biomolecule, also called biological molecule, any of numerous substances that are produced by

cells and living organisms. Biomolecules have a wide range of sizes and structures and perform a
vast array of functions. The four major types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic
acids, and proteins.
Among biomolecules, nucleic acids, namely DNA and RNA, have the unique function of storing
an organism’s genetic code—the sequence of nucleotides that determines the amino acid
sequence of proteins, which are of critical importance to life on Earth. There are 20 different
amino acids that can occur within a protein; the order in which they occur plays a fundamental
role in determining protein structure and function. Proteins themselves are major structural
elements of cells. They also serve as transporters, moving nutrients and other molecules in and
out of cells, and as enzymes and catalysts for the vast majority of chemical reactions that take
place in living organisms. Proteins also form antibodies and hormones, and they influence gene
activity.
Likewise, carbohydrates, which are made up primarily of molecules containing atoms of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen, are essential energy sources and structural components of all life, and
they are among the most abundant biomolecules on Earth. They are built from four types of
sugar units—monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Lipids,
another key biomolecule of living organisms, fulfill a variety of roles, including serving as a
source of stored energy and acting as chemical messengers. They also form membranes, which
separate cells from their environments and compartmentalize the cell interior, giving rise to
organelles, such as the nucleus and the mitochondrion, in higher (more complex) organisms.
All biomolecules share in common a fundamental relationship between structure and function,
which is influenced by factors such as the environment in which a given biomolecule occurs.
Lipids, for example, are hydrophobic (“water-fearing”); in water, many spontaneously arrange
themselves in such a way that the hydrophobic ends of the molecules are protected from the
water, while the hydrophilic ends are exposed to the water. This arrangement gives rise to lipid
bilayers, or two layers of phospholipid molecules, which form the membranes of cells and
organelles. In another example, DNA, which is a very long molecule—in humans, the combined
length of all the DNA molecules in a single cell stretched end to end would be about 1.8 metres
(6 feet), whereas the cell nucleus is about 6 μm (6 10-6 metre) in diameter—has a highly flexible
helical structure that allows the molecule to become tightly coiled and looped. This structural
feature plays a key role in enabling DNA to fit in the cell nucleus, where it carries out its
function in coding genetic traits.
Four Major Types of Biomolecules
Approximately 10,000 to 100,000 molecules are present in a cell to regulate bodily function. But
the four major types of biomolecules include carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins.
Most of the other compounds are derivatives of these major primary compounds.
Every biomolecule has its characteristics and is designated to perform some specific function
essential for life. So, let’s see what they are all about!!!
1. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are a vital part of a healthy diet. They provide the energy required to do work.
Scientifically, it’s a polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone. Carbohydrates are the most
abundant biomolecules on earth.

Types of Carbohydrates and Their Functions

Depending on the number of products formed after hydrolysis, carbohydrates are classified into
three groups.
Monosaccharides: These are composed of a single unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone.
Monosaccharides are colorless, crystalline solids that are completely soluble in water. They are
involved in generating energy for the body. Examples include glucose, fructose, ribose, and
arabinose.
Disaccharides: These are composed of two units of sugars joined by O-glycosidic bonds. A list
of disaccharides with their monomer units and functions is given below.
Polysaccharides: These consist of more than two sugar monomer units. They are also known as
glycans. They are of two types:
Homopolysaccharides: They are composed of only a single type of sugar unit. Based on the
function they perform, homopolysaccharides are classified into two groups:
Structural polysaccharides: They provide mechanical stability to cells, organs, and organisms.
Examples are chitin and cellulose. Chitin is involved in the construction of a fungal cell wall,
while cellulose is an important constituent of the diet for ruminants.
Storage polysaccharides: They serve as carbohydrate stores that release sugar monomers when
required by the body. Examples include starch, glycogen, and inulin. Starch stores energy for
plants. In animals, it is catalyzed by the enzyme amylase (found in saliva) to fulfill the energy
requirement. Glycogen is a polysaccharide food reserve of animals, bacteria, and fungi.
Heteropolysaccharides: They contain two or more different types of sugar units. It includes
glycosaminoglycans like hyaluronic acid, heparan sulfate, keratan sulfate, and murein. These
polysaccharides have diverse functions. For example, heparin is an anticoagulant (prevents blood
clotting, it’s also known as blood thinners), hyaluronic acid is a shock absorber and lubricant,
while peptidoglycans or mureins are present in the bacterial cell wall.
2. Proteins
Proteins are unbranched polymers of amino acid residues. There are about 22 amino acids that
are involved in the synthesis of proteins according to their location and function. Proteins are
categorized into four groups depending on their structural organization:

