Chapter three fluid flow fluid static

3-Fluid Static and Its Applications

3.1 Pascal’s Law for Pressure at a Point

By considering a small element of fluid in the form of a triangular prism which contains
a point P, we can establish a relationship between the three pressures p x in the x
direction, py in the y direction and ps in the direction normal to the sloping face as
shown in figure (3-1).

Figure (3-1) Triangular prismatic element of fluid

The fluid is a rest, so we know there are no shearing forces, and we know that all force
are acting at right angles to the surfaces .i.e.
ps acts perpendicular to surface ABCD,
px acts perpendicular to surface ABFE and
py acts perpendicular to surface FECD.

And, as the fluid is at rest, in equilibrium, the sum of the forces in any direction is zero.
Summing forces in the x-direction:

Force due to px ,

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
Component of force in the x-direction due to ps ,


Component of force in x-direction due to py ,

To be at rest (in equilibrium)

Similarly, summing forces in the y direction Force due to py ,

Component of force in the y-direction due to ps ,

Component of force in x-direction due to py ,

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Force due to gravity,

Weight = - specific weight * volume of element

To be at rest (in equilibrium)

( )

The element is small i.e. are small, and so is very small and
considered negligible, hence

Thus

Considering the prismatic element again, ps is the pressure on a plane at any angle , the
x, y and z directions could be any orientation. The element is so small that it can be
considered a point so the derived expression px= py= ps. Indicates that pressure at any
point is the same in all directions

Pressure at any point is the same in all directions.

This is known as Pascal’s Law and applies to fluids at rest

3-2General Equation For Variation Of Pressure In A Static Fluid

Consider the cylindrical element of fluid in the figure (3-2), inclined at an angle to the
vertical, length , cross-sectional area A in a static fluid of mass density . The
pressure at the end with height z is p and at the end of height z+ is p+

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Figure (3-2): A cylindrical element of fluid at an arbitrary orientation

The forces acting on the element are

Resolving the forces in the direction along the central axis gives

Or in the differential form

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If = 90 then s is in the x or y directions, (i.e. horizontal),so

[ ]

Confirming that pressure on any horizontal plane is zero.

If = 0 then s is in the z directions, (i.e. vertical),

[ ]
Confirming the result

3.3 Pressure in a Fluid

In a static fluid of constant density we have the relationship

This can be integrated to give

In a liquid with a free surface the pressure at any depth z measured from the free surface
so that z = -h (see the figure below)

This gives the pressure

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At the surface of fluids we are normally concerned with, the pressure is the atmospheric
pressure. So

Note: The shape of the vessel does not affect the pressure at the bottom.

3.4 Absolute and Relative Pressure

The term pressure is sometimes associated with different terms such as atmospheric,
gauge, absolute, and vacuum. The meanings of these terms have to be understood well
before solving problems in hydraulic and fluid mechanics.

1- Atmospheric Pressure

It is the pressure exerted by atmospheric air on the earth due to its weight. This pressure
is change as the density of air varies according to the altitudes. Also it may vary because
of the temperature and humidity of air.

1 atm = 1.01325 bar = 101.325 kPa = 10.328 m H2o = 760 torr (mm Hg) = 14.7 psi

2- Gauge Pressure or Positive Pressure

It is the pressure recorded by an instrument. This is always above atmospheric.

3- Vacuum Pressure or Negative Pressure

This pressure is caused either artificially or by flow conditions. The pressure intensity
will be less than the atmospheric pressure whenever vacuum is formed.

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4- Absolute Pressure

Absolute pressure is the algebraic sum of atmospheric pressure and gauge pressure.

Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure

Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure – Vacuum Pressure

Figure (3-3): absolute, gage and vacuum pressures.

Example (3-1)

A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 5.8 psi at a location where the
atmospheric pressure is 14.5 psi. Determine the absolute pressure in the chamber.

SOLUTION:

Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure – Vacuum Pressure

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= 14.7 – 5.8 = 8.9 psi

Example (3-2)

A large storage tank contains oil having a density of 917 kg/m3. The tank is 3.66 m tall
and vented (open) to the atmosphere of 1 atm at the top. The tank is filled with oil to a
depth of 3.05 m (10 ft) and also contains 0.61 m (2 ft) of water in the bottom of the tank.
Calculate the pressure in Pa and psia at 3.05 m from the top of the tank and at the
bottom. And calculate the gauge pressure at the bottom of the tank.

