing
appropriate vocabulary within a context ,collocations and idioms and correct grammatical features up
to the length of a sentence. Meaning and context are of some importance in determining correctness
and appropriateness, but most assessment tasks are more concerned with a focus on form, and are
rather strictly controlled by the test design . Developing the macro skills in a competence based
curriculum 41

3. RESPONSIVE . Here, assessment tasks require learners to perform at a limited discourse level,
connecting sentences into a paragraph and creating a logically connected sentence of two or three
paragraphs. Tasks respond to pedagogical directives, lists of criteria, outlines and other guidelines.
Genres of writing include brief narratives and descriptions, short reports, lab reports, summaries ,
brief responses to reading, and interpretations of charts or graphs. Under specified conditions, the
writer begins to exercise some freedom of choice among alternative forms of expression of ideas .
The writer has mastered the fundamentals of sentence –level grammar and is more focused on the
discourse conventions that will achieve the objectives in a written text

4. Extensive : Writing implies successful management of all the processes and strategies of writing
for all purposes, up to the length of an essay . Learners focus on achieving a purpose, organizing and
developing ideas logically, using details to support or illustrate ideas, demonstrating syntactic and
lexical variety, and in many cases, engaging in the process of multiple drafts to achieve a final
product.

MICRO AND MACROSKILLS OF WRITING

A- Micro skills

1. Produce graphemes and orthographic patterns of English

2. Produce writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose .

3. Produce an acceptable grammatical systems (e.g.,tense , agreement , pluralization, patterns, and

rules.

4. Use an acceptable core of words and use appropriate word order patterns .

5.Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms.

6. Use cohesive devices in written discourse .

B- Macro Shills

7. Use the rhetorical forms and conventions of written discourse .

8. Appropriately accomplish the communicative functions of written tasks according to form and
purpose . Developing the macro skills in a competence based curriculum 42

9. Convey links and connections between events, and communicate such relations as main idea,
supporting idea, new information, given information, generalization, and exemplification .

10. Distinguish between literal and implied meanings when writing .

11. Correctly convey culturally specific references in the context of written text
12. Develop and use a battery of writing strategies, such as accurately assessing the audience's
interpretation, using prewriting devices, writing with fluency in the first drafts, using paraphrases and
synonyms, soliciting peer and instructor feedback, and using feedback for revising and editing .

PRACTICAL PART IN DEVELOPING MICRO&MACRO SKILLS IN A COMPETENCE_BASED

CURRICULUM . –

Designing assessment tasks : ( IMMITATIVE WRITING ) English learners, from young children to
older adults, need basic training in and assessment of imitative writing,the rudiments of forming
letters, words and simple sentences . we examine this level of writing first . -Tasks in ( Hand )Writing
letters,Words,and punctuation .

Handwriting has the potential of becoming a lost art as even every young children are more and
more likely to use keyboard to produce writing . Making the shapes of letters and other symbols is
now more a question of learning typing skills than of training the muscles of the hands to use a pen or
a pencil. Nevertheless, for all practical purposes, handwriting remains a skill of paramount importance
within the larger domain of language assessment . A limited variety of types of tasks are commonly
used to assess a person's ability to produce written letters and symbols . A few of the more common
types are described here :

1. copying : There is nothing innovative or modern about direction a test-taker to copy letters or
words. The test-taker will see something like the following :- Handwriting letters, words, and
punctuation marks. The test-taker reads : Copy the following words in the spaces given : Ex: bit bet
bat but Oh! Bin din gin Hello,John. ___ ___ ___ ___ ____ ___ ___ ___ _________ Developing the
macro skills in a competence based curriculum 43

2. Listening close selection tasks These tasks combine dictation with a written script that has a
relatively frequent deletion ratio . The test sheet provides a list of missing words from which the test-
taker must select .The purpose at this stage is not to test spelling but to give practice in writing to
increase the difficulty. The test-takers hear : Write the missing word in each blank . Below the story is
a list of words to choose from . Have you ever visited San Francisco ? It is a very nice city . It is cool
in the summer and warm in the winter. I like the cable cars and bridges .