Primary structure: It is formed by the formation of a peptide bond between amino acids.
Secondary structure: It is a folded structure within a polypeptide that’s due to the formation of
hydrogen bonds between amide hydrogen and the carbonyl oxygen of the peptide backbone. It
includes structures like alpha-helix and beta-sheet.
Tertiary structure: It is a three-dimensional conformation that’s formed due to the interaction
between R-groups or side chains of the amino acids that make up the proteins. Bonds that
contribute to the formation of this structure include hydrophobic interaction, electrostatic
interactions, hydrogen bonds, and Van der Waals forces of interaction.
Quaternary structure: This structure forms between two or more polypeptide chains. Each
polypeptide chain is called a subunit. The quaternary structures may occur between identical or
different polypeptide chains. The bonds involved in the formation of these structures include
hydrophobic bonds, electrostatic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and covalent cross-links.

Functions of Proteins
Proteins are essential components of organisms. It participates in almost every process within
cells. It is involved in the processes of DNA replication, cell signaling, catalyzing metabolic
reactions, construction of cell and tissue structures, and transportation of molecules from one
place to another. Given below are eight groups of proteins that are categorized based on their
functional properties.

Structural proteins: These proteins are fibrous proteins that are tough and insoluble in water.
They form the structural component of connective tissues, bones, tendons, cartilages, nails, hairs,
and horns. Examples of structural proteins are collagen, elastin, and keratin.
Enzymes: These are globular conjugated proteins that are also known as biological catalysts.
They catalyze metabolic reactions by reducing the activation energy that increases the rate of the
reaction. Some examples of protein enzymes are DNA polymerase, lysozyme, nitrogenase, and
lipase.
Hormones: These are long polypeptides composed of long chains of linked amino acids. They
play critical roles in regulating the physiological processes of the body, these processes include
reproduction, growth and development, electrolyte balance, sleep, etc. Some examples of these
hormones are growth hormone (GH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
Respiratory pigments: These are globular protein pigments that are usually soluble in water.
Examples include myoglobin which provides oxygen to the working muscles and hemoglobin
which transfers blood to all the tissues and organs through the blood.
Transport proteins: These are structural components of the cell membrane. They form channels
in the plasma membrane to transfer selective molecules inside the cells. Some of them also form
components of blood and lymph in animals. Examples of transport proteins are serum albumin
(transport hemin and fatty acids), channel proteins, and carrier proteins.
Motor proteins: These proteins are involved in the contraction and relaxation of the muscle
(muscle movement). It includes actin, myosin, kinesin, and dynein.
Storage proteins: These proteins are the storage reserve of amino acids and metal ions in cells.
They are present in eggs, seeds, and pulses. Examples of storage proteins include ferritin,
ovalbumin, and casein.
Toxins: These proteins are generally produced by bacteria. They include diphtheria toxin,
Pseudomonas exotoxin, and ribosome-inactivating proteins. They help bacteria to attack and kill
their host organism by creating cytotoxicity.

3. Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are macromolecules present in cells and viruses, and they are involved in the
storage and transfer of genetic information. The nucleic acid was first discovered by Friedrich
Miesher in the nuclei of leukocytes. Later, further studies showed that it’s a mixture of basic
proteins and phosphorus-containing organic acid. Structurally, nucleic acids are polymers of
nucleotides (or polynucleotides) which are phosphate esters of nucleosides. The nucleotides are
comprised of three components:

Nitrogenous base: These are heterocyclic, planar, and aromatic molecules. It is of two types:
purines and pyrimidines. Purines include adenine and guanine, both of which are found in both
DNA and RNA. Pyrimidines include thymine (found only in DNA), cytosine (found in both
DNA and RNA), and uracil (found only in RNA).
Five-carbon sugar: The two types of pentose sugar are ribose (present only in RNA) and
deoxyribose (present in DNA). These sugars in nucleic acids have the D-stereoisomeric
configuration.
Phosphoric acid ion: It’s a phosphate group involved in the polymerization of the nucleotides.
A phosphodiester bond links two or more nucleotides leading to the formation of
polynucleotides.

Types of Nucleic Acids and Their Functions

Based on nature, structure, and function, the nucleic acids are categorized into two groups:
Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) and Ribonucleic acids (RNA).

a. Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA)

DNAs are the hereditary material that resides inside the nucleus. In 1953, the first structure of
DNA double helix (B-form of DNA) was discovered by Watson and Crick.[1] DNA has two
other forms as well, A and Z forms. The conformation DNA will adopt depends on the hydration
level, DNA sequence, chemical modification of the bases, the type, and concentration of a metal
ion in the solution.
The double helix structure represents two polynucleotides DNA coiled around a central helix.
The two strands are antiparallel and interact by hydrogen bonds between complementary base
pairs. In some cases, like at low pH, the triple helix form of DNA also exists. It’s formed by
laying a third strand into the major groove of the DNA.
It is the genetic material that stores all the information required to be transferred to the progeny.
It specifies the biological development of all living organisms and viruses.
Do you know?
It is believed that, around 4 billion years ago, RNA was the first genetic material! Scientists say
it is largely because of its self-replicating ability and enzymatic activity. This hypothetical period
is known as the RNA world. But when the protein-forming enzymes came into existence, DNA
became the most dominating and stable form of genetic material. The DNA structure is more
stable than RNA because of the absence of a 2’ hydroxyl group. The other advantage DNA has is
that its double-stranded structure allows for the correction of mutations as well.[1]
b. Ribonucleic acids (RNA)
RNA is present in all living cells. It has different roles to play in different organisms. It acts as
genetic material in some viruses and has enzymatic activity in other organisms (where it is called
ribozyme). Three types of RNA are present among organisms: rRNA, mRNA, and tRNA. All
three have essential roles in the development and maintenance of life.
The importance of RNA and DNA is incomparable. DNA carrying the genetic information can’t
leave its home, the nucleus, and this is why RNA exists. They are involved in the transfer of
genetic information for protein synthesis via the processes of transcription and translation
(outside the nucleus), and they control gene expression as well.
Structurally, RNA exists in both single-stranded (primary structure) and double-stranded
(secondary structure) forms.[1] The double-helical structure of RNA is present in the A form.
Do you know?
RNA duplexes are more stable than DNA duplexes. At physiological pH, RNA duplexes require
a higher temperature for denaturation than DNA duplexes. Though, the physical basis for this
difference is still a mystery.[1] The DNA structure is more stable than RNA because of the
absence of a 2’ hydroxyl group. The other advantage DNA has is that its double-stranded
structure allows for the correction of mutations as well.
4. Lipids
Lipids are organic compounds that are insoluble or poorly soluble in water but soluble in organic
solvents (like dissolves like) such as ether, benzene, or chloroform.
They are hydrophobic and structurally composed of a chain of hydrocarbons. They are
chemically more diverse than other biomolecules, and they are primarily involved in membrane
structure and energy storage.