Solution:

Po = 1 atm = 14.7 psia = 1.01325 x 105 Pa

P1 = h1 ρoil g + Po

= 3.05 m (917 kg/m3) 9.81 m/s2 + 1.01325 x 105 Pa

= 1.28762 x 105 Pa

P1 = 1.28762 x 105 Pa (14.7 psia/1.01325 x 105 Pa)

= 18.675 psia

P2 = P1 + h2 ρwater g

= 1.28762 x 105 Pa + 0.61 m (1000 kg/m3) 9.81 m/s2

= 1.347461 x 105 Pa

P2 = 1.347461 x 105 Pa (14.696 psia/1.01325 x 105 Pa)

= 19.5433 psia

The gauge pressure = Pabs – Patm

= 19.5433-14.7 = 4.8433 psig

Example (3-3)

A closed tank contains 0.5 m of mercury, 1.5 m of water, 2.5 m of oil of sp.gr. = 0.8 and
air space above the oil. If the pressure at the bottom of the tank is 2.943 bar gauge, what
should be the reading of mechanical gauge at the top of the tank.

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Solution:

Pressure due to 0.5 m of mercury

Pm = 0.5 (13600) 9.81 = 0.66708 bar

Pressure due to 1.5 m of water

Pw = 1.5 (1000) 9.81 = 0.14715 bar

Pressure due to 2.5 m of oil

PO = 2.5 (800) 9.81 = 0.19620 bar

Pressure at the bottom of the tank = Pm + Pw + PO +

PAir

⇒ 2.943 = 0.66708 bar + 0.14715 bar + 0.19620 bar + PAir

⇒ PAir = 1.93257 bar

3.5 Measurement of Fluid Pressure

In chemical and other industrial processing plants it is often to measure and control the
pressure in vessel or process and/or the liquid level vessel.

The pressure measuring devices are:

1- Piezometer tube

The piezometer consist a tube open at one end to

atmosphere, the other end is capable of being inserted
into vessel or pipe of which pressure is to be measured.
The height to which liquid rises up in the vertical tube
gives the pressure head directly.

i.e. P = h ρ g

Figure (3-4) piezometer

Piezometer is used for measuring moderate pressures. It is meant for measuring gauge
pressure only as the end is open to atmosphere. It cannot be used for vacuum pressures.

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2- Manometers

The manometer is an improved (modified) form of a piezometer. It can be used for

measurement of comparatively high pressures and of both gauge and vacuum pressures.

Following are the various types of manometers: -

a- Simple manometer b- The well type manometer

c- Inclined manometer d- The inverted manometer

e- The two-liquid manometer

a Simple manometer

It consists of a transparent U-tube

containing the fluid A of density (ρA)
whose pressure is to be measured and an
immiscible fluid (B) of higher density
(ρB). The limbs are connected to the two
points between which the pressure
difference (P2 - P1) is required; the
connecting leads should be completely
full of fluid A. If P2 is greater than P1,
the interface between the two liquids in
limb (2) will be depressed a distance
(hm) (say) below that in limb (1).

The pressure at the level a — a must be

the same in each of the limbs and,
therefore:

P2 + Zm ρA g = P1 + (Zm– hm) ρA g
+ hm ρB g
⇒ Δp = P2 – P1 = hm (ρB – ρA) g Figure (3-5): The simple manometer

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If fluid A is a gas, the density ρA will

Normally be small compared with the density of the manometer fluid ρA so that:

Δp = P2 – P1 = hm ρB g

b-The well-type manometer

In order to avoid the inconvenience of having to read two limbs and in order to measure
low pressures where accuracy of much importance, the well-type manometer shown in
Figure (3-6) can be used.

