Direct Products of Groups and The Fundamental Theorem of Finite Abelian Groups

Direct Products of Groups and The Fundamental Theorem of Finite Abelian Groups
Subject: ALGEBRA-V
Semester-VI
Lesson: Direct Products of Groups and The Fundamental
Theorem of Finite Abelian Groups
Lesson Developer: Dr. Samridhi Mehta

College/Department: Department of Mathematics,
Hindu College, University of Delhi – 110007
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

Table of Contents
Objective
1. Introduction
2. External Direct Product
Classifying Groups of Order Less Than 8
3. Group U(n) And External Direct Product
4. Applications Of External Direct Product
5. Internal Direct Product
6. Fundamental Theorem Of Finite Abelian Groups
7. Application Of Fundamental Theorem In Determining The
Possible Isomorphism Classes Of Abelian Groups
Isomorphism Class Involving External Direct Product
Isomorphism Class Involving Internal Direct Product
Summary
Exercise/ Practice
References
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi Page 2

Objective
After reading this chapter, the student would know the concept of external and
internal direct product. Further, the student should be able to find the orders of any
element of an external direct product of groups, and will be able to link the U(n)
group with the Zm group. The reader will know the Fundamental Theorem and will
be in a position to determine the isomorphism class of an abelian group involving
both external direct product and internal direct product.

1. INTRODUCTION
This Chapter discusses a method to construct a larger group which is

constructed by combining two or more groups. These are called as External Direct
Product. This is discussed in Section 2 of the Chapter. Various examples, aspects,
properties of External Direct Product are deliberated upon in the same section. This
is followed by an attempt to connect the abelian group of units modulo n and
External Direct Product in Section 3. In Section 4, we give some applications of
External Direct Product. As opposed to External Direct Product of groups, we define
the Internal Direct Product of groups, where the groups being combined are
subgroups of a group (with some more conditions). Here, the possibility of
expressing a group as product of its subgroups is examined. The definition,
examples of the Internal Direct Product and the relation between External Direct
Product and Internal Direct Product is studied in Section 5. In Section 6, the
Fundamental Theorem of finite abelian groups is stated and its detailed proof is
given. Algorithms are provided which help us in expressing a group as an External
Direct Product of groups and also as Internal Direct Product of its subgroups. The
algorithms are provided in Section 7.
2. EXTERNAL DIRECT PRODUCT
The task at hand is to find a way to combine two or more groups which
necessarily need not be related to each other and possibly find bigger structures
which are still groups.
Let’s consider an example. The set of real numbers R is an additive group. But
we also know of the Euclidean plane R2 given by {(a, b) a, b  R} . It can be viewed as
an additive structure where its elements are added component-wise. Here, R2 is
nothing but the Cartesian product of R with itself.
The idea can be generalized. We can consider two different groups and in fact
we can consider any number of groups (even infinitely many). The External Direct
Product of two groups is defined below.
Let and be two groups. Consider the Cartesian product of these groups,
denoted by   ( g, h) g  G, h  H  .
Let ( g1 , h1 ), ( g 2 , h2 )  G  H . Then ( g1 , h1 )  ( g 2 , h2 )  g1  g 2 , h1  h2
Definition 2.1: Let G and H be two groups. The External Direct Product of

groups G and H, is given by ( g, h) g  G, h  H and is denoted by  .
The operation on this set is the component-wise operation as given below:

( g1 , h1 )( g 2 , h2 )  ( g1 g 2 , h1h2 ) , where g1 , g 2  G , h1 , h2  H ,
g 1 g 2 is product of g 1 and g 2 as in G
and h1 h2 is product of h1 and h2 as in H .
We first prove that G  H is a group under operations defined above.

Result 2.1: G  H is a group where G and H are groups under the binary operation
( g1 , h1 )( g 2 , h2 )  ( g1 g 2 , h1h2 ) where ( g1 , h1 ), ( g 2 , h2 )  G  H .
Proof: As both G and H are groups, therefore both are non-empty. Let eG , e H
denote the identity of G and H, respectively. Then e  (eG , e H )  G  H and thus, G 
H is non-empty.
Let x  ( g1 , h1 ), y  ( g 2 , h2 ), z  ( g3 , h3 )  G  H .
Closure: xy  ( g1 g 2 , h1 h2 )  G  H as the group operations of G and H are well

defined.
Associativity: x( yz )  ( g1 ( g 2 g 3 ), h1 (h2 h3 ))  (( g1 g 2 ) g 3 ), (h1 h2 )h3 )  ( xy ) z .
This is so as associativity holds in G and H.
Existence of Identity:  e  (eG , e H )  G  H , such that xe  ex  x for every

x  G  H . This happens as eG , e H are the identity of G and H respectively.
Existence of Inverse: For every x  ( g , h)  G  H , such that xa  ax  e where

e  (eG , e H )  G  H and g 1  G and h 1  H denotes the inverse of g  G and h  H
respectively.
Thus, G  H is a group. Q.E.D.
Value Addition
 When G and H are any two groups, then G  H and H  G are
isomorphic groups. The result can be proved by showing that
f : G  H  H  G defined as f ( g , h)  (h, g ) is an isomorphism.
Similarly, the external direct product of ‘n’ groups is isomorphic to the
external direct product of any permutation of the same ‘n’ groups.
 The above result can be extended to ‘n’ number of groups.
Let G1 , G2 ,...,Gn be ‘n’ groups.

Then G1  G2  ...  Gn  {( g1 , g 2 ,..., g n ) g i  Gi } is a group under

component-wise operation.
 If G and H are finite groups with order m and n respectively, then G 
H is a finite group with order mn. If either G or H is infinite, then G  H
will also be an infinite group.
Examples:
1. Consider group  2  3  {(0, 0), (0,1), (0, 2), (1, 0), (1,1), (1, 2)} with 6 elements.
Then (0, 0) is its identity.
Note that (0, 1) + (1, 2) = (1, 0) as 0 + 1 = 1 in Z 2 and 1 + 2 = 0 in Z 3 .
Also, 2.(1, 1) = (2, 2) = (0, 2).
Clearly,  2   3 is an abelian group which is also cyclic with (1, 1) as one of
its generator [o(1, 1) = 6].
Further, it is known that any two finite cyclic groups having same order are
isomorphic, thus,  2   3   6 .
2. Consider group  2   2  {(0, 0), (0,1), (1, 0), (1,1)} with 4 elements. (0, 0) is its
identity.
As illustrations, 2.(1, 1) = (2, 2) = (0, 0); 2.(0, 1) = (0, 2) = (0, 0); and
2.(1, 0) = (2, 0) = (0, 0). Thus, all the non-identity elements of the group
 2   2 have order 2 each.
Further,  2   2 is an abelian group but it is not cyclic as no element of the
group has order 4. So,  2   2 is not isomorphic to  4 .
Value Addition
 In  2   3 , the order of (1, 2) is 6 and the order 6 is the product of
the order of 1 and that of 2 in their respective groups. But the
order of (1, 1) (in  2   2 ) is 2 which isn’t the product of the order
of 1 i.e. 2 with itself.
 m   n  Z mn
 when gcd(m, n) = 1.
  2 and  3 are abelian and  2   3 is also abelian.
We now generalize the above observations mentioned in Value Addition and

prove them.
Result 2.2: Let be finite groups and let ( g , h)  G  H . Then
o( g , h)  lcm{o( g ), o(h)}

Proof: Let o(g, h) = t and LCM{o(g), o(h)} = s.
We show t | s and s | t , as it gives t = s.
It is known that the order of an element ‘a’ of a group is defined as the least
positive integer n such that a n  e . Further, a m  e for some m   iff n | m.
Since, o(g, h) = t . Therefore, ( g , h) t  (eG , e H ) , that is ( g t , h t )  (eG , e H ) .
Thus, g t  eG and h t  e H . Thereby, we get o( g ) | t , o(h) | t which gives
LCM {o( g ), o(h)} t . So, s | t .
Now, ( g , h) s  ( g s , h s )  (eG , e H ) since LCM {o(g), o(h)} = s and o( g ) | s , o(h) | s .
Thus, t | s (as o(g, h) = t) Q.E.D.
Value Addition:
 The above result can be generalized to the following:
o( g1 , g 2 ..., g n )  LCM {o( g1 ), o( g 2 ),...,o( g n )} g i  Gi Gi
where and is a finite
group for each i ( 1  i  n ).
 The above result can be used to determine the number of elements of a
specific order, and the number of cyclic groups of a specific order in an
external direct product of groups.
 This can also be used to determine whether any two groups are isomorphic
or not.
The observations mentioned in above Value Addition are illustrated in the

following examples.
Example:
1. Find out the number of elements of order 5 in Z 25  Z10 .