Classes of Lipids and Their Functions

Different classes of lipids include:

Fatty acids: These are the simplest forms of lipids. They are composed of hydrocarbon chains of
4-36 carbons and one acidic group. They can be linear or branched. Moreover, fatty acids are the
building blocks of other types of lipids.
Waxes: These are esters of fatty acids and long-chain alcohols. They are composed of
hydrocarbon chains of 14-36 carbons. They are synthesized by many plants and animals.
However, the best-known wax is bee wax which is composed of an ester of palmitic acid with
triacontanol alcohol.
Phospholipids: These are composed of fatty acids, an attachment platform for fatty acids, a
phosphate, and an alcohol attached to phosphate. They are part of the cell membrane of the
organisms.
Glycolipids: These are lipids containing saccharide groups. They are constituents of the cell
membrane and are involved in signal transductions.
Steroids: These are complex derivatives of triterpenes. For example, cholesterol is a constituent
of the cell membrane and acts as a precursor for the biosynthesis of steroid hormones and bile
acids.
Eicosanoids: They arise from the 20 carbons of polyunsaturated fatty acids. They perform
several functions. For example, prostaglandins stimulate uterine contraction and lower blood
pressure, leukotrienes are involved in chemotaxis and inflammation, and thromboxanes act as
vasoconstrictors and stimulate platelet aggregation.
Other than these lipid molecules, some plasma lipoproteins also exist that are structurally a lipid-
protein complex. These complexes function as lipid transport systems in blood. Some examples
of lipoproteins are chylomicrons, low-density lipoproteins, and high-density lipoproteins.
Conclusion
Biomolecules are vital for life as it aids organisms to grow, sustain, and reproduce. They are
involved in building organisms from single cells to complex living beings like humans, by
interacting with each other. The diversity in their shape and structure provides diversity in their
functions. The study of these biomolecules is known as biochemistry. Biochemistry deals with
the study of their structures, functions, interactions, and reactions. Several functions of these
biological molecules are still a mystery and current advanced techniques are being used to
discover more molecules and understand their role in life-sustaining processes.

What are Carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates are defined as biomolecules containing a group of naturally occurring carbonyl
compounds (aldehydes or ketones) and several hydroxyl groups. It consists of carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen-oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in
water). It’s represented with the empirical formula Cm(H2O)n (where m and n may or may not
be different) or (CH2O)n.
But some compounds do not follow this precise stoichiometric definition, such as uronic acids.
And there are others that, despite having groups similar to carbohydrates, are not classified as
one of them, e.g., formaldehyde and acetic acid.

Classification of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are divided into four major groups based on the degree of polymerization:
monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Given below is a brief
account of the structure and functions of carbohydrate groups.

1. Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates and cannot be hydrolyzed into other smaller
carbohydrates. The “mono” in monosaccharides means one, which shows the presence of only
one sugar unit. Sacchar means sweet.
They are the building blocks of disaccharides and polysaccharides. For this reason, they are also
known as simple sugars. These simple sugars are colorless, crystalline solids that are soluble in
water and insoluble in a nonpolar solvent.
The general formula representing monosaccharide structure is Cn(H2O)n or CnH2nOn.
Dihydroxyacetone and D- and L-glyceraldehydes are the smallest monosaccharides – here, n=3.
The monosaccharides containing the aldehyde group (the functional group with the structure, R-
CHO) are known as aldolases and the one containing ketone groups is called ketoses (the
functional group with the structure RC(=O)R′). Some examples of monosaccharides are glucose,
fructose, erythrulose, and ribulose.
D-glucose is the most common, widely distributed, and abundant carbohydrate. It’s commonly
known as dextrose and it’s an aldehyde containing six carbon atoms, called aldohexose. It’s
present in both, open-chain and cyclic structures.
Most monosaccharide names end with the suffix -ose. And based on the number of carbons,
which typically ranges from three to seven, they may be known as trioses (three carbons),
tetroses (four carbons), pentoses (five carbons), hexoses (six carbons), and heptoses (seven
carbons).
Although glucose, galactose, and fructose all have the chemical formula of C6H12O6, they differ
at the structural and chemical levels because of the different arrangement of functional groups
around their asymmetric carbon.

Structure of Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are either present as linear chains or ring-shaped molecules. In a ring form,
glucose’s hydroxyl group (-OH) can have two different arrangements around the anomeric
carbon (carbon-1 that becomes asymmetric in the process of ring formation).
If the hydroxyl group is below carbon number 1 in the sugar, it is said to be in the alpha (α)
position, and if it is above the plane, it is said to be in the beta (β) position.