Test –Takers see : Have __________ever visited San Francisco ? It ________ a very nice _______.
It is __________in __________summer and ___________in winter . I _____________the cable cars
__________bridges . Is you cool city Like and the warm

3. Picture-cued tasks Familiar pictures are displayed with the objectives of focusing on familiar
words whose spelling may be unpredictable . Items are chosen according to the objectives of the
assessment, but this format is an opportunity to present some challenging words and word pairs:
boot/book, read/reed, bit/bite ,etc.

4. Form completion task Filling in a simple form ( e.g., registration , application , etc. ) that asks for
name , address , phone number , and other data .assuming , of course , that prior classroom
instruction has focused on filling of such forms .

5. Converting numbers and abbreviations to words . Some tests have a section on which
numbers are written- for example, hours of the day , dates , or schedules and test-takers are directed
to write out the numbers . This task can serve as a reasonably reliable method to stimulate
handwritten English . It lacks Developing the macro skills in a competence based curriculum 44
authenticity , however , in that people rarely write out such numbers ( except in writing checks ) .If you
plan to use such a method , be sure to specify exactly what the criterion is .Converting abbreviation to
words is more authentic . we actually have occasions to write out days of the week. Months ,
telephone Test-takers hear : Fill in the blanks with words Test-taker see : ( 9:00
________5:45_________5/3________Tues____)

6. Multiple-choice reading-writing spelling tasks Presenting words and phrases in the form of a
multiple-choice task . there will be the risks of crossing over into the domain of assessing reading but
they can serve as formative reinforcement of spelling conventions .They might be more challenging
with the addition of homonyms . Here are some examples :- Test-takers read : Choose the word with
the correct spelling to fit the sentence. Then write the word in the space provided . 1. He washes his
hands with ________________. A. soap B. sope C. sop D. soup

2. I tried to stop the car, but the ___________ didn't work . A. braicks B. brecks C. brakes D. bracks

3. The doorbell rang, but when I went to the door, no one was ________. A. their B. there C. they're

D. thair

Designing Assessment Tasks : Intensive ( Controlled ) Writing A good deal of writing at this level
is display writing as opposed to real writing : students produce language to display their competence
in grammar , vocabulary, or sentence formation, and not necessarily to convey meaning for an
authentic purpose . The traditional grammar/vocabulary test has plenty of display writing in it, since
the response mode demonstrates only the test-taker's ability to combine or use words correctly, No
new information is passed on from one person to another

Developing the macro skills in a competence based curriculum 45

Dicto-Comp A form of controlled writing related to dictation is a dicto-comp. Here, a paragraph is

read at normal speed , usually two or three times, then the teacher asks pupils to rewrite the
paragraph from the best of their recollection . In one of several variations of the Dicto-comop
technique,the teacher, after reading the passage, distributes a handout with key words from the
paragraph as ques for the pupils .

Grammatical Transformation Tasks This technique is used as an assessment task, ostensibly to

measure grammatical competence . Numerous versions of the task are possible : - Change the
tenses in a paragraph. - Change full forms of verbs to reduced forms ( contractions ). - Change
statements to ( Yes/No ) questions . - Change questions into statements . - Combine two sentences
into one using a relative pronoun . - Change direct speech into indirect speech . - Change from active
into passive voice . Picture-cued Tasks : 1. Short Sentences A drawing of some simple actions is
shown . The test-taker writes a brief sentence 2. Picture description . A somewhat more complex
picture may be presented showing, say, a person reading on

Writing is a complex skill, and its development involves much more than the accurate use of
grammar and a good range of vocabulary. A comprehensive EFL Writing programme requires the
systematic treatment of a large number of interrelated elements. In this article I presented a cyclical
framework of teaching procedures comprising four stages: awareness-raising, support, practice and
feedback.