Let (a, b)  Z 25  Z 10 such that o(a, b) = 5 i.e. LCM{o(a), o(b)} = 5. The
following cases arise:
Possible Possible No. of No. of choices No. of elements of
o(a) o(b) choices for a for b form (a,b) with order 5
1 5 1 4 4
5 1 4 1 4
5 5 4 4 16
In total, there are 4 + 4 +16 = 24 elements with order 5.

We use the result that in a cyclic group of order k, if a natural number

d is such that d | k, then the number of elements in the cyclic group with
order d is  (d ).
As 5 | 25 and 5 | 10, and groups Z 25 and Z 10 are both cyclic groups, so the
number of elements of order 5 in both the groups is  (5)  4.
2. Find out the number of cyclic groups of order 5 in Z 25  Z10 .
From above example, it is known that there are 24 elements of order 5 in
Z 25  Z 10 . Each cyclic group of order 5 has 4 elements of order 5 and an
element of order 1.
Also, there will be no non-identity element common between two distinct

subgroups of order 5. This is so as if H and K are distinct subgroups of order
5. Then H  K will be of order 1 or 5 (using Lagrange’s Theorem). But the
order of H  K can’t be 5 as groups H and K are distinct. Thus, H  K  {e} .
24 24
Thus, there will be   6 groups of order 5 in Z 25  Z 10 .
 (5) 4
Result 2.3: Let G, H be finite cyclic groups. Then G  H is cyclic if and only if
gcd{o(G), o( H )}  1 .
Proof: Let G   a , H   b  such that
o(G)  o(a)  m, o( H )  o(b)  n, o(G  H )  mn .
Let G  H be cyclic group of order mn. Let gcd{o(G), o( H )}  t and t  1.
m o( a ) m n
Then, o(a t
)   t and similarly, o(b t )  t .
gcd(m , m) m
t t
m m m
Thus, o( (a t
, eH ) )  o[(a t
, eH )]  LCM {o(a t
), o(eH )}  t , and
n n n
o( (eG , b t ) )  o[(eG , b t )]  LCM {o(eG ), o(b t )}  t .
It is known that if a natural number d is such that d | k , where k is the order of

a cyclic group, then there exists a unique cyclic group of order d.
But here, G  H is cyclic and t | mn and there are two distinct cyclic groups of
order t, which is a contradiction.
Thus, t = 1 (as with t = 1, these subgroups coincide).

Conversely, let gcd{o(G), o( H )}  1 .
Consider element (a, b) of G  H .
Then, o(a, b)  LCM {m, n}  mn ( gcd{m, n}  1) .
Since  (a, b)  G  H such that o(a, b)  mn , so G  H is cyclic. Q.E.D.
Value Addition:
1. It can be proved using Principle of Mathematical Induction the following
generalization of above result:
If G i is a finite cyclic group for each i ( 1  i  n ), then
G1  G2  ...  Gn is cyclic  gcd(o(Gi ), o(G j ))  1 for i  j .
2. Z Z Z  ............  Z  gcd(n , n )  1 for i  j .
n n ...n n n n i j
1 2 k 1 2 k
Example: Z 30  Z 6  Z 5  Z 2  Z 3  Z 5  Z 2  Z15  Z 3  Z10
I.Q. 1
Will the external direct products of infinite cyclic groups be also cyclic?
The answer is ‘No’. Think of a counterexample.
I.Q. 2
Can you determine whether the External Direct Product of a finite cyclic group and
that of an infinite cyclic group is cyclic or not?
Result 2.4: The groups G and H are abelian if and only if their external direct
product G  H is abelian.
Proof: Let group G and H be abelian. Let x = (m, n), y = ( g , h)  G  H .
Then xy = (mg, nh) = (gm, hn) = yx (as G and H are abelian).
Thus, G  H is abelian.
Conversely, let G  H be abelian.
Let a, b  G ; c, d  H .
So, x = (a, c), y  (b, d )  G  H .
Since xy = yx which gives ab = ba and cd = dc, that is, G and H are abelian.Q.E.D.

Classification of groups of order less than 8
We now classify groups of order less than 8.
Group of order 1: There is clearly a unique group (upto isomorphism)

consisting of 1 element, viz., identity.
Group of order 2, 3, 5 or 7: All these orders are prime numbers.

As a consequence of Lagrange’s Theorem, all groups of prime order are cyclic
and hence, abelian.
Thus, there exists a unique group (upto isomorphism) of prime order. It is
known that a cyclic group of order n is isomorphic to Zn.
Group of order 4: Let G be a group of order 4.

Case 1: If G is cyclic, then G  Z 4 .
Case 2: If G is a non-cyclic group of order 4, then every element of group G will
have order 1 or 2. (by corollary to Lagrange’s Theorem). Thus, the non-identity
elements of the group will have order 2. Such non-identity elements of the group
with order 2 are their own inverses (as x 2  e gives x  x 1 ). Therefore, G is abelian.
1 1 1
(if a, b  G, consider ab  (ab)  b a  ba ).
Hence, every group of order 4 is abelian irrespective of whether it is cyclic or not.
Further, G  Z 2  Z 2 (using Fundamental theorem which is discussed in a later
section of this chapter).
Group of order 6: Let G be a group of order 6.
Case 1: If G is cyclic, then G  Z 6 .
Case 2: If G is a non-cyclic group of order 6, then we claim G  S 3 .

We firstly show that G has an element of order 3.
Let x  G  {e} .
As a consequence of Lagrange’s Theorem, o(x) is either 1, 2, 3 or 6.
But since G is non-cyclic and x is non-identity, thus o(x) is either 2 or 3.
If all the non-identity elements have order 2, then as done in the previous case
while dealing with groups of order 4, we get that G must be abelian.
Thus, since G is abelian and non-identity elements have order 2, so if
a, b  G  {e}, with a  b , then {e, a, b, ab} is a subgroup of order 4 which is a
contradiction to Lagrange’s Theorem when applied to group G of order 6.
Hence,  x  G : o( x)  3 .
Let y  G : y   x  . So, y  e and y  x    x  .

Then, G  {e, x, x , y, xy , x y} .
2 2
We claim o(y) = 2.
As  x  and y  x  are the only two distinct cosets of  x  in G. Thus,
y 2  x   y  x  or y 2  x    x  . The first case gives y  x  , which is a
contradiction. Thus, y  x    x  holds true and it gives y   x  .
2 2
If o(y) = 3, then y  ( y )  x  , a contradiction.

2 2
Therefore, o(y) = 2.
If G is abelian, then xy = yx and further, since gcd(o( x), o( y))  1 , therefore,

o( xy )  o( x)o( y)  6 . Thus, as there exists an element in G with order 6, so G is
cyclic, this is a contradiction. Thus, G is non-abelian.
The group G and S 3 are generated by {x, y} and {(123), (12)} respectively.
Define a map  : G  S 3 such that  ( x)  (123) and  ( y )  (12) . Then it can be
verified that  is an isomorphism and G  S 3 .
The findings can be summarized in the table below.
Order 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
No. of groups 1 1 1 2 1 2 1
& their type Abelia Abelia Abelia Both Abelia Abelian-1, Abelia
n n n Abelian n Non-Abelian- n
{e} Z2 Z3 Z2  Z2 Z5 1 Z7
& Z4 S3 & Z6
I.Q. 3
Is every group of order 9 abelian?
Can you observe any similarity between numbers 4 and 9?
3. GROUP U(n) AND EXTERNAL DIRECT PRODUCT
We know that group U(n) consists of natural numbers less than n which are co-
prime to n under group operation of multiplication modulo n, that is,
U (n)  {x {1, 2, ...,n} gcd ( x, n)  1} .
Let us take n = 18, then U(18) = {1, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17}. But one can notice that
{1, 7, 13} is a subgroup of U(18) and all the elements of this subgroup are
congruent to 1(mod 3). This can be generalized as follows:
Consider group U(n). Let k be a natural number such that k | n.
Then define the set U k (n)  {x U (n) x  1(mod k )}  {x U (n) k | x  1}

In terms of terminology introduced below, the group {1, 7, 13} mentioned

above is U 3 (18) .
Clearly, U k (n) is non-empty as 1  U k (n).
Further, it can be observed that U k (n) is a subgroup of U(n).
As U(n) is a finite group and U k (n) is its subset, thus we only check closure with
respect to multiplication modulo n in U k (n) as done below:
Let a, b  U k (n). This gives a, b U (n) and a  1(mod k ), b  1(mod k ).
Claim: ab (mod n)  U k (n) (since the operation is multiplication modulo n)
Using Division Algorithm, for some integer and .
So, and which gives (*)
and r  ab (mod n)
We show r U (n) and r  1(mod k )
As U(n) is a group, thus, r U (n) .
Also since a, b U k (n) , we get a  1  kp and b  1  kq for some integers p and q

and thus, ab  1  k ( p  q  kpq) .
So, ab  1(mod k ) .
Therefore, .
Using (*) and above relation, i.e. r  1(mod k ) .
Hence, U k (n) is a subgroup of U(n).
Now, we attempt to write the U(n) group as an external direct product of some
U-groups. In this direction, we have the following result.
Result 3.1: Let s and t be natural numbers such that gcd(s, t) = 1, then
U (st )  U (s)  U (t ) .
Proof: Define  : U (st )  U (s)  U (t )
as  ( x)  ( x(mod s), x(mod t ))
Map is well-defined:
It may be observed that x(mod s) {0,1, ..., s  1} . But x(mod s) can’t be 0 as in that
case, x will be a multiple of s which implies gcd(x, st) ≠ 1 i.e. x  U(st). So,
x(mod s)  {1, ..., s  1} . Similarly, x(mod t )  {1, ...,t  1} .