Functions of Monosaccharides
Glucose (C6H12O6) is an important source of energy in humans and plants. Plants synthesize
glucose using carbon dioxide and water, which in turn is used for their energy requirements.
They store the excess glucose as starch which humans and herbivores consume.
The presence of galactose is in milk sugar (lactose), and fructose in fruits and honey makes these
foods sweet.
Ribose is a structural element of nucleic acids and some coenzymes.
Mannose is a constituent of mucoproteins and glycoproteins required for the proper functioning
of the body.

2. Disaccharides
Disaccharides consist of two sugar units. When subjected to a dehydration reaction
(condensation reaction or dehydration synthesis), they release two monosaccharide units.
In this process, the hydroxyl group of one monosaccharide combines with the hydrogen of
another monosaccharide through a covalent bond, releasing a molecule of water. The covalent
bond formed between the two sugar molecules is known as a glycosidic bond.
The glycosidic bond or glycosidic linkage can be alpha or beta type. The alpha bond is formed
when the OH group on the carbon-1 of the first glucose is below the ring plane, and a beta bond
is formed when the OH group on the carbon-1 is above the ring plane.

Image: The structural diagram of the process of glycosidic bond formation between two sugar
units (glucose and fructose) forming a disaccharide (sucrose).
Some examples of disaccharides are lactose, maltose, and sucrose. Sucrose is the most abundant
disaccharide of all and is composed of one D-glucose molecule and one D-fructose molecule.
The systematic name for sucrose is O-α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-D-fructofuranoside.
Lactose occurs naturally in mammalian milk and is composed of one D-galactose molecule and
one D-glucose molecule. The systematic name for lactose is O-β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-D-
glucopyranose.
Disaccharides can be classified into two groups based on their ability to undergo oxidation-
reduction reactions.
Reducing sugar: A disaccharide in which the reducing sugar has a free hemiacetal unit serving
as a reducing aldehyde group. Examples include maltose and cellobiose.
Non-reducing Sugar: Disaccharides that do not have a free hemiacetal because they bond
through an acetal linkage between their anomeric centers. Examples are sucrose and trehalose.
Some other examples of disaccharides include lactulose, chitobiose, kojibiose, nigerose,
isomaltose, sophorose, laminaribiose, gentiobiose, turanose, maltulose, trehalose, palatinose,
gentiobiulose, mannobiose, melibiose, melibiulose, rutinose, rutinulose, and xylobiose.
A list of disaccharides with their monomer units is given below:

Functions of Disaccharides
Sucrose is a product of photosynthesis, which functions as a major source of carbon and energy
in plants.
Lactose is a major source of energy in animals.
Maltose is an important intermediate in starch and glycogen digestion.
Trehalose is an essential energy source for insects.
Cellobiose is essential in carbohydrate metabolism.
Gentiobiose is a constituent of plant glycosides and some polysaccharides.

3. Oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides are compounds that yield 3 to 10 molecules of the same or different
monosaccharides on hydrolysis. All the monosaccharides are joined through glycosidic linkage.
And based on the number of monosaccharides attached, the oligosaccharides are classified as
trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides, pentasaccharides, and so on.
The general formula of trisaccharides is Cn(H2O)n-2, and that of tetrasaccharides is Cn(H2O)n-
3, and so on. The oligosaccharides are normally present as glycans. They are linked to either
lipids or amino acid side chains in proteins by N- or O-glycosidic bonds known as glycolipids or
glycoproteins.
The glycosidic bonds are formed in the process of glycosylation, in which a carbohydrate is
covalently attached to an organic molecule, creating structures such as glycoproteins and
glycolipids.

N-Linked Oligosaccharides: It involves the attachment of oligosaccharides to asparagine via a

beta linkage to the amine nitrogen of the side chain. In eukaryotes, this process occurs at the
membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum. Whereas in prokaryotes, it occurs at the plasma
membrane.
O-Linked Oligosaccharides: It involves the attachment of oligosaccharides to threonine or
serine on the hydroxyl group of the side chain. It occurs in the Golgi apparatus, where
monosaccharide units are added to a complete polypeptide chain.