PART 1. LOOKING BELOW THE SURFACE In this section I will use two texts written by Greek EFL
learners as a springboard for my discussion of the ingredients of successful writing. I would like to
invite the readers to evaluate the texts and decide on their main merits and problems (keeping in
mind the learners level) before reading the commentary.

Example 1 The first text was written by a young teenager at low-intermediate level. The task was:

Write a story which includes the sentence. That was the moment when I realized I was in the wrong
place .

Original text It was a lovely day of Sammer before five years and I went with my mother to Athens.
We began from [PLACENAME] in the morning. When we arrive we were going in my uncle s house.
We stayed there for an hour and my mother told me that we must have went for shopping before the
shops closed. Then I told her that I wanted to stay there and when she bought everything she needs
to came back. Next I went with my cousin to play basketball. My cousin saw his friends and told me to
wait him. I stayed there for a half of hour and I began to came back to the house but I couldn t find the
house when I asked a man if he knew where my uncle s house was and he told that it was far from
there. That was the moment when I realised I was in the wrong place. Finaly I was lucky because I
found my mother and we came back to my uncle s house.

I have used this text with more than 200 EFL teachers in different training situations. Each time, the
vast majority of the participants thought that grammar and vocabulary were by far the main problem
areas, and that this student s writing would improve considerably with remedial grammar/vocabulary
lessons.

2 The following is an improved version of the learner s text, in which the main grammatical and
lexical problems, as well as all spelling mistakes have been corrected. Please read it and answer the
following questions:

1. Why did the writer and his mother go to Athens?

2. Why did they visit the writer s uncle?

3. Where did the writer s cousin see his friends?

4. Why did the cousin ask the writer to wait?

5. Where did the cousin ask the writer to wait?

6. How did the writer react?

7. Why did the writer decide to make his way back home alone?

8. How/where did he find his mother?

9. How did the writer feel about his experience?

10. Did he say anything to his cousin? If yes, how did the cousin respond? If not, why?

Improved version It was a lovely summer day five years ago and I went with my mother to Athens.
We set out from [PLACENAME] in the morning. When we arrived we went to my uncle s house. We
stayed there for an hour and my mother told me that we should go shopping before the shops closed.
Then I told her that I wanted to stay there and when she had bought everything she needed to come
back. Next I went with my cousin to play basketball. My cousin saw his friends and asked me to wait
for him. I stayed there for half an hour and I began to go back to the house, but I couldn t find the
house when I asked a man if he knew where my uncle s house was and he told me that it was far
from there. That was the moment when I realised I was in the wrong place. Finally I was lucky
because I found my mother and we came back to my uncle s house.

None of the questions is answered in the text. The missing elements are the ones which make a
story interesting and which readers expect to be told about. As I see it, the learner did not set out to
write a story in the first place, but a specific number of words, loosely organized in sentences, on a
given topic . Of course, I am not suggesting that grammar, syntax and vocabulary are not essential to
a well-written text.

My point is that by over-concentrating on grammar and vocabulary we may ignore other

more/equally important areas. The improved version makes it easier for us to identify those areas:
The text is not a story , but merely a dry, fragmented account of an event, which holds no interest
whatsoever for the reader. The given sentence is used awkwardly: being unable to find your way in
an unfamiliar place is not the same as realizing that you are in the wrong place . The learner includes
unnecessary details which do not help story development, and may confuse the reader: we stayed
there for an hour , when she had bought everything she needed to come back . Connectors are
misused/overused: and my mother told me , Then I told her that I wanted to stay there , Next I went
with my cousin to play basketball , I couldn t find the house when I asked a man if he knew . There
are misguided attempts at producing complex sentences, which confuse the reader, even if they are
grammatically/syntactically correct : I stayed there for half an hour and I began to go back to the
house, but I couldn t find the house when I asked a man if he knew where my uncle s house was and
he told me that it was far from there .