Let x = y. Since mod operation is well-defined, x(mod s)  y(mod s) and

x(mod t )  y(mod t ) .
Map preserves operation:
Let x, y  U (st ) .
Claim:  ( x * y)   ( x) ( y)
i.e., (( x * y)(mod s), ( x * y)(mod t ))  (( x(mod s) y(mod s)) mod s, ( x(mod t ) y(mod t )) mod t )
i.e., ( x * y)(mod s)  [ x(mod s) y(mod s)] mod s, and ( x * y)(mod t )  [ x(mod t ) y(mod t )] mod t
where * is multiplication operation.
We first show: ( x * y)(mod s)  [ x(mod s) y(mod s)] mod s

Let x(mod s)  b, y(mod s)  c .
Thus, x  sq1  b , y  sq 2  c for some integers q1 and q 2 .
So, xy  bc  s(q1  q 2  sq1 q 2 )
Using Division Algorithm, for some integers and where
So, .
Equating the two expressions of , we get st .q  r  bc  s(q1  q2  sq1q2 )

Thus, ( x * y) mod s  r (mod s)  bc(mod s)  [ x(mod s) y(mod s)] mod s
Similarly, it can be shown that
( x * y)(mod t )  [ x(mod t ) y(mod t )] mod t .
Map is one-one:
Let x  Ker ( ) . Then  ( x)  (1, 1)
i.e., ( x(mod s), x(mod t ))  (1, 1)
Thus, x  1  sq1  tq2 for some integers q1 and q 2 .
As, s | sq1 , so using above relation, we get s | tq2 .
Since gcd(s, t )  1 , therefore, s | q 2 and q 2  sz for some integer z.
Thus, x 1  stz which implies x  1(mod st ) i.e.  is one-one.
Map is onto:
It is known that order of group U(n) is  (n) and  (st )   (s) (t ) if gcd(s,t) = 1.
Thus, | U (st ) |   (st )   (s) (t )  | U (s) | | U (t ) |  | U (s)  U (t ) |
As  is a one-one map such that its domain and co-domain have same orders, thus
the map  is onto as well. Q.E.D.
Examples:
1. In view of above result, U (18)  U (9)  U (2) .
2. However, there are several ways to write the group U(30) as external direct
product, viz., U (30)  U (2)  U (15)  U (3)  U (10)  U (6)  U (5) .

One may also note that U 2 (18)  U (9) but U 3 (18) and U (6) are not isomorphic to
each other. This motivates the following result which we prove after stating the
following Lemma without proof.
Lemma: If a  b(modc) , then gcd(a, c)  gcd(b, c) .
Result 3.2: Let s and t be natural numbers such that gcd(s, t) = 1, then
U t ( st )  U ( s )
Proof: Define  : U t ( st )  U ( s )
as  ( x)  x(mod s)
Map is well-defined:
It may be observed that if x  U t (st ) , then x  U (st )
and t | x  1 and x(mod s) {0,1, ..., s  1} .
As done in proof of previous result, x(mod s)  {1, ..., s  1} .
Let x = y. Since mod operation is well-defined, x(mod s)  y(mod s) .
Map preserves operation:
Let x, y  U t ( st ) .
Claim:  ( x * y)   ( x) ( y)
i.e., ( x * y)(mod s)  [ x(mod s) y(mod s)]mod s where * is multiplication operation.
Let x(mod s)  b, y(mod s)  c .
Thus, x  sq1  b , y  sq 2  c for some integers q1 and q 2 .
So, xy  bc  s(q1  q 2  sq1 q 2 )
Using Division Algorithm, for some integers and where
So, .
Equating the two expressions of , we get st .q  r  bc  s(q1  q2  sq1q2 ) .
Thus, ( x * y) mod s  r (mod s)  bc(mod s)  [ x(mod s) y(mod s)] mod s .
Map is one-one:
Let x  Ker ( ) . Then  ( x)  1 i.e. x(mod s)  1 and since x  U t (st ) , then t | x  1 .
Thus, x  1  sq1  tq2 for some integers q1 and q 2 .
As, s | sq1 , so using above relation, we get s | tq2 .
Since gcd(s, t )  1 , therefore, s | q 2 and q 2  sz for some integer z.
Thus, x 1  stz which gives x  1(mod st ) i.e.  is one-one.
Map is onto:
Let y U (s) .
Claim:  x  U t (st ) such that x(mod s)  y .

i.e.  x  U (st ) such that x  1(mod t ) and x  y(mod s) .

As gcd(s, t )  1 , using Chinese Remainder Theorem,  x(mod st ) such that
x  1(mod t ) and x  y(mod s)
It only remains to show that gcd(x, st )  1 which will give x  U (st ) .
Since y U (s) , thus gcd( y, s)  1 and also x  y(mod s) , therefore, gcd(x, s)  1. (using
Lemma)
Also, since gcd(1, t )  1 and x  1(mod t ) , by using above Lemma, gcd(x, t )  1 .
If gcd(x, st )  1, then  prime p such that p | gcd(x, st). Then p | x and p | st
i.e. p | x and ( p | s or p | t )
i.e. (p | x and p | s) or ( p | x and p | t )
i.e. gcd(x, s) ≠ 1 or gcd(x, t) ≠ 1 which is a contradiction.
Thus, gcd(x, st )  1 . Q.E.D.
Value Addition (Generalizing):

If gcd(ni , n j )  1 for i  j , then U (n1 n2 ..nk )  U (n1 )  U (n2 )  ........ U (nk ) .
It is easier to work with Z n group instead of U(n) group as the number of
elements in Z n group can be easily determined as compared to the latter group.
Further, determining whether the group is cyclic or not and also determining the
order of various elements and the number of elements of various orders is easier in
the additive group Z n . So, we state the following results without proof which help
us in expressing the U(n) group in terms of Z n group.
Result 3.3: (i) U ( p n )  Z p n  p n 1 for odd prime p.
(ii) U (2)  {0}

(iii) U (4)  Z 2
(iv) U (2 )  Z 2  Z 2n 2 for n  3 .
n
Examples:
1. Using above result, one can say that U ( p )  Z p 1 for any prime p.
2. U (16)  Z 2  Z 4 . Therefore, U(16) is group with order 8 but is not cyclic.
3. U (27)  Z 27  9  Z18 . Therefore, U(27) is a cyclic group whose order is 18.
Further, it has a unique subgroup with order k where k is a divisor of 18.
4. U (30)  U (2)  U (3)  U (5)  {e}  Z 2  Z 4  Z 2  Z 4 .
Thus, one conclude that U(30) has 8 elements, and is not cyclic as gcd(2, 4)
is not 1. Thus, all its non-identity elements will have order 2 or 4.

5. We can determine the elements of order 6 in Aut ( Z 720 ) in the following

manner using above properties. It is known that for all n, Aut ( Z n )  U (n) and
U(n) can be written as an External Direct Product of cyclic groups Z k ' s .
Thus, Aut ( Z 720 )  U (720) and
U (720)  U (16.9.5)  U (16)  U (9)  U (5)  Z 2  Z 4  Z 6  Z 4 .
Due to the existence of isomorphisms, the number of elements of order 6 in
Aut ( Z 720 ) equals the number of elements of order 6 in Z 2  Z 4  Z 6  Z 4 .
An element in Z 2  Z 4  Z 6  Z 4 is of the form (a, b, c, d),
where a  Z 2 , b  Z 4 , c  Z 6 , d  Z 4 .
Further, o(a, b, c, d )  6  LCM {o(a), o(b), o(c), o(d )}  6 .
As the order of an element of the group is a factor of the order of the group,
therefore, o(a) = 1 or 2, o(b) = 1, 2 or 4, o(c) = 1, 2, 3 or 6 and o(d) = 1, 2
or 4.
The following cases arise:
Possible Possible Possible Possible No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of

o(a) o(b) o(c) o(d) choices choices choices choices elements
for a for b for c for d of form
(a,b,c,d)
with order
6
1 1 6 1 1 1 2 1 2
1 1 3,6 2 1 1 4 1 4
1 2 3,6 1 1 1 4 1 4
1 2 3,6 2 1 1 4 1 4
2 1 3,6 1 1 1 4 1 4
2 1 3,6 2 1 1 4 1 4
2 2 3,6 1 1 1 4 1 4
2 2 3,6 2 1 1 4 1 4
Thus, adding up the total number of choices, we get that there are in all 30
elements of order 6.
As stated earlier, the number of elements of order d (where d | k) in the
cyclic group of order k is  (d ).
4. APPLICATIONS OF EXTERNAL DIRECT PRODUCT
In this section, we give some applications of External Direct Product of groups

which range from number theory to securing data when being communicated.

