Ethics
GEC005 FIRST-SEMESTER FINALS:
Garth Anthony Pabilan
TOPIC 1: DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS
Deontological Ethics
 From the Greek word ―deon‖ which means
duty or obligation
 Morality is based upon the doer‘s obligation
Immanuel Kant
 The one who synthesized empiricism and
rationalism
 Emphasized the importance of the self or
individuals over the imposed rules and
external commands
 Highlighted the dominion of reason
Two Types of Knowledge
 “A Posteriori”
o knowledge acquired through
experience
 Synthetic A Posteriori
Judgment: The weather is
cold.
 “A Priori”
o knowledge apprehended through
pure reason
 Analytic A Priori Judgment:
All husbands are male.
Knowledge concerning principles of morality is “a
priori!‖
Good Will
 Anything that is bad for Kant is bad, but
some actions we consider to be good may
not really be good and has to be qualified.
 Saving a person from drowning may not
really be good if were tainted with other
motives. The only thing in this world which
is good in itself is the ‗good will‘.
“For when moral value is being considered, the
concern is not with the actions, which are seen, but
rather with their inner principles, which are not
seen.”
Autonomy of the Will
“Autonomy of the Will”
 When one does good actions by virtue of its
own will and free from any dictates of
external influences such as command and
rewards.
Hypothetical Imperative vs. Categorical
Imperative
 Hypothetical Imperative:
o ―If you desire X, you should do Y.‖
 Categorical Imperative:
o ―Do Y.‖
“Categorical Imperative is the only source of
authentic morality, the Hypothetical Imperative,
on the other hand, is the source of fake or
unscrupulous morality.”
Universal Validity of Maxim
As we have discussed already, Kant urges us
to craft our own imperatives free from dictates of
any external influence, such as command or
rewards. However, we should not only craft any
imperative without considering its universal
validity.
Kant says, “Act as if the maxim of your
action were to become through your will a
universal law of nature.”
Morality as Duty
 It is our duty to do good. We do good for
goodness sake and nothing else, not for
happiness, not because it is our inclination,
not because of a reward and not because of
any external influence.
 Do good and avoid evil even if it does not
make you happy or even if it were harmful
to you, we do good because it is what we
ought to do, it is our duty.
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Ethics
Procedural Justice
Treat Humanity as an End and never as a
Means
 “Act in such a way that you treat humanity,
whether in your own person or in the
person of another, always at the same time
as an end and never simply as a means
(Goulding).”
 In other words, others must be the purpose
of things we do and they should not be
utilized to meet our ends, i.e., one should
not inflict pain to any person even for the
pleasure of majority
Tyler’s Procedural Justice
TOPIC 2: JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS
 Neutrality
 Trust
 Standing
 Intuitionism
 Perfectionism
 Civic
 Responsibility
 Citizen
 Citizenship
What is Justice?
 A natural law based on contract.
 An instrument for societal order.
 A consequence of the economic system that
is used as a manipulative instrument to
preserve and justify a social order.
 A result of historical associations and
historical rights (Fellenz and Fortin, 2007).
“Justice is the firmest pillar of good governance.”
 Justice means giving each person what he or
she deserves or, in more traditional terms,
giving each person his or her due.
 Most ethicists today hold the view that there
would be no point of talking about justice or
fairness if it were not for the conflicts of
interest that are created when goods and
services are scarce and people differ over
who should get what.
 Tyler suggested that people evaluate the
procedural fairness of interactions with
others along relational dimensions such as
neutrality, trust, and standing.
 This identity-based, relational model
proposed by Tyler and his associates is
based on a substantial foundation of
empirical research demonstrating that
people seem to care about relational issues
such as being treated with dignity and
respect and having their position heard
whether or not their expressions have any
influence on decision outcomes (Lind &
Tyler 1988).
 Neutrality
o involves impartial, even-handed
treatment and would be exemplified
in the family context by parents who
use impartial procedures with all
members of the family.
 Trust
o refers to whether individuals have
faith in the good intentions of
others, typically authority figures.
 Standing
o refers to whether an authority figure
treats a person as a valued member
of a relevant group, for instance,
parents who treat their child as a
valued member of the family.
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Ethics
―Equals should be treated equally and unequal permits inequalities that
unequally.‖-Aristotle work to the advantage of the
worst-off.
―Individuals should be treated the same, unless
they differ in ways that are relevant to the situation
in which they are involved.‖