If Aw and Ac are the cross-sectional areas

of the well and the column and hm is the
increase in the level of the column and h w
the decrease in the level of the well, then:

P2 = P1 + (hm + hw) ρ g

or: Δp = P2 – P1 = (hm + hw) ρ g

The quantity of liquid expelled from the

well is equal to the quantity pushed into
the column so that:

Aw hw = Ac hm ⇒ hw = (Ac/Aw) hm

⇒ Δp = P2 – P1 = ρ g hm (1 + Ac/Aw)

Figure (3-6): The well-type manometer

If the well is large in comparison to the column then:

i.e. (Ac/Aw) →≈0 ⇒ Δp = P2 – P1 = ρ g hm

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c-The inclined manometer

Shown in Figure (3-7) enables the

sensitivity of the manometers described
previously to be increased by measuring
the length of the column of liquid. If θ is
the angle of inclination of the manometer
(typically about 10-20°) and L is the
movement of the column of liquid along
the limb, then: hm = L sin θ

Figure (3-7): The inclined manometer

If θ = 10°, the manometer reading L is increased by about 5.7 times compared with the
reading hm which would have been obtained from a simple manometer.

d-The inverted manometer

Figure (3-8) is used for measuring pressure differences in

liquids. The space above the liquid in the manometer is filled
with air, which can be admitted or expelled through the tap A
in order to adjust the level of the liquid in the manometer.

Figure (3-8): The inverted manometer

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Example (3-4)

The following Figure shows a compound manometer connected to the pipeline

containing oil of sp.gr. 0.8. Calculate Pa.

Solution:

ρa = 0.8 (1000) = 800 kg/m3

Pa + 0.4 ρa g – 0.3 ρm g + 0.3 ρa g

– 0.3 ρm g – Po = 0

⇒ Pa = Po + 0.7 ρa g – 0.6 ρm g

= 1.01325 x 105 – 0.7 (800) 9.81 + 0.6

(13600) 9.81

= 1.75881 x 105 Pa

Example (3-5)

A simple manometer is used to measure the pressure of oil sp.gr. 0.8 flowing in
apipeline. Its right limb is open to atmosphere and the left limb is connected to the pipe.
The center of the pipe is 9.0 cm below the level of the mercury in the right limb. If the
difference of the mercury level in the two limbs
is 15 cm, determine the absolute and the gauge
pressures of the oil in the pipe.

Solution:

ρ = 0.8 (1000) = 800 kg/m3

P1 = P2

P1 = (0.15 –0.0 9)m(800 kg/m3)9.81m/s2+ Pa

P2 = (0.15) m (13600 kg/m3) 9.81 m/s2 + Po

Pa = 0.15 (13600) 9.81 + Po + [(0.15 – 0.09) m

(800 kg/m3) 9.81 m/s2]
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= 1.20866 x 105 Pa (Absolute pressure)

The gauge press. = Abs. press. – Atm. Press.

= 1.20866 x 105 - 1.0325 x 105

= 1.9541 x 104 Pa

Example (3.6)

A conical vessel is connected to a U-tube having mercury and water as shown in the
Figure. When the vessel is empty the manometer reads 0.25 m. find the reading in
manometer, when the vessel is full of water.

Solution:

P1 = P2

P1 = (0.25 + H) ρw g + Po

P2 = 0.25 ρm g +Po

⇒ (0.25 + H) ρw g + Po = 0.25 ρm g +Po

⇒ H = 0.25 (ρm – ρw)/ ρw

= 0.25 (12600 /1000) = 3.15 m

When the vessel is full of water, let the mercury level in the left limp go down by (x)
meter and the mercury level in the right limp go to up by the same amount (x) meter.

i.e. the reading manometer = (0.25 + 2x)

P1 = P2

P1 = (0.25 + x +H + 3.5) ρw g + Po
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P2 = (0.25 + 2x) ρm g +Po

⇒ (0.25 + x +H + 3.5) ρw g + Po = (0.25 + 2x) ρm g +Po

⇒ 6.9 + x = (0.25 + 2x) (ρm/ ρw) ⇒ x = 0.1431 m

The manometer reading = 0.25 + 2 (0.1431) = 0.536 m

3-6 hydrostatic pressure in Submerged Surfaces

When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces develop on the surface due to the fluid.
The determination of these forces is important in the design of storage tanks, ships,
dams, and other hydraulic structures. For fluids at rest we know that the force must be
perpendicular to the surface since there are no shearing stresses present. We also know
that the pressure will vary linearly with depth if the fluid is incompressible.
Consider the top surface of a flat plate of arbitrary shape completely submerged in a
liquid, as shown in Fig. (3–9) together with its top view