Writing: Product and Process

Example 2 The following text was written by a candidate for the First Certificate in English
examination . Decide on the grade it should be awarded in terms of language (grammar, syntax,
vocabulary and spelling). Athens becomes more and more an attractive place for tourists. Although
the city is big, loud and dirty, tourists can find a lot of romantic places to enjoy their vacations. For
example the plaka, the historical city. There are a lot of bars and pubs and taverns in old houses
which have been restored and they do have some atmosphere you hardly cannot describe. Except
not this there are of course the classic places like the Acropolis and the Agora, the old market-place.
There attractions are for people who are interested in ancient history. Nevertheless Athens is also
famous for good clothings. The clothes here are very often cheaper than in England, France or
Germany. So Athens is a place for many tourists with different interests. And it is not so expensive as
for instance Madrid or Paris. Now look at the task the learner was asked to perform and, again,
decide on a grade. You recently started to work in local tourism and you had to visit a new tourist
attraction (for example theatre museum or disco) in your area. You now must write a report for your
boss.

Write your report describing the attraction what it has to offer to tourists and commenting on its good
and bad points. In terms of language, this seems to be a good piece of work, meriting a pass at
FCE level. Still, it is unsuccessful for the purpose it was supposed to have been written. The
examiners awarded this text a fail grade (E).

Following are their comments: There are some good structures and use of vocabulary but there is
no attempt to simulate a report or to cover any of the specific points in the rubric. The target reader
would learn nothing about a new attraction and may be confused by expressions incorrectly used.
The two examples above show that language accuracy, although important, cannot alone result in
effective writing. What is important in writing, both in EFL and in real life , is for the writer to achieve
a goal ( task achievement in EFL).

EFL Writing: Product and Process

PART 2. ELEMENTS OF GOOD WRITING

Elements Of Good Writing: Product

This section outlines the elements which characterize effective texts, and categorizes them according
to their nature. These elements are also the ones examiners look for when assessing the writing of
candidates for a large number of EFL public examinations. As writing is a complex activity, there is
some overlap between the categories. The categories below stem from two approaches to writing :
the interactive approach, according to which the writer is involved in a dialogue with his or her
audience and which holds that the person primarily responsible for effective communication is the
writer, and the social constructionist approach, according to which the written product is
considered a social act that can take place only within and for a specific context and audience .

Language The spelling is correct and consistent (e.g. British vs. American spelling). There is
accurate and appropriate use of grammar and syntax. There is accurate and appropriate use, as well
as a good range, of vocabulary. A note on appropriacy: We can distinguish two aspects of
appropriacy. Firstly, the style (or level of formality). Secondly, the tone, that is, the attitude
communicated through the choice of language (e.g. polite, aggressive, sarcastic). Selection of an
appropriate tone depends on the purpose of writing and the conventions of written communication in
a particular context.

For example, if the purpose of writing a letter of complaint is to ask for some sort of compensation, it
may be rather ineffective to adopt either an aggressive or a defensive attitude a letter written in a
polite but firm tone would have much more chances of success. A note on range: Although
demonstrating command of a rich vocabulary is a definite plus in EFL writing, learners need to be
cautious not to go to extremes in their attempt to avoid using the same word/expression again.
Misguided use of synonyms/antonyms may communicate a different message from the one intended
by the writer, as they may not be interchangeable in terms of denotation, connotation, collocation and
level of formality (see Gairns & Redman, 1986: 13-43).

Layout & Organization The layout is relevant to the text-type. The text has sections/paragraphs
which have a clear focus (see also the note below). The method of organization is clearly identifiable
(e.g. similarity/contrast, for/against, pros/cons, cause/effect, before/after, linear/flashbacks). The
organization can also help the reader understand the content. For example, when the writer provides
information in response to a letter by the reader (e.g. Part 1 of the FCE Writing Paper) it is helpful if
the organization of the response mirrors the one in the initial letter. There is clear linking between
each section/paragraph/sentence and the previous and following one (see also the note below). The
punctuation helps the reader understand the organization.