Functions of Oligosaccharides
Glycoproteins are carbohydrates attached to proteins involved in critical functions such as
antigenicity, solubility, and resistance to proteases. Glycoproteins are relevant as cell-surface
receptors, cell-adhesion molecules, immunoglobulins, and tumor antigens.
Glycolipids are carbohydrates attached to lipids that are important for cell recognition and
modulate membrane proteins that act as receptors.
Cells produce specific carbohydrate-binding proteins known as lectins, which mediate cell
adhesion with oligosaccharides.
Oligosaccharides are a component of fiber from plant tissues.
4. Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are a chain of more than 10 carbohydrates joined together through glycosidic
bond formation. They are ubiquitous and mainly involved in the structural or storage functions of
organisms. They are also known as glycans.
These compounds’ physical and biological properties depend on the components & the
architecture of their binding or reacting molecules and their interaction with the enzymatic
machinery.
Polysaccharides are classified based on their functions, the type of monosaccharide units they
contain, or their origin.
Based on the type of monosaccharides involved in the formation of polysaccharide structures,
they are classified into two groups: homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides.
Homopolysaccharides:
They are composed of repeating units of only one type of monomer. A few examples of
homopolysaccharides include cellulose, chitin, starches (amylose and amylopectin), glycogen,
and xylans. And based on their functional roles, these compounds are classified into structural
polysaccharides and storage polysaccharides.
Cellulose is a linear, unbranched polymer of glucose units joined by beta 1-4 linkages. It’s one of
the most abundant organic compounds in the biosphere.

Chitin is a linear, long-chain polymer of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (a derivative of glucose)

residues/units, joined by beta 1-4 glycosidic linkages. It’s the second most abundant natural
biopolymer after cellulose.
Starch is made of repeating units of D-glucose that are joined together by alpha-linkages. It’s one
of the most abundant polysaccharides found in plants and is composed of a mixture of amylose
(15-20%) and amylopectin (80-85%).
Heteropolysaccharides:
They are composed of two or more repeating units of different types of monomers. Examples
include glycosaminoglycans, agarose, and peptidoglycans. In natural systems, they are linked to
proteins, lipids, and peptides.
Glycosaminoglycans (GAG) are negatively charged unbranched heteropolysaccharides. They are
composed of repeating units of disaccharides with the general structural formula n. Amino acids
like N-acetylglucosamine or N-acetylgalactosamine and uronic acid (like glucuronic acid) are
normally present in the GAG structure.
A list containing major GAGs is mentioned below:

Peptidoglycan is a heteropolymer of alternating units of N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) and N-

acetylmuramic acids (NAM), linked together by beta-1,4-glycosidic linkage.
Agarose is a polysaccharide composed of repeating units of a disaccharide, agarobiose,
consisting of D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose.
Figure: A classification summary of polysaccharides into different sub-groups.