∫ ∫ ∫

The integral appearing in Eq. (3-1) is the first moment of the area with respect to the x
axis, so we can write
∫
Where yc is the y coordinate of the centroid measured from the x axis which passes
through o. Equation (3-1) can thus be written as

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Figure (3-9) Hydrostatic pressure on inclined surface

 For vertical surface

 For horizontal surface

∫ ∫

Now let us locate the action point of P (i.e. the center of pressure ) at which a single
force P produces a moment equal to the total sum of the moments around the turning
axis (x axis) of the sluice gate produced by the total water pressure acting on all points
of the gate. When the location of R is yR,

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The integral in the numerator is the second moment of the area (moment of inertia), Ix.
Thus, we can write

Use can now be made of the parallel axis theorem to express Ix as

where Ixc is the second moment of the area with respect to an axis passing through its
centroid and parallel to the x axis. Thus,

yR is center of pressure and the yR greater than yc

For symmetric systems the I xyc=0 , XR=XC

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Figure (3-10) geometric plane

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Example(3-7)
A 3m-high, 6m-wide rectangular gate is hinged at the top edge at A and is restrained by
a fixed ridge at B. Determine the hydrostatic force exerted on the gate by the 5-m-high
water and the location of the pressure center.

Solution:
Area=b*a=3*6=18 m2
yc=2+b/2 =2+1.5=3.5 m

Example (3-8)
The 200kg, 5m-wide rectangular gate shown in Figure below is hinged at B and leans
against the floor at A making an angle of 45° with the horizontal. The gate is to be
opened from its lower edge by applying a normal force at its center. Determine the
minimum force F required to open the water gate.
Solution:

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( )

Taking the moment about point B and setting it equal to zero gives

ΣM B = 0 → FR yR = F b / 2

The distance of the pressure center from the hinge at point B is

Solving for F and substituting, the required force is determined to be

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Example(3-9)

The 4-m-diameter circular gate of Fig below is located in the inclined wall of a large
reservoir containing water (y = 9.80 kN/m3). The gate is mounted on a shaft along its
horizontal diameter. For water depth of 10m above the shaft determine: (a) the
magnitude and location of the resultant force exerted on the gate by the water, and (b)
the moment that would have to be applied to the shaft to open the gate.

Solution:

Taking the moment about point B and setting it equal to zero gives

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3-7 Hydrostatic Forces On curve Surfaces

Consider the curved section BC of the open tank of Fig. (3-11a). we wish to find the
resultant fluid force acting on this section, which has a unit length perpendicular to the
plane of the paper.
In order for this force system to be in equilibrium,

FH = F2
Fv = Fl + W
√

Figure (3-11) hydrostatic force on curve surface

FH = F = resultant force of liquid acting on vertically projected area (BC) and acting
through the center of pressure of F. (vertical face)

The volume of fluid above the curve surface extended to the free surface (real
imaginary) this force acts through the centroid of volume.

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Example (3-10):

The 6ft diameter drainage conduit of Fig below is half full of water at rest. Determine
the magnitude and line of action of the resultant force that the water exerts on a lft
length of the curved section BC of the conduit wall

Solution:

We first isolate a volume of fluid bounded by the curved section BC, the horizontal
surface AB, and the vertical surface AC. The volume has a length of 1 ft.

The magnitude of F1 is found from the equation

And this force acts 1 ft above C as shown. The weight, W, is

( )

Therefore, to satisfy equilibrium

FH = FI = 281 lb Fv = W = 441 lb

And the magnitude of the resultant force is

√
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3-8 buoyancy

Consider a body of arbitrary shape, submerged in a fluid at rest and the parallelepiped
ABCD enclosing the body. Let us consider the equilibrium of the fluid comprised in
ABCD

The force that tends to lift the body is called the buoyant force: FB

The balance equation for the vertical forces can be written as:

FB = F2 – F1 – W

Where FB is the force that the body exerts on the fluid and W the weight of the fluid

W = ρ g(h2 – h1)A – ρ g Vb

V = volume of the body and A is the upper or lower surface of the parallelepiped).