 For example, if Jack and Jill both do the

same work, and there are no relevant
differences between them or the work they
are doing, then in justice they should be
paid the same wages. And if Jack is paid
more than Jill simply because he is a man,
or because he is white, then we have an
injustice—a form of discrimination—
because race and sex are not relevant to
normal work situations.
Different Kinds of Justice
John Rawls
 In his view, existing political societies are  Distributive Justice
seldom well-ordered simply because they o refers to the extent to which society‘s
are characterized by disagreements about institutions ensure the benefits and
justice. burdens are distributed among
 An agreed-on theory of justice is needed, in society‘s members in ways that are
addition, in order for individuals‘ life plans fair and just.
to be fitted together so that nobody‘s o
legitimate expectations will be severely  Retributive or corrective justice
disappointed. o Refers to the extent to which
punishments are fair and just.
Principles of Justice
 Compensatory justice
 First principle: the liberty principle o Refers to the extent to which people
 It holds that society must are fairly compensated for their
assure each citizen ―an equal injuries by those who have injured
claim to a fully adequate them.
scheme of equal basic rights
and liberties, which scheme
is compatible with the same
scheme for all‖ (Richardson,
n.d.).

 Second principle: the equality principle

o Fair Equality of Opportunity
 this principle maintains that
―offices and positions‖ should
be open to any individual,
regardless of his or her social
background, ethnicity or sex.