1. Number Theory
If we want to determine the last one, two or three digits of a large power
of a number, then in certain cases we can use tools of group theory. For
example, if we want to know the last two digit of 13 , then observe that the
142
last two digits of 13 are precisely the remainder obtained on dividing 13

142 142
by 100.
Note gcd(13, 100)  1, so 13 U (100). Further, U (100)  U (4)  U (25)  Z 2  Z 20 .
(using Result 2.3).
The order of U(100) is 40 but the maximum possible order of an element in
U(100) is 20 and the orders of various elements of the same group are
factors of 20 which implies that  x  U (100), x  1 . In particular, 13  1 . So,
20 20
  7
13142  13140132  1320 .132  132  169(mod100)  69 . So, the last two digits of
13142 are 69.
Similarly, for finding the last three digits we can use U(1000).
2. RSA public key encryption

The External Direct Product finds its application in Cryptography as well.
The essence of RSA public key encryption is based on the idea that it is not
that easy to factorize large integers. The RSA is an acronym of the surnames
of the three masterminds (Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Len Adleman) who
devised this technique. In this encryption method, the encryption code is
public but the decryption code is private and is known only to the person for
which the encrypted code is actually meant.
Suppose a message is to be sent from A (the sender) to B (the receiver).
The message is sent by A to B in encrypted form and then B decodes the
message using his private key. The receiver B identifies two distinct large
prime numbers, say, ‘p’ and ‘q’ and calculates their product pq. Let n = pq.
Further, B calculates m  LCM { p  1, q  1} and chooses ‘r’ as any element of
U(m) with ‘s’ as its unique inverse in U(m). The calculation of ‘s’ involves
knowing ‘m’, which will be known only when the prime factors p, q of ‘n’ are
known. B can make ‘n’ and ‘r’ public (these are public keys).
Sending message: Firstly, the message is converted to integer M using a
mutually agreed/known code. Then the integer is divided into strings of equal
length. The sender A will then send the encrypted message N = M (mod n) to
r
B.
Decoding message: In order to decode the message, the receiver B will
calculate N (mod n) using his/her private key which comprises of ‘s’ and then
s
convert the integer back to the original message.

The RSA method works as it is difficult to factorize large integers. The

mathematical details are as follows:
U (n)  U ( p )  U (q )  Z p1  Z q1 . Corresponding to any element ‘y’ in U(n),
there exists an element ( y1 , y2 )  Z p 1  Z q 1 and therefore, (my1 , my2 )
corresponds to y . As m  LCM { p  1, q  1} and o( Z p1 )  p  1, o( Z q1 )  q  1
m
thus, (my1 , my2 )  (0, 0) which gives y  1 . As r and s are inverses of each
m
other in U(m), therefore, rs  1(mod m). This means rs 1 md for some
integer d. Finally, note that
N s  ( M r ) s  M rs  M 1md  M .M md  ( M m )t M  1.M  M .
5. INTERNAL DIRECT PRODUCT
So far, it has been observed that new bigger groups can be formed by taking
the external direct product of smaller groups. Now, in this section we combine the
subgroups of a group internally using the groups operation, and a bigger subgroup
is formed under certain conditions. In other words, we will attempt to write a group
as product of its normal subgroups.
It is known that if H and K are any two subgroups of a group G, then HK given
by {hk h  H , k  K} need not be a subgroup of G.
For example: In S3, if we take H = {e, (12)}, and K = {e, (13)}.
Then HK = {e, (12), (13), (132)}.
But HK isn’t a subgroup of G as (132)(12) = (23)  HK.
In case of an abelian group G, HK will always be a subgroup of G as then HK =

KH. In order to be able to deal with non-abelian groups as well, a stronger
condition is introduced and the Internal Direct Product of two groups is as defined
below:
Definition 5.1: Let G be a group and let H, K be normal subgroups of G. Then G is

Internal Direct Product of H and K (denoted by G = H  K) if G = HK and H  K =
{e}
Examples:
1. R* denotes the abelian group of non-zero real numbers under multiplication.

Let H be the subgroup containing all positive real numbers
and K = {  1, 1}.
Then H and K are normal subgroups of R*.

Clearly, H  K = {e}.
Then for each , we have
Then  .
2. Consider the group Z6 under operation addition modulo 6.
Let H = {0, 3} = <3> and K = {0, 2, 4} = <2>.
Clearly and K are subgroups of Z6.
Since Z6 is abelian, therefore, H and K are normal subgroups of Z6
and H  K = {e}.
Observe that HK = {0+0, 3+0, 0+2, 3+2, 0+4, 3+4}
= {0, 3, 2, 5, 4, 1} (as 3+4 (mod6) = 1).
Thus, .
So, Z6 is the Internal Direct Product of its subgroups H and K.
3. In S3, let H =  (123)  , and K =  (12)  .

Then S3 = HK, and H  K = {e},
but S3 isn’t the Internal Direct Product of its subgroups H and K,
since K isn’t a normal subgroup of S3.
The idea of Internal Direct Product of two subgroups is extended to n

subgroups as given in the definition below.
Definition 5.2: (Internal direct product of n normal subgroups of group):

Let H 1 , H 2 ,..., H n be a finite collection of normal subgroups of group G. Then G is
Internal Direct Product of H 1 , H 2 ,..., H n (denoted by G  H 1  H 2  ... H n ) if
(i) G  H 1 H 2 ....H n ,
(ii) H 1 H 2 ....H i  H i 1  {e}  i  1, 2, ...,n  1
It will be proved later as part of the proof of the Fundamental Theorem that a
finite abelian group is expressible as the Internal Direct Product of its Sylow p-
subgroups for each of its prime divisors. This provides us with plenty of examples.
It may be noted that the Internal Direct Product and External Direct Product of
normal subgroups of a group G are isomorphic to each other. We establish the
isomorphism between Internal Direct Product and External Direct Product of normal
subgroups of a group G after proving a series of Lemmas which help us in proving
the main result.
Lemma 5.1: If G is Internal Direct Product of its normal subgroups H 1 , H 2 ,..., H n ,
then for 1  i, j  n, i  j, H i  H j  {e} .

Proof: Let x  H i  H j for 1  i, j  n, i  j .
Without Loss Of Generality, let i  j .
Then x  H j and x  H 1 H 2 .......H j 1 as x  e....e.x.e...e .
So, x  H 1 H 2 .......H j 1  H j  {e} . Thus, x  e.
As x  H i  H j for 1  i, j  n, i  j is arbitrary, therefore H i  H j  {e} . Q.E.D.

and if hi  H i for 1  i  n, then hi h j  h j hi for 1  i, j  n, i  j .
Proof: Let 1  i, j  n, i  j . Consider x  hi h j hi1h j 1

Then using the fact that H j  G , we get x  hi h j hi1h j 1  hi h j hi1 h j 1  H j 

Similarly, since H i  G , we get x  hi h j hi1h j 1  hi h j hi1h j 1  H i
From Lemma 5.1, H i  H j  {e} , so x  e , i.e. hi h j  h j hi Q.E.D.

then every element of G can be uniquely expressed as h1 h2 ...hn where hi  H i for
1  i  n.
Proof: Let x  G . As G is Internal Direct Product of its normal subgroups

H 1 , H 2 ,..., H n , thus, G  H 1 H 2 ....H n and x  G can be expressed as h1h2 ...hn where
hi  H i for 1  i  n .
It remains to show that the above representation is unique.
Let, if possible, x  G has two possible representations as given below.
Then x  h1 h2 ...hn  g1 g 2 ...g n where g i , hi  H i for 1  i  n . (5.1)
Post-multiplying by hn1 and pre-multiplying by g1 g 2 ....g n1  , we get

1
g1 g 2 ...g n1 1 h1h2 ....hn1  g n hn1

i.e. g n11 g n12 ........g11h1h2 ....hn 1  g n hn1
Using Lemma 5.2 repeatedly, we get g11 h1 g 21 h2 ....g n11 hn 1  g n hn1