A note on paragraphs: I have observed that it is common in ELT to present the paragraph as the
unit of organization in learners writing, and sometimes provide guidelines on the number of
paragraphs a given text should have. For example, learners are usually advised to divide an
advantages/disadvantages composition into four paragraphs (introduction, advantages,
disadvantages, conclusion). I feel that such guidelines mislead rather than help learners. It would be
more helpful (and more accurate) to guide learners to think in terms of sections, which may contain
one or more paragraphs. For example, if a learner feels that there are more advantages than
disadvantages in a given idea/plan, it would be wise to guide him/her to write a three-paragraph
section for the advantages and a two-paragraph section for the disadvantages.

Learners who are not EFL Writing: Product and Process 5 aware of the distinction between
section and paragraph may combine unrelated elements in one paragraph, or write over-long
paragraphs. As a result, the organization and clarity of the text may suffer.

A note on linking: It is also common practice to advise learners to use linking words/expressions
(e.g. furthermore, nevertheless) to make explicit the connection between different parts of the text. Of
course, linking devices can help clarity and organization, but only if they are used properly. I think that
the teaching of such devices should be supplemented with awareness-raising as to their suitability for
different text types (e.g. level of formality), as well as the teaching of alternative ways of creating text
unity (e.g. use of synonyms/antonyms and referring expressions). Learners should also be cautioned
against overusing linking devices (e.g. starting almost every sentence with a linking word/expression).

Relevance to the task & regard for the reader There is appropriate coverage. That is, the writer
includes all the points required by the reader/task and avoids introducing irrelevant points. The level
of explicitness is the one required by the reader/task. That is, the writer provides the exact amount of
information required/needed by the reader. There are two sides to appropriate explicitness. Firstly,
the writer only explains what he/she expects the reader doesn’t know, as the opposite may
well offend the reader. Secondly, the writer is careful to explain/clarify points which the reader
may not be aware of (e.g. cultural-specific elements). The style is appropriate and is used
consistently. The tone is consistent with the writer s purpose. Clarity In a narrative (e.g. story), the
reader needs to be clear regarding the sequence or events in time, the characters and their
relationship. In argumentative texts the writer s ideas should be stated clearly and supported by
arguments and examples. The link between events and/or arguments should be clear.

Elements Of Good Writing: Process:

Here I outline the steps taken by effective EFL writers when confronted with a writing task. The
categories below stem primarily from the process approach to writing (see Johns, 1990; Tribble,
1996; White & Arndt, 1991) Task/title analysis This involves reading the task/title and identifying the
following: The writer s identity, in case the learner is asked to assume a role (e.g. Part 1 of the FCE
Writing Paper)

. The reader s identity. The relationship between writer & reader and their relative status, which will
guide the choice of an appropriate style. The purpose of writing the text (e.g. complaining, providing
information) and the reader s purpose of reading it, which will help decisions about content, coverage
and tone. The reader s relevant knowledge, which will help the choice of the right level of explicitness.
The type of text that is to be written. In real life, writers decides on the text type according to their
purpose and the conventions which apply to their specific context. In EFL, the current practice is to
ask learners explicitly to produce a specific text type. The following diagram shows the chain of
information that the learner can obtain by analyzing the task. The diagram also demonstrates how
learners can receive clues/guidelines regarding the same EFL

Writing: Product and Process 6 element of the written product from different pieces of information
given in the task. This is to the learners advantage, as they are more likely to identify the essential
clues provided in the task.
TASK Style

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WRITER & READER Explicitness Organisation

ASSUMED READER S PURPOSE Content & Coverage Content & Coverage

WRITER S PURPOSE Tone

ASSUMED READER S KNOWLEDGE Explicitness Content & Coverage

BACKROUND INFORMATION Organisation Style

TEXT TYPE Layout Planning This stage involves making decisions about the following: Content and
coverage (relevant ideas and/or required information).