Functions of Polysaccharides
Structural polysaccharide: They provide mechanical stability to cells, organs, and organisms.
Examples include chitin and cellulose. Chitin is involved in the synthesis of fungal cell walls,
while cellulose is an important constituent of diet for ruminants.
Storage polysaccharides: They are carbohydrate storage reserves that release sugar monomers
when required by the body. Examples include starch, glycogen, and inulin. Starch stores energy
for plants, and in animals, it is catalyzed by the enzyme amylase (found in saliva) to fulfill the
energy requirement. Glycogen is a polysaccharide food reserve of animals, bacteria, and fungi,
while inulin is a storage reserve in plants.
Agarose provides a supporting structure in the cell wall of marine algae.
Peptidoglycan is an essential component of bacterial cell walls. It provides strength to the cell
wall and participates in binary fission during bacterial reproduction.
Peptidoglycan protects bacterial cells from bursting by counteracting the osmotic pressure of the
cytoplasm.
Hyaluronic acids are an essential component of the vitreous humor in the eye and synovial fluid
(a lubricant fluid present in the body’s joints). It’s also involved in other developmental
processes like tumor metastasis, angiogenesis, and blood coagulation.
Heparin acts as a natural anticoagulant that prevents blood from clotting.
Keratan sulfate is present in the cornea, cartilage, and bones. In joints, it acts as a cushion to
absorb mechanical shocks.
Chondroitin is an essential component of cartilage that provides resistance against compression.
Dermatan sulfate is involved in wound repair, blood coagulation regulation, infection
responses, and cardiovascular diseases.
Conclusion
Carbohydrates are one of the four major essential biomolecules required by living organisms.
Organisms consume them in several forms, and they are classified into four groups based on the
number of monomer units their structure has. They include monosaccharides, disaccharides,
oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.
All carbohydrates contain molecules like glucose, fructose, cellulose, starch, glycoproteins, and
chitin which are involved in several organismal functions. Their functions range from providing
energy to the cells, supporting the structural integrity of cells, to supporting the organism’s
growth and development.
Carbohydrate research has provided scientists with critical insights into conformational changes,
molecular kinetics, and much more. And it still has several functions waiting to be discovered by
scientists dedicated to studying these molecules.
Carbohydrates are a group of macromolecules that are a vital energy source for the cell and
provide structural support to plant cells, fungi, and all of the arthropods that include lobsters,
crabs, shrimp, insects, and spiders. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides,
disaccharides, and polysaccharides depending on the number of monomers in the molecule.
Monosaccharides are linked by glycosidic bonds that are formed as a result of dehydration
reactions, forming disaccharides and polysaccharides with the elimination of a water molecule
for each bond formed. Glucose, galactose, and fructose are common monosaccharides, whereas
common disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose. Starch and glycogen, examples of
polysaccharides, are the storage forms of glucose in plants and animals, respectively. The long
polysaccharide chains may be branched or unbranched. Cellulose is an example of an
unbranched polysaccharide, whereas amylopectin, a constituent of starch, is a highly branched
molecule. Storage of glucose, in the form of polymers like starch or glycogen, makes it slightly
less accessible for metabolism; however, this prevents it from leaking out of the cell or creating a
high osmotic pressure that could cause excessive water uptake by the cell.