Thus, using closure, g n hn1  H 1 H 2 ....H n 1  H n  {e} .
i.e. g n  hn
Using this in relation (5.1) above , we get h1 h2 ...hn 1  g1 g 2 ...g n 1
Proceeding as above, we get g i  hi  i  1,....,n
Thus, the representation of x  G is unique. Q.E.D.
Now, we proceed to the main result where we show that the Internal Direct
Product and External Direct Product are isomorphic to each other.
Result 5.4: If G is Internal Direct Product of its normal subgroups H 1 , H 2 ,..., H n ,

then , G  H 1  H 2  ...... H n .
Proof: Define  : G  H 1  H 2  ..... H n

as  (h1 h2 .....hn )  (h1 , h2 ,.....,hn )
(From Lemma 5.3, every element of G can be uniquely expressed as h1 h2 ...hn where
hi  H i for 1  i  n )
Because of uniqueness of hi  H i , the map  is well-defined.
One-one:  (h1 h2 .....hn )   ( p1 p 2 .....p n )
i.e. (h1 , h2 ,.....,hn )  ( p1 , p 2 ,....., p n )
i.e. hi  pi  i  1, 2, ...., n
i.e. h1 h2 .....hn  p1 p 2 .....p n (as group operation is well defined)
Onto: Let y  H 1  H 2  ...... H n . Then, y  (h1 , h2 ,......,hn ) where hi  H i for 1  i  n

.
Let x  h1 h2 ...hn  G . Then  ( x)  y .
Homomorphism: Let x  h1 h2 ...hn  G , y  p1 p 2 .....p n  G
Then,  ( xy )   ((h1 h2 ...hn )( p1 p 2 ... p n ))

  ((h1 p1 )(h2 p 2 ).....(hn p n )) (using Lemma 5.2)
= (h1 p1 , h2 p 2 , ....., hn p n ) (using closure hi pi  H i , and definition of  )
= (h1 , h2 , ....., hn )( p1 , p 2 , ....., p n )
  (h1h2 ..... hn ) ( p1 p 2 .....p n )   ( x) ( y ) Q.E.D.
Application: It is known that if m  n1 n2 ..nk , and if gcd(ni , n j )  1 for i  j ,
then (i) U (n1 n2 ..nk )  U (n1 )  U (n2 )  ........ U (nk ) , and
(ii) U ni ( ni n j )  U ( n j )
From above properties and the above result, we get
U (m)  U (n1 )  U (n2 )  ........ U (nk )
 U m / n1 (m)  U m / n2 (m)  ........ U m / nk (m)
 U m / n1 (m)  U m / n2 (m)  ........ U m / nk (m)
Thus, the U(n) group can be written as an internal direct product of its subgroups in
the above manner.
As an illustration, consider U(195). Using above result, we get
U (195)  U (3.5.13)  U (3)  U (5)  U (13)  U 65 (195)  U 39 (195)  U 15 (195) .
6. Fundamental Theorem Of Finite Abelian Groups
Consider a group of order 4. It has been proved earlier in this chapter that any
group of order 4 is abelian. Further, any cyclic group of order 4 is isomorphic to Z 4.
If the group of order 4 is not cyclic, then each of the non-identity element is of
order 2 and the group is isomorphic to the group Z 2  Z 2 . The fact that there
cannot exist any other abelian group of order 4 other than the two mentioned is
owing to the Fundamental Theorem.
Fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups states the following:
“If G is a finite abelian group, then G can be expressed as a direct

product of cyclic groups of prime-power order. Further, the
factorization is unique except for the rearrangement of factors.”

In other words, if G is a finite abelian group, then there exists uniquely determined
groups H i (i  1, 2, ..., k ) where each H i (i  1, 2, ..., k ) is a cyclic group of prime-power
order and G  H 1  H 2  ...... H k . So, H i  Z p ni for some prime pi (i  1, 2, ...., k ) , and
i
therefore, G  Z p n1  Z p n2  ...... Z p nk . The primes pi (i  1, 2, ...., k ) are not necessarily

1 2 k
distinct primes but their powers are uniquely determined. The method of writing the
finite abelian group G as an external direct product is called determining the
isomorphism class of G.
The fundamental theorem specifies the total number of non-isomorphic

abelian groups that exist for a specific group and after knowing the isomorphism
class of an abelian group, one can also specify the number of elements of various
possible orders in the group.
We provide a series of Lemmas with proof. These Lemmas are stepping

stones in proving the Fundamental Theorem for finite abelian groups. The Lemmas
are followed by a proof of the main result.
Lemma 6.1: Let G be a finite abelian group of order p m , where p is a prime such
n
that p doesn’t divide m. Then G = H  K, where H =  x G | x pn


 e and K =
 xG | x m

 e . Moreover, |H| = p n
Proof: We first show that H, K  G
Clearly, H is non-empty as e  H . As H is a subset of a finite group, we only check

closure in H in order to show that H is a subgroup.
Let a, b  H i.e. a  e and b  e .

n n
p p
pn
 a p b p  e (as G is abelian)
n n
Consider (ab)
So, ab H H  G
Similarly, K  G
Since, G is abelian & H and K are subgroups of G. Thus, H and K are normal
subgroups of G.
To show: G = H  K i.e. G = HK & H  K = e
As p doesn’t divide m , therefore gcd( p , m)  1

n
  s, t  Z such that p s  mt  1
n

Let x  H  K . Then x  H and x  K

n
 x = e and x m = e
p
So, o( x) | p and o( x) | m .
n
Thus, o( x) | gcd( p , m) and so, o(x) | 1

n
 H  K  {e}
In order to show that G = HK, consider y  G .
y  y p smt  ( y p ) s .( y m ) t
n n
Consider y mt   , y 
pn mt p
n
 
= yp
n
m
t
e
( y p m  e as y  G , | G |  p n m and y |G|  e ).
n
Thus, y  H .
mt
pns m
) e  y p s k
n
Similarly, ( y
p n s  mt
Thus, y  y  ( y m ) t ( y p ) s  HK
n
As y  G was arbitrary G  HK (as HK  G )

Lastly, we claim: | H |  p
n
As G  HK ,  | G |  | HK |  p m
n
| H || K |
i.e.  p n m | H || K | p n m (as H  K  {e} )
|H K |
In view of above, in order to show that |H| = p n , we show that


(A) | K | doesn’t have a factor of the form p (where 0    n ) i.e. p doesn’t
divide | K | .
(B) No prime other than p divides | H | .
We prove (A)
If possible, p | K | where p is a prime and K is an abelian group.
By Cauchy’s Theorem,  x  K : o( x)  p
As x  K , x m  e . Then, applying the definition of order of an element, p | m , which

is a contradiction.

Thus, p doesn’t divide | K |
Hence, | H |  p t where t | m
n
Now, we prove (B)
If t  1 , then  prime q such that q t .
As t m , so q m but p doesn’t divide m, thus, p and q are distinct primes
Further, q p n t i.e. q | H | and H is an abelian group.
Using Cauchy’s Theorem on H,  a  H : o(a)  q , and thus, a q  e
As a  H , a  e . Then, applying the definition of order of an element, q p n i.e.

n
p
q p which is a contradiction as p and q are distinct primes.
Thus, no prime other than p divides | H | .
From (A) and (B), |H| = p n . Q.E.D.
Lemma 6.2: Let G be a finite abelian group of prime-power order. Let a  G be an

element of maximal order. Then G =  a   K for some K  G .
Proof: Let G = p n where p is a prime and n is a natural number. We prove the
result by induction on n.
For n = 1, G = p (prime). As every group of prime order is cyclic and a  G is an

element of maximal order, therefore, G   a  and G   a   {e} .
Induction hypothesis: Assume that the result is true for abelian groups of order p
k
where k  n .
Now we prove for n:
Let a  G be an element of maximal order p (as a  G , o(a) o(G) )

m
Let x  G . Then o( x) o(G) (by corollary to Lagrange’s Theorem) and thus, o( x)  p

t
for some natural number t. But the maximal order is p , so t  m and p t p m .

m

Thus, x  e .
m
p
As x  G was arbitrary, thus  x  G, x  e.

pm
If G   a  , then G   a  {e} and we are done.
Assume G   a  . Choose b  G of smallest possible order such that b  a  .

Clearly, b  e .
Claim 1: o(b)  p
 
Since b  G and b  e . Thus, o(b)  p where 0    m and, therefore, gcd( p, p )  p
o(b)
Consider, o(b ) 
p
gcd( p, o(b))
o (b )

p
Thus, o(b )  o(b) .

p
But b is element of smallest order such that b  a  , thus b   a  .

p
Let b p  a i for some integer i.
(because  x  G, x  e)
pm
Then, e  b
m
p
Note, e  b p  b p. p
m m 1
 
 bp
p m 1
 
 ai
p m 1
m 1
So, o(a )  p
i
Thus, a i is not a generator of  a  (as o(a)  p m ) and therefore, gcd(i, p m )  1
It gives us that i  pt for some t and b p  a i  a pt .
Define c  a t b
If c  a  , then c  a s , and therefore, b  a t  s  a  , which is a contradiction.