Language (level of formality, style and attitude).

Layout (according to the type of text).

Type of organization (e.g. similarity/contrast, for/against, pros/cons, cause/effect, before/after, linear

account/flashbacks).

Sequence in which the events/arguments/ideas will be presented.

A note on planning: There are two basic alternatives for planning, both resulting in the same product
(organized notes). They are presented in the following table. The most helpful approach is to present
learners with both alternatives, as either one may be more suitable for different writing styles and/or
tasks. Take notes as you are brainstorming .

Organize the notes in sections and/or paragraphs Decide on the number and content of sections
and/or paragraphs Take notes relevant to each section and/or paragraph Writing the first draft
Expanding on the notes. Depending on how comprehensive the notes are, this may mean that the
writer either has only to turn the organized notes into sentences, or has to add more elements (e.g.
facts, ideas, arguments, examples).

Re-organising, if necessary. That is, adding, removing, re-arranging, splitting or combining

sections/paragraphs. Linking the different elements so that the text is clear for the reader.

EFL Writing: Product and Process 7 Evaluating and improving the first draft Reading for global
impression. That is, the writer places him/herself in the position of the reader and decides if the text is
effective overall. Reading for specific points (relevance to task, coverage, explicitness, organization,
layout, language) and making any necessary alterations. Writing improved/final draft.

Language problems vs. Writing problems In order to help EFL learners become more effective
writers, we need to make a crucial distinction between language accuracy and writing skills. That is, a
learner may be able to write sentences which are satisfactory for his/her level in terms of grammar,
syntax and vocabulary and still be unable to produce an effective text. Of course, in most cases
learners will have problems in both areas (language and writing skills). Therefore, it is crucial for us to
be able to look beneath the layer of language problems to discover writing problems. This leads us to
another important distinction, the one between grammar/vocabulary development and writing skills
development. We need to remember that language input/practice alone cannot result in the
development of writing skills. Special writing lessons are necessary, in which learners are guided to
become aware of all the elements of good writing, supported with information & examples, provided
with opportunities for practice, and given focused feedback on their performance. Of course, we can
also plan lessons which integrate work on language with work on writing skills. In such cases, it is
important for us to be clear about the aims/focus of different stages in the lesson.

PART 3. A TEACHING FRAMEWORK

Writing Skills Development Cycle The procedures I will propose for a writing skills programmed can
be seen to form a cycle. Such a view of learning procedures has been proposed by a number of
writers and was modified for the teaching of speaking skills . The procedures involved and their
sequence are presented in the following diagram.

EFL Writing: Product and Process 8 This framework explicitly takes into account the following:
What is taught is not necessarily what is learned. Recycling is essential for learning. Learners need to
be involved actively in the learning process. The more individualized the teaching, the more effective
it is. This is why the Feedback stage is linked directly to (i.e. informs) all other stages. In other words,
each stage takes into account the needs of the specific group of learners. Another merit of the cycle
is that there is no fixed starting point; that is, a lesson can start at any stage. For example, a teacher
starting lessons with a new group of learners can set a writing task and begin the first cycle with
feedback on the writing product. The following section outlines the components of this teaching cycle,
as well as specific procedures and materials for each stage of the cycle. Teachers can use the
procedures flexibly to determine their objectives and scope according to the needs of their learners.
Awareness-raising In this stage learners are guided to discover/identify specific elements of good
writing and features of different text types. In a writing programmed, the awareness-raising stage
always involves reading. In fact, the development of reading skills is indispensable for the
development of writing skills. The procedures marked by an asterisk (*) below can also be used for
the development of reading skills. After learners have been familiarized with awareness-raising
procedures, teachers can set awareness-raising tasks as homework. Such practice can free valuable
classroom time for Support and Feedback procedures.

Awareness-Raising Procedures Analysing a text regarding one or more elements of good writing.