If the density of the fluid is constant, then

F2 – F1 = ρ g(h2 – h1)A

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So that

FB = ρ g(h2 – h1)A – ρ g(h2 – h1)A + ρ g V

or

FB = ρ g V

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Example (3-11)

A standard basketball (mass = 624 grams; 24.3 cm in diameter) is held fully under
water. Calculate the buoyant force and weight. When released, does the ball sink to the
bottom or float to the surface? If it floats, what percentage of it is sticking out of the
water? If it sinks, what is the normal force, FN with which it sits on the bottom of the
pool?

Solution:

The weight of the ball is

To calculate the buoyancy, we need the volume of displaced water, which is the volume
of the ball because it is being held completely submerged.

The buoyant force is equal to the weight of that volume of water.

That's a lot stronger than the 6.1N downward pull of gravity, so the ball will rise to the
surface when released. The density of the ball is

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Example (3-12)

Water ice has a density of 0.91 g/cm³, so it will float in liquid water. Imagine you have
a cube of ice, 10 cm on a side. (a) What is the cube's weight? (b) What volume of liquid
water must be displaced in order to support the floating cube? (c) How much of the cube
is under the surface of the water?

SOLUTION:

(a) The cube's weight is

(b) The buoyant force must equal the cube's weight. Take the equation for buoyant
force, solve it for Vdf, and plug in the numbers.

(c) The volume of the cube itself is 0.001m³, so the percentage under the surface is...

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3-9 fluid in rigid body motion

In this section we obtain relations for the variation of pressure in fluids moving like a
solid body with or without acceleration in the absence of any shear stresses (i.e., no
motion between fluid layers relative to each other).

Consider a differential rectangular fluid element of side lengths dx, dy, and dz in the x,
y, and z-directions, respectively, with the z-axis being upward in the vertical direction
(Fig. 3–14).

Noting that the differential fluid element behaves like a rigid body, Newton’s
second law of motion for this element can be expressed as

where m = dV = dx dy dz is the mass of the

fluid element, a is the acceleration, and dF is the
net force acting on the element

the net surface force acting on the element in the

z-direction is the difference between the
pressure forces acting on the bottom and top
faces,

figure (3-14)

⌊ ⌋ ⌊ ⌋

Similarly, the net surface forces in the y and z-directions are

The weight of the element acting in the negative z-direction, and it is expressed as

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Then the total force acting on the element becomes

Substituting into Newton’s second law of motion and canceling dx dy dz, the general
equation of motion for a fluid that acts as a rigid body (no shear stresses) is determined
to be

Acceleration of fluid

 Acceleration on a Straight Path

Consider a container partially filled with a liquid. The container is moving on a straight
path with a constant acceleration. We take the projection of the path of motion on the
horizontal plane to be the x-axis, and the projection on the vertical plane to be the z-axis,
as shown in Fig. (3–15). The x- and z-components of acceleration are ax and az. There is
no movement in the y-direction, and thus the acceleration in that direction is zero, ay =
0. Then the equations of motion for accelerating fluids (Eqs. 3–10) reduce to

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Figure (3-15) Acceleration on a Straight Path

Therefore, pressure is independent of y. Then the total differential of P becomes

For constant, the pressure difference between two points 1 and 2 in the fluid is
determined by integration to be

Taking point 1 to be the origin (x = 0, z = 0) where the pressure is P0 and point 2 to be

any point in the fluid (no subscript), the pressure distribution can be expressed as

The vertical rise (or drop) of the free surface at point 2 relative to point 1 can be
determined by choosing both 1 and 2 on the free surface (so that P1= P2)

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Example (3-13)

An 80-cm-high oil tank of cross section (2 m * 0.6 m) that is initially filled with oil is to
be transported on the back of a truck (Fig. below). The truck accelerates from 0 to 90
km/h in 10 s. If it is desired, that no oil spills during acceleration, determine the
allowable initial oil height in the tank. Would you recommend the tank to be aligned
with the long or short side parallel to the direction of motion?

solution:

The maximum vertical rise of the free surface

occurs at the back of the tank

Case 1: The long side is parallel to the direction of motion:

Case 2: The short side is parallel to the direction of motion

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