Thus, c  a  .
Observe that using that G is an abelian group, c p  a  pt b p  b  p b p  e

Thus, o(c) p (p prime), and therefore, o(c)  1 or p
If o(c)  1 , then c  e which gives c  a  , a contradiction.
Therefore, o(c)  p .
Thus,  element, viz., c of smallest possible order ‘p’ such that c  a  .
Also, b is element of smallest possible order such that b  a  .
Thus, o(b)  p .
Claim 2:  a    b   {e} .
Clearly,  a    b    b 
Therefore, o( a    b  ) o( b ) (using Lagrange’s Theorem)
i.e. o( a    b  ) p [  o(b)  o( b )  p]
If o( a    b  )  p , then it together with  a    b    b  gives us that

 a    b    b  i.e.  b    a  and thus, b   a  , which is a contradiction.
So, o( a    b  )  1 and  a    b   {e} .
We show existence of K:
G
Define G  .
b
Let x  G . Then x  x  b  for some x  G .
Consider a  a  b  .
p m 1
If o(a )  o(a )  p , then o(a )  p
m m 1
i.e. a  e   b .
p m 1 m 1 m 1
which gives (a  b )   b  and therefore, a p  b    b  i.e. a p  b 
p m 1
Clearly, a  a .
p m 1
So, a   a    b  but  a    b   {e} .
m 1
Thus, a
p
 e , which is a contradiction as o(a)  p m .

Hence, o(a )  o(a )  p [ o(a ) o(a)]

m
Claim 3: a is element of maximal order of G .

Let, if possible,  t  G : o(t )  p that is o(t )  p where m  1    n
m
As t  G , therefore, t  t  b  for some t  G .

p

Since, o(t )  p , therefore, t  e i.e. (t  b ) p   b  .
p 
So, t  b    b  which gives t p  b 
As  b  is a group of order p (because o(b)  p ) , therefore all the non-identity

elements of  b  will have order p.
p
If t  e , then p   o(t )  o(t )  p  , so o(t )  p  .
This is a contradiction as the maximal order of an element of G is p and

m
m 1    n .
p 
Thus, t  e and o(t p )  p
 o(t )
But o(t p )  p
gcd(o(t ), p  )

Therefore, o(t )  p  gcd(o(t ), p )
Let o(t )  p for some q (as t  G and G  p )

q n
Since, o(t ) o(t ) and o(t )  p therefore,   q .


Using o(t )  p  gcd(o(t ), p ) and   q , we get o(t )  p  p  p

   1
 pm .
This is a contradiction as the maximal order of an element of G is p

m
Thus, the maximal possible order of an element in G is p , a is element of

m
maximal order of G and claim 3 holds.
As a is element of maximal order of G , thus, by induction hypothesis,

G   a   K for some subgroup K of G i.e. G   a  K , and  a   K  {e} .


Let K  x  G x  x  b  K 
Claim 4:  a   K  {e}
Let x  a   K .
Then x  a  and x  K which gives, x  K and x  a j for some integer j.
i.e. x  b   a  b 
j
i.e. x  b   (a  b )
j
i.e. x  x  b   a  a 
j
Hence, x  K   a   { e }  {  b  }
i.e. x  b    b  which gives x b 
But x  a  . Thus, x  a    b   {e}
Hence,  a   K  {e} .
K
Claim 5: K  G :  b   K and K 
b
Clearly, K is non-empty as e  K .
Further, if x, y  K , then x  b , y  b  K .
1 1
As K  G , ( x  b )( y  b )  K i.e. ( xy )  b  K .
1
So, xy  K which gives K  G .
Also, for all integers t, b  b    b  K . (as  b  is identity of K )

t
Thus,  b   K
K
In order to show that K  , consider x  K
b
Then x  x  b  for some x  G and using the definition of K, we get x  K .
K K
This gives x  x  b   . So, K 
b b

K
Now, let x  b   . Thus, x  K and so, x  x  b  K .
b
K K
Hence,  K . Combining, we get K  .
b b
Claim 6: G   a  K
Let y  G . Then, y  b  G   a  K
i.e. y  b   a k for some integer j and k  K .

j
i.e. y  b   a k  b 
j
1
i.e. y (a k )  b   K
j
i.e. y  a kk  for some k   K

j
Hence, y  a  K
Thus, G   a  K and using claim 4, we get G   a   K . Q.E.D.

Lemma 6.3: A finite abelian group of prime power order is an internal direct
product of cyclic groups.
Proof: Let G be a finite abelian group such that o(G )  p (where p is a prime).
n
We prove the result by induction on n.
For n = 1, o(G)  p and therefore, G is cyclic and G   a   {e} where o(a)  p .
Let the result hold for all abelian groups of order p where k  n .
k
If G is cyclic, then G   a   {e} .
If G is not cyclic, then let a be an element of maximal order in G, and using lemma
5.2, G   a   K for some subgroup K of G.
Using Lagrange’s Theorem, o( K ) o(G) and therefore, o( K )  p where t  n .

t
Applying induction hypothesis on abelian group K with prime power order, we get
that K is internal direct product of its cyclic subgroups K1 , K 2 ,....., K u .

Thus, G   a   K1  K 2  ..... K u where K1 , K 2 ,....., K u are all cyclic subgroups of G.

Q.E.D.
Lemma 6.4: If G is a finite abelian group of prime power order such that
G  H 1  H 2  ..... H m and G  K 1  K 2  ..... K n where H i  and K i  s are non-trivial
cyclic groups with | H 1 |  | H 2 |  ......  | H m | and | K1 |  | K 2 |  ......  | K n | . Then mn
and | H i |  | K i |  i .
Proof: Let o(G )  p (where p is a prime).

t
We prove the result by induction on t.
For t = 1, o(G)  p and therefore, G is cyclic and result holds trivially.
Let the result hold for all abelian groups of order less than o(G) .
If L is any abelian group, then L  {x x  L}  L . (because L is an abelian group)

p p
Thus, G  H1  H 2  ..... H m1 , and G  K1  K 2  ..... K n1 where m1 is the largest

p p p p p p p p
integer i : | H i |  p and n1 is the largest integer j : | K j |  p . Observe that the above

Internal Direct Product form of G p does not have non-trivial factors.
Further, since G is an abelian group, then using Cauchy’s theorem, G has an

element say, y, of order p. Thus, y  e and y will not be able to make a non-
p p
trivial contribution to G p as e  G . Therefore, | G |  | G | .

p p
Applying induction hypothesis on G , we get m1  n1 and | H ip |  | K ip |  i  1, 2, ..., m1

p
Let H i   a  for some a (as Hi is a cyclic group). As | H i |  | H i | , therefore, H ip is

p
also a cyclic group and is generated by a p .
o( a ) o( a )
o( H ip )  o( a p )   ( o(a)  p k , k  n)
gcd( p, o(a)) p
Thus, o(a )  o( H i )  p  o( H ip )  i  1, 2, ......,m1
Similarly, o( K i )  p  o( K ip )  i  1, 2, ......,m1 .
Since, | H ip |  | K ip |  i  1, 2, ..., m1 . Thus, using above two relations, we get

| H i |  | K i |  i  1, 2, ..., m1 .

| G |  | H1 |  | H 2 |  ..... | H m1 | p mm1  | K1 |  | K 2 |  ..... | K m1 | p nn1
m  m1
(as there are ( m  m1 ) subgroups of order p and they contribute p elements in
o(G))
mm nn
But | H i |  | K i |  i  1, 2, ..., m1 and m1  n1 , therefore, p 1  p 1 i.e. m  m1  n  n1
i.e. m  n. Q.E.D.
We finally give a proof of Fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups after

restating it.
Theorem 6.5: (Fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups) If G is a finite

abelian group, then G can be expressed as a direct product of cyclic groups of
prime-power order. Further, the factorization is unique except for the
rearrangement of factors.
Proof: Let G be an abelian group such that G  p1 1 p2 2 ......pk k where pi

n n n '
s are
distinct primes.
pini
Define for all i = 1, 2, …., k, G( pi )  {x  G x  e} .
Using induction on k and applying Lemma 6.1, we get that G ( pi ) is an abelian
subgroup of G with G( pi )  pi i and G  G ( p1 )  G ( p 2 )  ...... G ( p k ) . These G ( pi ) are

n
uniquely determined.
Since each G ( pi ) is an abelian group with G( pi )  pi i i.e. G ( pi ) is of prime power

n
order and thus, applying Lemma 6.3 on G ( pi ) , we get that G ( pi ) is expressible as

an Internal Direct Product of cyclic subgroups which will be again of prime power
order being subgroups of G ( pi ) which is of prime power order (using Lagrange’s
Theorem). Further since G  G ( p1 )  G ( p 2 )  ...... G ( p k ) , and G ( pi ) is expressible as
an Internal Direct Product of cyclic subgroups, then G is expressible as an Internal
Direct Product of its cyclic subgroups.
In order to prove Fundamental Theorem, it is sufficient to show that uniqueness

(upto isomorphism and rearrangement) of factors of G ( pi ) . This is guaranteed
using Lemma 6.4. Q.E.D.