Analyzing a poorly formulated text in order to identify problems and propose remedies and
reformulations. Analyzing (excerpts from) learner texts for merits & shortcomings.

Comparing two texts in terms of style/register.*

Ordering jumbled sentences to create a paragraph/text.*

Ordering jumbled paragraphs to create a text.*

Inserting additional or missing information into a text (linking & signposting expressions, sentences,
paragraphs).*

Dividing a text into sections/paragraphs. *

Support In this stage learners are helped to clarify/consolidate the points raised and discussed during
the Awareness-raising stage, and/or guided in their efforts to produce a text. Support procedures can
be of

three different types according to the learners needs.

Firstly, learners may be given explicit and generalizable information and guidelines, as well as
illustrative examples, regarding the organization, layout and style of specific text-types.
Secondly, the teacher may provide help regarding the specific task at hand. For example, learners
can be guided to identify the intended reader, the purpose of writing and the points to be covered, as
well as helped to generate ideas regarding organization, vocabulary and grammar.

Thirdly, the teacher may elicit and/or pre-teach one or more of the following: relevant vocabulary,
grammar, background information.

EFL Writing: Product and Process 9 Support Procedures Grammar input/revision & exercises.

Elicitation and/or input of relevant vocabulary. Elicitation and/or input regarding relevant ideas /
items of content. Elicitation and/or input regarding elements of good writing. Planning guidelines
(content, layout, organization, style).

Practice The Practice stage offers students the chance to use and experiment with the features of
good writing discussed in the awareness' stage. In turn, the product of the Practice stage will be used
in the Feedback stage. Practice procedures can be categorized according to their focus and the
amount of control. In terms of focus, practice can be of two types, focused and global . In focused
practice learners concentrate on one element of writing. In global practice learners are given a writing
task to achieve. In terms of control, practice can be controlled or free. In controlled practice the aim
is the development of accuracy. Acceptable responses are pre-determined, or there are limitations as
to the content of the text to be written. In free practice the aim is effective communication through
writing (i.e. achievement of a writing task), and the range of acceptable responses is much greater.
The teacher can choose the focus of activities and manipulate the amount of control depending on
the learners needs. For example, the teacher may give learners a writing task (global practice), but
also impose some control over the content by asking them to use a specified number of
words/expressions or structures in the text. Some useful hints After focused activities give learners
the opportunity to re-integrate the features practiced in a global activity. Choose motivating topics,
relevant to the learners age.

Choose realistic & motivating tasks. In global practice always give learners a reason for writing, as
well other information about the context (intended reader, writer s identity, text type, content &
coverage).

Focused Practice Procedures Ordering jumbled sentences to create a paragraph/text. Taking &
organising notes. Dividing a text into sections/paragraphs. Combining simple sentences to make
complex ones. Ordering jumbled paragraphs to create a text. Inserting additional or missing
information into a text (linking & signposting expressions, sentences, paragraphs). Guided planning
(content, layout, organization, style).

Global Practice Procedures Creating a text according to a model. Creating a text from prompts
(title, task, text, first/last sentence, key words/expressions, visuals, outline, tables etc.) Re-writing a
text following specific guidelines (corrections, code, comments etc.).

EFL Writing: Product and Process 10 Feedback It seems that Feedback is the part of a writing
programmed which is either underused or misunderstood. Feedback need not be limited to the overt
correction of errors and the provision of comments and/or grades by the teacher. Feedback can (and
should) be a learning experience, which provides the link between consecutive writing lessons.
During feedback, learners are invited to identify the merits and shortcomings of their writing
performance, understand the reasons for these shortcomings and discuss possible improvements.
When learners have become familiar with feedback procedures, feedback activities can also be set
as homework. In order to make optimal use of the Feedback stage, teachers need to be aware of
three basic aspects of feedback procedures. These aspects can be seen as answers to the following
three questions: Who provides comments/corrections? What is the focus of feedback? How is
feedback given? Who provides comments/ corrections? It doesn’t necessarily have to be the teacher.
Actually, involving learners actively in feedback is a requirement of the cycle . Through trying to
pinpoint merits and shortcomings in their own or peers written texts and propose improvements,
the learners awareness of the elements of good writing develops, and another learning cycle is set in
motion. Alternative evaluators The teacher. The teacher in collaboration with a learner or group of
learners. Other learners (peer correction). Learners may work individually, in pairs/groups, or as a
class. The learner him/herself (self-correction). What is the focus of feedback? It is advisable that
feedback focus on a limited number of elements. Giving learners feedback on a large number of
elements can only confuse them. What is more, limiting feedback to specific elements of writing is
consistent with the view of feedback as part of the learning cycle.