SOURCES:
Carbohydrates are biomolecules comprising carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. They are an
important source of energy. They are sugars, starch and fibres found in fruits and vegetables.
Vegetables, fruits, whole grains, milk, and milk products are the major food sources of
carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates — fiber, starches and sugars — are essential food nutrients that your body turns
into glucose to give you the energy to function. Complex carbs in fruits, vegetables and whole-
grain products are less likely to spike blood sugar than simple carbs (sugars). Low-carb diets like
keto can be high in fats.
What are carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates (also called carbs) are a type of macronutrient found in certain foods and drinks.
Sugars, starches and fiber are carbohydrates. Other macronutrients include fat and protein. Your
body needs these macronutrients to stay healthy.
How does the body process carbohydrates?
Your digestive system breaks down carbs into glucose or blood sugar. Your bloodstream absorbs
glucose and uses it as energy to fuel your body.
The amount of carbs you consume affects blood sugar. Taking in a lot of carbs can raise blood
sugar levels. High blood sugar (hyperglycemia) can put you at risk for diabetes. Some people
who don’t consume enough carbs have low blood sugar (hypoglycemia).
What are total carbohydrates?
Foods and drinks can have three types of carbohydrates: starches, sugars and fiber. The words
“total carbohydrates” on a food’s nutrient label refers to a combination of all three types.
What’s the difference between simple and complex carbohydrates?
A food’s chemical structure, and how quickly your body digests it, determine whether the food is
a complex or simple carb. Complex carbs are less likely to cause spikes in blood sugar. They
also contain vitamins, minerals and fiber that your body needs. (You may be familiar with the
term “good carbohydrates," but it may be best to think of them as healthy carbohydrates. )
Too many simple carbs can contribute to weight gain. They can also increase your risk of
diabetes, heart disease and high cholesterol.
What are starches?
Starches are complex carbohydrates. Many starches (but not all) fit this category. They provide
vitamins and minerals. It takes your body longer to break down complex carbohydrates. As a
result, blood sugar levels remain stable and fullness lasts longer.
You can find starchy carbohydrates in:
Beans and legumes, such as black beans, chickpeas, lentils and kidney beans.
Fruits, such as apples, berries and melons.
Whole-grain products, such as brown rice, oatmeal and whole-wheat bread and pasta.
Vegetables, such as corn, lima beans, peas and potatoes.
What is fiber?
Plant-based foods, such as fruits, vegetables and whole-grain products, contain fiber. Animal
products, including dairy products and meats, have no fiber.
Fiber is a complex healthy carbohydrate. Your body can’t break down fiber. Most of it passes
through the intestines, stimulating and aiding digestion. Fiber also regulates blood sugar, lowers
cholesterol and keeps you feeling full longer.
Experts recommend that adults consume 25 to 30 grams of fiber every day. Most of us get half
that amount.
High-fiber foods include:
Beans and legumes, such as black beans, chickpeas, lentils and pinto beans.
Fruits, especially those with edible skins (apples and peaches) or seeds (berries).
Nuts and seeds, including almonds, peanuts, walnuts, pumpkin seeds and sunflower seeds.
Whole-grain products, such as brown rice, oatmeal, quinoa, cereal and whole-wheat bread and
pasta.
Vegetables, such as corn, lima beans, broccoli, brussels sprouts and squash.
What are sugars?
Sugars are a type of simple carbohydrate. Your body breaks down simple carbohydrates quickly.
As a result, blood sugar levels rise — and then drop — quickly. After consuming sugary foods,
you may notice a burst of energy, followed by feeling tired.
There are two types of sugars:
Naturally occurring sugars, such as those found in milk and fresh fruits.
Added sugars, such as those found in sweets, canned fruit, juice and soda. Sweets include things
like bakery, candy bars and ice cream. Choose fruit canned in juice over other varieties. Note
that sugar-free soda is available.
Your body processes all sugars the same. It can’t tell the difference between natural and added
sugars. But along with energy, foods with natural sugars provide vitamins, minerals and
sometimes fiber.
Sugar goes by many names. On food labels, you may see sugar listed as:
Agave nectar.
Cane syrup or corn syrup.
Dextrose, fructose or sucrose.
Honey.
Molasses.
Sugar.
Limiting sugar is essential to keep blood sugar levels in the healthy range. Plus, sugary foods and
drinks are often higher in calories that can contribute to weight gain. Limit refined foods and
foods that contain added sugar, such as white flour, desserts, candy, juices, fruit drinks, soda pop
and sweetened beverages. The American Heart Association recommends:
No more than 25g (6 teaspoons or 100 calories) per day of added sugar for most women.
No more than 36g (9 teaspoons or 150 calories) per day of added sugar for most men.
What is the recommended daily amount (RDA) for carbohydrates?
There isn’t a set amount of recommended daily carbs. Your age, gender, medical conditions,
activity level and weight goals all affect the amount that’s right for you. Counting carbs helps
some people with diabetes manage their blood sugar.
For most people, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) recommends a healthy plate or
MyPlate approach. You should fill:
Half your plate with fruits and vegetables.
One-quarter of your plate with whole grains.
One-quarter of your plate with protein (meat, fish, beans, eggs or dairy).
Is a low- or no-carb diet healthy?
Some people cut their carb intake to promote weight loss. Popular low-carb diets include the
Atkins diet and the ketogenic (keto) diet. Some healthcare providers recommend the keto diet for
epilepsy and other medical conditions.
Strict dietary restrictions can be hard to follow over a long time. Some carb-restrictive diets
include large amounts of animal fat and oils. These foods can increase your risk of heart disease.
Experts still aren’t sure if a low- or no-carb diet is healthy. Talk to your healthcare provider
before trying a low- or no-carb diet.