We know the Lagrange’s Theorem which states that if G is a finite group and
H is its subgroup, then o( H ) o(G) . In general, the converse of Lagrange’s Theorem
is not true. Can you think of a counterexample? It is true in two situations. Firstly,
when the group is finite abelian and secondly, when the group’s order is prime
power. The proof of the converse of Lagrange’s Theorem which is true for finite
abelian groups is provided below.
Theorem 6.6: (Converse of Lagrange’s Theorem for finite abelian groups) If

G is a finite abelian group and m | o(G) , then G has a subgroup of order m.
Proof: We prove the result by induction on o(G).
When o(G) = 1, then G  {e} and result holds trivially.
Assume that the result holds for all abelian groups with order less than o(G).
Let o(G) = n and m | n.
Let p be a prime such that p | m and therefore, p | n.
By Cauchy’s Theorem,  x  G : o( x)  p .
Let K   x  . So, o( K )  o( x)  p .
G
As G is abelian, K  G and group is well defined.
K
G G n
Further,    n.
K K p
G
Since G is abelian, is also abelian.
K
n n
Let m  pm1 and m | o(G) . Thus, pm1 | o(G) which gives pm1 p  i.e. m1   i.e.
 p  p
G
m1 o  .
K
G G
Applying Induction hypothesis on ,  subgroup H of such that o( H )  m1
K K
G H
As H  , so H  for some H  G : K  H
K K

o( H )
Further, o( H )   m1 . Thus, o( H )  o( K )m1  pm1  m .
o( K )
Hence,  subgroup H of G such that o( H )  m . Q.E.D.
7. Application Of Fundamental Theorem In Determining The

Possible Isomorphism Classes Of Abelian Groups
Isomorphism Class involving External Direct Product
We first give the method to determine the possible isomorphism classes of abelian
groups with prime power order p where p is a prime and k is a natural number.
k
The algorithm for the same is given below:
Step 1: Write down all the possible partitions of k.
Step 2: Let k  n1  n2  ....  nk where each ni is a natural number i.e. consider a

partition of k, then Z p n1  Z p n2  ........ Z p nk is an abelian group of order p .
k
(The group Z p n1  Z p n2  ........ Z p nk is abelian since it is the direct product of abelian
group and order of this group is p 1 p 2 ........p

n n nk
 p n1  n2 .... nk  p k )
Examples:
1. If order of group is p, a prime, then there exists a unique (upto isomorphism)

abelian group of order p, viz., Z p .
2. If order of abelian group is p , then there are two partitions of the power 2,
2
viz., 2 and 1+1. There exists an isomorphism class of abelian groups

corresponding to each partition. The two distinct isomorphism classes
corresponding to the above mentioned partitions respectively are Z p 2 and
Zp  Zp .
3. If order of abelian group is p , then there are three partitions of the power
3
3, viz., 3, 2+1 and 1+1+1. The three distinct isomorphism classes of abelian
groups corresponding to each partition are Z p 3 , Z p 2  Z p and Z p  Z p  Z p .
4. If order of abelian group is p , then there are five partitions of the power 4,
4
viz., 4, 3+1, 2+2, 2+1+1 and 1+1+1+1. The five distinct isomorphism

classes of abelian groups corresponding to each partition are Z p 4 , Z p3  Z p ,
Z p2  Z p2 , Z p 2  Z p  Z p and Z p  Z p  Z p  Z p .
We now give the method to determine the possible isomorphism classes of abelian
groups G with order n where n has more than two distinct prime divisors. The
algorithm for the same is given below:
Step 1: Write down the factorization of n, say, n  p1 1 p 2 2 ......p k k where pi s are

n n n '
distinct primes.
Step 2: For each i, write the various isomorphism classes of abelian groups of order
pini .
Step 3: Write the various isomorphism classes of G by taking the external direct
product of the isomorphism classes obtained in Step 2 above.
Examples:
1. If order of an abelian group is pq, where p and q are distinct primes, then
there exists only one isomorphism class each for group of order p and q, viz.,
Zp and Zq. Thus, there exists a unique isomorphism class (upto isomorphism)
for group of order pq, viz., Z p  Z q . Since p and q are distinct primes,
therefore their gcd is 1 and Z p  Z q  Z pq . It has been seen for abelian group
of order 6, that G is cyclic and G  Z 3  Z 2  Z 6 .
2. If order of an abelian group is pqr, where p, q and r are distinct primes, then
there exists only one isomorphism class each for group of order p, q and r,
viz., Zp , Zq and Zr. Thus, there exists a unique isomorphism class (upto
isomorphism) for group of order pqr, viz., Z p  Z q  Z r .
3. If G is an abelian group with order 2250 , then 2250  2  32  53 . Then the
various isomorphism classes for abelian group with order 2 is only one, viz.,
Z2 and that for abelian group with order 9 are Z and Z 3  Z 3 . The various
9
isomorphism classes for abelian group with order 125 are Z , Z  Z and
125 25 5
Z 5  Z 5  Z 5 . Hence, there are in all 6 isomorphism classes for an abelian

group with order 2250 , as given below:
Z 2  Z 9  Z125 ; Z 2  Z 9  Z 25  Z 5 ; Z2  Z9  Z5  Z5  Z5 ;
Z 2  Z 3  Z 3  Z125 ; Z 2  Z 3  Z 3  Z 25  Z 5 ; Z2  Z3  Z3  Z5  Z5  Z5

4. It is also possible to determine the isomorphism class of an abelian group if

some information is known about the orders of the elements of the group. As
an illustration, if the order of the group is 2250 and it has no elements with
order 125 but has an element with order 9, then there are two possible
isomorphism classes of the abelian group, viz.,
Z 2  Z 9  Z 25  Z 5 and Z 2  Z 9  Z 5  Z 5  Z 5 .
Isomorphism Class involving Internal Direct Product
If G is an abelian group with order p (p – prime), then G can also be expressed as

n
an internal direct product of its cyclic subgroups of prime power order. The
algorithm for doing the same as given in Contemporary Abstract Algebra by Joseph
Gallian (Edition 4) is quoted below:
“ Step 1: Compute the orders of all the elements of G.
Step 2: Select element a1 of maximum order and define G1   a1  . Put i  1 .
Step 3: If G  G i , then stop, else put i  i  1.
G
Step 4: Select element a i of maximum order p such that p k  and none of
k
Gi
k 1
ai , aip , aip .....,aip  Gi 1 and define Gi  Gi 1   ai  .
2
Step 5: Go to Step 3.”
If G is an abelian group with G  p1 1 p2 2 ......pk k where pi s are distinct primes, then

n n n '
the algorithm can be used to obtain the internal direct product of pini for each i and
then form the direct product of all these direct products to obtain the required
representation of G as an internal direct product of its cyclic subgroups of prime
power order.
Examples:
1. Let G = {1, 9, 16, 22, 29, 53, 74, 79, 81}. G is an abelian group under
multiplication modulo 91 with order 9. Here, p  3 .
Then G is isomorphic to Z 3  Z 3 or Z 9 .
But it can be observed that all the non-identity elements of G have order 3.
So, G cannot be cyclic.
Clearly, G  Z 3  Z 3 .

In order to write G as an internal direct product of its cyclic subgroups, take

a1 = 9 and G1   9  and note that G  G1 .
Select an element a 2 with order 3 such that a 2  9  . Take a 2  16 .
Then, G   9    16  .
2. Let G = {1, 7, 17, 23, 49, 55, 65, 71}. G is an abelian group under
multiplication modulo 96 with order 8. Here, p  2 .
Then G is isomorphic to Z 2  Z 2  Z 2 , Z 2  Z 4 or Z 8 .
The elements and their orders are given in the table below.
Element 1 7 17 23 49 55 65 71
Order 1 4 2 4 2 4 2 4
It can be observed that all the non-identity elements of G have order 2 or 4.

So, G cannot be cyclic and is not isomorphic to Z 8 .
Since, G has elements of order 4, so G is not isomorphic to Z 2  Z 2  Z 2 .
Hence, G  Z 2  Z 4 .
In order to write G as an internal direct product of its cyclic subgroups, take
a1 = 7 and G1   7  and note that G  G1 .
Select an element a 2 with order 2 such that a 2  7  .
Take a 2  17 . Then, G   7    17  .
Summary
1. External Direct Product of groups G and H, denoted by G  H, is given by
( g, h) g  G, h  H. The operation is the component-wise operation as given
below:

( g1 , h1 )( g 2 , h2 )  ( g1 g 2 , h1h2 ) where g1 , g 2  G , h1 , h2  H , g 1 g 2 is product of g 1
and g 2 as in G and h1 h2 is product of h1 and h2 as in H .