o Difference Principle
 The Difference Principle
regulates inequalities: it only
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Ethics
TOPIC 3: UTILITARIANISM
What is UTILITARIANISM?
 It is an ethical theory that argues for the
goodness of pleasure and the determination
of right behavior based on the usefulness of
the action‘s consequences.
 Pleasure is good and that the goodness of an
action is determined by its usefulness.
Putting these ideas together, utilitarianism
claims that one‘s actions and behavior are good
inasmuch as they are directed toward the
experience of the greatest pleasure over pain for the
greatest number of persons.
A consequentialist theory, which means, moral
values of actions and decisions are based solely or
greatly on the usefulness of their consequences; it is
the usefulness of results that determines whether
the action or behavior is good or bad.
HEDONISM
 "hedonism," from the Greek word ἡδονή
(hēdonē) for pleasure.
 All hedonistic theories identify pleasure and
pain as the only important elements of
whatever phenomena they are designed to
describe.
ARISTIPPUS’ HEDONISM
 Aristippus identified the end as pleasure.
This identification of pleasure as the end
makes Aristippus a hedonist.
 Most of the pleasures that Aristippus is
depicted as pursuing have to do with
sensual gratification, such as sleeping with
courtesans and enjoying fine food and old
wines.
 Aristippus advocated simply deriving
pleasure from whatever is present, and not
producing trouble for oneself by toiling to
obtain things which may bring one pleasure
in the future.
EPICURUS’ HEDONISM
 Although all pleasures are good and all
pains evil, Epicurus says that not all
pleasures are choice worthy or all pains to
be avoided. Instead, one should calculate
what is in one's long-term self-interest, and
forgo what will bring pleasure in the short-
term if doing so will ultimately lead to
greater pleasure in the long-term.
Jeremy Bentham 1748-1832
 Teacher of John Stuart Mill
 Known for a system of penal punishment
called panopticon.
o The panopticon is a type of
institutional building and a system
of control designed by the English
philosopher and social theorist
Jeremy Bentham in the 18th
century.
 An advocate of economic freedom, women‘s
rights, and the separation of church and
states, among others.
John Stuart Mill 1806-1873
 Son of James Mill, a friend and disciple of
Jeremy Bentham.
 Studied Greek at age three and Latin at age
eight, wrote a history of Roman Law at age
eleven, and suffered a nervous breakdown at
age twenty.
The best action is the one that leads to the greatest
amount of happiness for the greatest number of
people.
Jeremy Bentham
 He begins by arguing that our actions are
governed by two ―sovereign masters‖–
which he calls pleasure and pain.
 These ―masters‖ are given to us by nature to
help us determine what is good or bad and
what ought to be done and not; they fasten
our choices to their throne.
Principle of Utility
 The principle of utility refers to pleasure as
good if, and only if, they produce more
happiness than unhappiness.
 This means that it is not enough to
experience pleasure, but also inquire
whether the things we do make us happier.
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Ethics
John Stuart Mill
 reiterates Bentham‘s moral good as
happiness and, consequently,
happiness as pleasure.
 Mill clarifies that what makes people
happy is intended pleasure and what
makes us unhappy is the privation of
pleasure.
Both of them have the same view
that moral value can be characterized as
utility and understood it as whatever
produced happiness or pleasure and the
avoidance of pain.
Where do they differ?
The next step is to understand the nature of
pleasure and pain to identify a criterion for
distinguishing pleasure and to calculate the
resultant pleasure or pain; it is in relation to these
aforementioned themes that a distinction occurs
between Bentham and Mill.
 Contrary to Bentham, Mill argues that
quality is more preferable than quantity.
 For Mill, utilitarianism cannot promote the
kind of pleasure appropriate to pigs or to
any other animals.
 He thinks that there are higher intellectual
and lower base pleasures.
 He thinks that few, if any, would give up
human qualities of higher reason for the
pleasures of a pig.
"It is better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a
fool satisfied.”
Topic 4: ON NICOMACHEAN ETHICS
NICOMACHEAN ETHICS
 The name given to Aristotle‘s best known
work in ethics.
 Composed of ten books, originally separate
scrolls, and is used to be based on notes
from his lectures at the lyceum.
 The title was presumably dedicated to his
father or son who both named Nicomachus.
 The theme of the work is basically a Socratic
question previously explored in the works of
Plato of how men should best live.
 Aristotle recognized how Socrates turned
philosophy into human questions as
opposed to the pre-Socratics who left
philosophy floating on a theoretical level.
ETHICS (Theoretical vs. Practical)
 Must not only be a contemplation about
good living, but must also gear toward the
creation of good living.
Nicomachean Ethics-- Aristotle Politics
(Aims at people becoming good…)
BOOK I- SECTION I
 Every art, and every science reduced to a
teachable form, and in like manner every
action and moral choice, aims, it is thought,
at some good: for which reason a common
and by no means a bad description of the
Chief Good is, ―that which all things aim at.‖
―But a certain difference is found among ends;
some are activities, others are products apart from
the activities that produce them. Where there are
ends apart from the actions, it is the nature of the
products to be better than the activities.‖
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Ethics