Alternative areas of focus Spelling. Grammar (accuracy and appropriacy). Vocabulary (accuracy
and appropriacy). Natural use of language. Linking and signposting expressions. Layout.
Organisation. Clarity of expression. Regard for reader (e.g. level of explicitness). The area(s) which
the previous lesson(s) focused on. Only what affects clarity / task achievement.

EFL Writing: Product and Proces 11 How is feedback given? Feedback procedures cannot be used
irrespective of the problem area. There are procedures which are more suitable for feedback on
vocabulary and grammar mistakes, and others which are more effective for the treatment of problems
in other areas (e.g. style, organization, coverage, relevance). The feedback procedures outlined
below have been adapted

. Feedback on vocabulary & grammar The techniques below are given in order of increasing
difficulty for the learner, in that they provide a decreasing amount of support. Correct error directly
(i.e. cross out incorrect part and write correct version). Underline, indicate type and refer learners to a
reference book (e.g. grammar book, or grammar section in the coursebook). Underline the error and
indicate the type on the margin. Underline the error. Indicate the type of error(s) on the margin. The
teacher needs to familiarize learners with the coding system that will be used. Indicate the number of
errors in each line on the margin. Feedback on other areas Comments and guidance questions on
the margin and/or at the end of the text. Teacher-learner conference: teacher and learner/pair/group
collaborate as co-writers to write and/or improve specific parts of a text. Conference can take part
either while learners write a text in class or after its completion. Reformulation: the teacher or learner
(in the case of peer-correction) checks what a learner wants to express in a problematic part of the
text and rewrites it. This technique can also take place during conferencing. Self/peer correction
using a checklist: the teacher formulates a checklist based on the elements of good writing and the
learners (individually, in pairs/groups, or as a class) evaluate a text using the checklist and suggest
improvements. This technique is particularly suited to exam-prep classes, as it trains the learners to
evaluate and improve their own writing. The teacher collects problematic excerpts on a handout or
overhead transparency. Learners in pairs/groups or as a class (with the teacher s guidance) identify
problems and suggest improvements. The teacher adopts the role of the intended reader and reacts
to the text in a realistic way (e.g. by sending a short reply, or calling the writer .

TEACHING AND LEARNING ACTIVITIES

TLA 1. Answer the following: (90pts)

1. Why writing is called a “non-linear, exploratory, and generative process” ? Explain

(5pts)

2. Differentiate elementary level, secondary level and tertiary level of writing.(6 pts)

3. What are the five approaches to teaching writing? Give a definition on each

approaches.(8 pts)

4. What are the four categories of written performance? Give a concrete example

on each category. ( 9 pts)

5. What are the 6 common types of handwriting? Give one example in each type.(12 pts)

6. What are the 3 Intensive ( Controlled ) Writing? Give one scenario of each.(9

pts)

7. Create one paragraph 10 sentences on covid 19 pandemic with error on

grammar, spelling and punctuation. Then use improve version of your paragraph.

(15 pts)

8. Why is it that feedback from the teachers, expert of grammar and peers is

needed in writing? Give three reasons of this. (5 pts)

9. Differentiate focus practice procedures and global practice procedure.(6 pts)

10. Give five elements of good writing. Explain each elements(15 pts)