2. G  H is a group under the above operation.
3. Let G, H be finite groups and ( g , h)  G  H . Then o( g , h)  LCM {o( g ), o(h)}
4. Let G, H be finite cyclic groups.
Then G  H is cyclic if and only if gcd{o(G), o( H )}  1 .
5. The groups G and H are abelian if and only if their external direct product G
 H is abelian.
6. Every group of order 4 is abelian.
7. There exists only two non-isomorphic groups of order 6, viz., S3 & Z6.
8. Let k be a natural number such that k | n. Then the set
U k (n)  {x U (n) x  1(mod k )}  {x U (n) k | x  1} is a subgroup of U(n).
9. Let s and t be natural numbers such that gcd(s, t) = 1, then
U (st )  U (s)  U (t )
10. Let s and t be natural numbers such that gcd(s, t) = 1, then
U t ( st )  U ( s )
11. U ( p n )  Z p n  p n 1 for odd prime p.
12. U (2)  {0}

13. U (4)  Z 2
14. U (2 )  Z 2  Z 2n 2 for n  3 .
n
15. Let G be a group and let H, K be normal subgroups of G. Then G is Internal

Direct Product of H and K (denoted by G = H  K) if G = HK and H  K = {e}.
16. (Internal direct product of n normal subgroups of group): Let H 1 , H 2 ,..., H n be
a finite collection of normal subgroups of group G. Then G is Internal Direct
Product of H 1 , H 2 ,..., H n (denoted by G  H 1  H 2  ... H n ) if
(i) G  H 1 H 2 ....H n ,
(ii) H 1 H 2 ....H i  H i 1  {e}  i  1, 2, ...,n  1
17. If G is Internal Direct Product of its normal subgroups H 1 , H 2 ,..., H n , then ,
G  H 1  H 2  ...... H n .
18. (Fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups) If G is a finite abelian group,
then G can be expressed as a direct product of cyclic groups of prime-power
order. Further, the factorization is unique except for the rearrangement of
factors.
19. (Converse of Lagrange’s Theorem for finite abelian groups) If G is a finite
abelian group and m | o(G) , then G has a subgroup of order m.

Exercises
Question Number Type of question
1 Multiple Choice Question
Q 1. Let A, B, C and D be finite cyclic groups such that 9 divides the order of
each of these groups. Let x denote the number of elements of order 9 in
A  B and y denote the number of elements of order 9 in C  D .
Consider the following statements about the relation between x and y:
a) x y
b) x  y
c) x  y
d) x and y are not necessarily related
Then which of the following best describes the relation between x and y (only
one of the choices is correct):
i) (a) or (b)
ii) Only (c)
iii) Only (d)
iv) (a) or (b) but not (c)
2 Multiple Choice Question
Q 2. Let G  Z 25  Z 5 . Consider the following statements about G:
a) G is non-cyclic group with 125 elements.

b) Elements of G have possible order 1,5,25,125.
c) G has 24 elements of order 5.
d) G has more elements of order 5 than of order 25.
Then which of the following is true about G (only one of the choices is
correct):
i) Only (a)
ii) (a), (c) and (d)

iii) (b) and (c)

iv) (a) and (c) but not (d)
3 – 19 Subjective Questions
Q 3. Is Z  Z cyclic? Justify.
Q 4. Is external direct product of an infinite cyclic group and a finite cyclic

group always a cyclic group. If no, give example.
Q 5. Is S3  Z 2 isomorphic to A4 ? Justify.
Q 6. Can  a subgroup of Z 5  Z 6  Z10 whose order is 4? If yes, how many

such subgroups exist.
Q 7. Give the value of p & n for which G  U ( p )  Z 2 is cyclic where p is any

n
prime and n is a natural number, if it exists.
Q 8. What is largest order of any element in U 540  ?
Q 9. Is D3  D4 isomorphic to D24 ? Justify.
Q 10. Determine whether S3  Z 3 is isomorphic to D9 or not? Justify.
Q 11. If group G  A  B , then prove that G is A B where A  A  eB  and

B  e A   B .
Q 12. Express U 42  as internal direct product of its proper subgroups.
Q 13. If A is a subgroup of G  H where G & H are groups; then is A

necessarily of the form P  Q where P  G & Q  H . Justify.
Q 14. Can S 3 be expressed as internal direct product of two of its proper

subgroups? Justify.
Q 15. Can D4 be expressed as internal direct product of two of its proper

subgroups? Justify.
Q 16. Can V4 be expressed as internal direct product of two of its proper

subgroups? Justify.

Q 17. If order of a group G is divisible by primes p and q, then can we

guarantee that G has a cyclic subgroup of order pq . Justify your answer.
Q 18. Can U 45 have an element of order 6? Justify.
Q 19. Find order of 8,4,10 in Z12  Z 60  Z15 .
20 True or False
Q 20. Specify whether the following are True or False. Give reason.
1. Order of 3,4 in Z 5  Z 6 is 12.

2. The smallest composite natural number ‘n’ for which there is exactly one
non isomorphic abelian group is 4.
3. All groups of prime power order are cyclic.
4. Z 3  Z  Z 2 has infinite elements of finite order.
5. A group of prime power order cannot be expressed as internal direct
product of two of its proper subgroups.
6. There are exactly 21 non-isomorphic abelian groups of order pqr (p, q, r
are distinct primes)
7. There are exactly 10 non isomorphic abelian groups of order 4050.
References
a. I. N. Herstein, Topics in Algebra, 2/e, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd, 2006.

b. John B. Fraleigh, A First Course in Abstract Algebra, 7/e, Pearson
Education Inc., 2013.
c. Joseph A. Gallian, Contemporary Abstract Algebra, 4/e, Narosa Publishing
House, 1999.

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Direct Products of Groups and The Fundamental Theorem of Finite Abelian Groups

Lesson Developer: Dr. Samridhi Mehta

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

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This Chapter discusses a method to construct a larger group which is

2. EXTERNAL DIRECT PRODUCT

The operation on this set is the component-wise operation as given below:

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and h1 h2 is product of h1 and h2 as in H .

We first prove that G  H is a group under operations defined above.

Closure: xy  ( g1 g 2 , h1 h2 )  G  H as the group operations of G and H are well

Associativity: x( yz )  ( g1 ( g 2 g 3 ), h1 (h2 h3 ))  (( g1 g 2 ) g 3 ), (h1 h2 )h3 )  ( xy ) z .

This is so as associativity holds in G and H.

Existence of Identity:  e  (eG , e H )  G  H , such that xe  ex  x for every

Existence of Inverse: For every x  ( g , h)  G  H , such that xa  ax  e where

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Then G1  G2  ...  Gn  {( g1 , g 2 ,..., g n ) g i  Gi } is a group under

We now generalize the above observations mentioned in Value Addition and

Result 2.2: Let be finite groups and let ( g , h)  G  H . Then

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Proof: Let o(g, h) = t and LCM{o(g), o(h)} = s.

We show t | s and s | t , as it gives t = s.

Since, o(g, h) = t . Therefore, ( g , h) t  (eG , e H ) , that is ( g t , h t )  (eG , e H ) .

Thus, g t  eG and h t  e H . Thereby, we get o( g ) | t , o(h) | t which gives

LCM {o( g ), o(h)} t . So, s | t .

Now, ( g , h) s  ( g s , h s )  (eG , e H ) since LCM {o(g), o(h)} = s and o( g ) | s , o(h) | s .

Thus, t | s (as o(g, h) = t) Q.E.D.

The observations mentioned in above Value Addition are illustrated in the

1. Find out the number of elements of order 5 in Z 25  Z10 .

In total, there are 4 + 4 +16 = 24 elements with order 5.

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We use the result that in a cyclic group of order k, if a natural number

Also, there will be no non-identity element common between two distinct

Proof: Let G   a , H   b  such that

o(G)  o(a)  m, o( H )  o(b)  n, o(G  H )  mn .

Let G  H be cyclic group of order mn. Let gcd{o(G), o( H )}  t and t  1.

It is known that if a natural number d is such that d | k , where k is the order of

Thus, t = 1 (as with t = 1, these subgroups coincide).

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Conversely, let gcd{o(G), o( H )}  1 .

Consider element (a, b) of G  H .

Then, o(a, b)  LCM {m, n}  mn ( gcd{m, n}  1) .

Since  (a, b)  G  H such that o(a, b)  mn , so G  H is cyclic. Q.E.D.

Then xy = (mg, nh) = (gm, hn) = yx (as G and H are abelian).

Conversely, let G  H be abelian.

So, x = (a, c), y  (b, d )  G  H .

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Classification of groups of order less than 8

We now classify groups of order less than 8.

Group of order 1: There is clearly a unique group (upto isomorphism)

Group of order 2, 3, 5 or 7: All these orders are prime numbers.

Group of order 4: Let G be a group of order 4.

Group of order 6: Let G be a group of order 6.

Case 1: If G is cyclic, then G  Z 6 .

Case 2: If G is a non-cyclic group of order 6, then we claim G  S 3 .

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If o(y) = 3, then y  ( y )  x  , a contradiction.