―But where such arts fall under a single capacity –
as bridle-making and the other arts concerned with
the equipment of horses fall under the art of riding,
and this and every military action under strategy, in
the same way other arts fall under yet others.‖
BOOK I- SECTION II
POLITICS AS THE MASTER ART
―For even if the end is the same for a single
man and for a state, that of the state seems at all
events something greater and more complete
whether to attain or to preserve; though it is
worthwhile to attain the end merely for one man, it
is finer and more godlike to attain It for a nation or
for city-states. These, then, are the ends at which
our inquiry aims, since it is political science, in one
sense of that term.‖
BOOK I- SECTION III
POLITICS AS NOT ABSOLUTE BUT
PRACTICAL
 ―Now fine and just actions, which political
science investigates, admit of much variety
and fluctuation of opinion, so that they may
be thought to exist only by convention and
not by nature‖.
 ―It is evidently equally foolish to accept
probable reasoning from a mathematician
and to demand from a rhetorician scientific
proof.‖
BOOK I- SECTION Iv
HAPPINESS AS THE END POINT OF
POLITICAL SCIENCE
COMMONER AND PROMINENT---
HAPPINESS
―Let us not fail to notice, however, that there
is a difference between arguments from and those
to the first principles. For Plato, too, was right in
raising this question and asking, as he used to do,
‗are we on the way from or to the first principles?‘‘‘
BOOK I- SECTION V
THREE TYPES OF LIFE
 the lives of gratification
 political activity
 study
Those who lead lives of gratification choose a
life that‘s fit ―for grazing animals.‖ In contrast,
―Cultivated people,‖ who choose the life of political
activity, see the good as honor; but this, too, is
inferior to something higher. The third life, that of
study, will be discussed in what follows.
BOOK I- SECTION VI
What is meant by the good?
 It is spoken of in so many different ways,
we can conclude that there isn‘t a single,
universal good. There are goods that are
pursued for the sake of something else, and
things that are goods in their own right,
and all of these are different. This means
that goods can‘t correspond to some single
―Idea.‖
BOOK I- SECTION VII
EXCELLENCE
Ah-ri-tay
Aristotle explains, we can more specifically
describe the human function as ―activity of the soul
in accord with reason or requiring reason.‖
Moreover, the function of the excellent person is to
live this kind of life ―well and finely.‖
BOOK I- SECTION VIII
Happiness also requires the addition of certain
external resources, such as friends, wealth, or
political power. In the same vein, the deprivation of
certain things detracts from happiness—for
example, lack of beauty, spouse, or children. In
other words, a certain degree of prosperity is
needed for happiness.
 ―Happiness as a sort of good life and good
action‖
 ―But it makes, perhaps, no small difference
whether we place the chief good in
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Ethics
possession or in use, in state of mind or in
activity. For the state of mind may exist
without producing any good result, as in a
man who is asleep or in some other way
quite inactive, but the activity cannot; for
one who has the activity will of necessity be
acting, and acting well.‖
BOOK I- SECTION IX
HOW HAPPINESS CAN BE ACQUIRED?
―But this question would perhaps be more
appropriate to another inquiry; happiness seems,
however, even if it is not god-sent but comes as a
result of virtue and some process of learning or
training, to be among the most godlike things; for
that which is the prize and end of virtue seems to be
the best thing in the world, and something godlike
and blessed.‖
Though it‘s reasonable to say that happiness
may be gifted by the gods in some sense, for the
purposes of this discussion Aristotle says that
happiness is the result of virtue and ―some sort of
learning or cultivation,‖ which is available to
anyone who has the capacity for virtue.
BOOK I- SECTION X
Aristotle takes his argument a step further
by asserting that the happy person is the one whose
activities not only accord with complete virtue,
supported by adequate external goods, but also
with a complete life.
nature.”
though it does so in better or worse ways depending
on the person.
The difference between the parts of the soul
accords with the difference between virtues. Some
virtues are called virtues of thought (like wisdom,
comprehension, and prudence), and some virtues
are called virtues of character (like generosity and
temperance).
BOOK II
TWO KINDS OF VIRTUE
“Of all the things that come to us by nature
we first acquire the potentiality and later
exhibit the activity.”
There are two kinds of virtue:
 Intellectual
o We learn intellectual virtues by
instruction
 Moral
o We learn moral virtues by habit and
constant practice
We are all born with the potential to be morally
virtuous, but it is only by behaving in the right way
that we train ourselves to be virtuous. As a
musician learns to play an instrument, we learn
virtue by practicing, not by thinking about it.

BOOK I- SECTION XI
While good or evil happening to one‘s
friends or descendants after their death can be said
in some measure to affect one‘s happiness, it
doesn‘t do so to such a degree that a happy person
would be made unhappy, or vice versa.

BOOK I- SECTION XII-XIII

Happiness is an activity of the soul in accord
with complete virtue.

Aristotle reasons that one must examine

virtue in order to better understand happiness.
First it‘s necessary to consider the nature of
the soul, which has both a rational part and a non-
rational part.
Even the non-rational part—particularly the
part with appetites and desires—shares in reason,
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