V olum e 10, N um ber 4
Olympiad Corner
Below is the Bulgarian selection test
for the 46th IMO given on May 18 –
19, 2005.
Problem 1. An acute triangle ABC is
given. Find the locus of points M in the
interior of the triangle such that AB−FG
= (MF·AG+MG·BF)/CM, where F and
G are the feet of perpendiculars from M
to the lines BC and AC, respectively.
Problem 2. Find the number of subsets
B of the set {1, 2, …, 2005} such that the
sum of the elements of B is congruent to
2006 modulo 2048.
Problem 3. Let R* be the set of non-zero
real numbers. Find all functions f : R* →
R* such that
f ( xy )
f ( x 2 + y ) = f 2 ( x) +
f ( x)
for all x, y ∈R*, y ≠ −x2.
Problem 4. Let a1, a2, …, a2005, b1, b2,
⋯, b2005 be real numbers such that
2005
(ai x − bi ) 2 ≥ ∑ (a x − b ) j j then there will be another (smaller)
j =1, j ≠ i
for any real number x and i = 1, 2, …,
2005. What is the maximal number of
positive ai’s and bi’s?
(continued on page 4)
Editors: 張 百 康 (CHEUNG Pak-Hong), Munsang College, HK
高 子 眉 (KO Tsz-Mei)
梁 達 榮 (LEUNG Tat-Wing)
李 健 賢 (LI Kin-Yin), Dept. of Math., HKUST
吳 鏡 波 (NG Keng-Po Roger), ITC, HKPU
Artist: 楊 秀 英 (YEUNG Sau-Ying Camille), MFA, CU
Acknowledgment: Thanks to Elina Chiu, Math. Dept.,
HKUST for general assistance.
On-line:
http://www.math.ust.hk/mathematical_excalibur/
The editors welcome contributions from all teachers and
students. With your submission, please include your name,
address, school, email, telephone and fax numbers (if
available). Electronic submissions, especially in MS Word,
are encouraged. The deadline for receiving material for the
next issue is December 10, 2005.
For individual subscription for the next five issues for the
03-04 academic year, send us five stamped self-addressed
envelopes. Send all correspondence to:
Dr. Kin-Yin LI
Department of Mathematics
The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Fax: (852) 2358 1643
Email: makyli@ust.hk
The Method of Infinite Descent
Leung Tat-Wing
The technique of infinite descent
(descent infini) was developed by the
great amateur mathematician Pierre de
Fermat (1601-1665). Besides using the
technique to prove negative results such
as the equation x4 + y4 = z2 has no
nontrivial integer solution, he also used
the technique to prove positive results.
For instance, he knew that an odd prime
p can be expressed as the sum of two
integer squares if and only if p is of the
form 4k + 1. To show that a prime of
the form 4k + 3 is not a sum of two
squares is not hard. In fact, every square
equals 0 or 1 mod 4, thus no matter what
possibilities, the sum of two squares
cannot be of the form 4k + 3 ≡ 3 (mod
4). To prove a prime of the form 4k + 1
is the sum of two squares, he assumed
that if there is a prime of the form 4k + 1
which is not the sum of two squares,
prime of the same nature, and hence a
third one, and so on. Eventually he
would come to the number 5, which
should not be the sum of two squares.
But we know 5 = 12 + 22 a sum of two
squares, a contradiction!
The idea of infinite descent may be
described as follows. Mainly it is
because a finite subset of natural
numbers must have a smallest member.
So if A is a subset of the natural numbers
N, and if we need to prove, for every
a ∈ A, the statement P(a) is valid.
Suppose by contradiction, the statement
is not valid for all a ∈ A, i.e. there
exists a non-empty subset of A, denoted
by B, and such that P(x) is not true for
any x ∈ B. Now because B is
non-empty, there exists a smallest
element of B, denoted by b and such that
P(b) is not valid. Using the given
conditions, if we can find a still smaller
c ∈ A ( c < b ), and such that P(c) is not
valid, then this will contradict the
assumption of b. The conclusion is that
P(a) must be valid for all a ∈ A.
O ctober 2005 – N ov em ber 2005
There are variations of this scenario. For
instance, suppose there is a positive
integer a1 such that P(a1) is valid, and
from this, if we can find a smaller
positive integer a2 such that P(a2) is
valid, then we can find a still smaller
positive integer a3 such that P(a3) is
valid, and so on. Hence we can find an
infinite and decreasing chain of positive
integers (infinite descent) a1 > a2 > a3 >
⋯. This is clearly impossible. So the
initial hypothesis P(a1) cannot be valid.
So the method of descent is essentially
another form of induction. Recall that
in mathematical induction, we start
from a smallest element a of a subset of
natural numbers, (initial step), and
prove the so-called inductive step. So
we can go from P(a) to P(a + 1), then
P(a + 2) and so on.
Many problems in mathematics
competition require the uses of the
method of descent. We give a few
examples. First we use the method of
infinite descent to prove the well-known
result that 2 is irrational. Of course
the classical proof is essentially a
descent argument.
Example 1: Show that 2 is irrational.
Solution. We need to show that there do
not exist positive integers x and y such
that x/y = 2 or by taking squares, we
need to show the equation x2 = 2y2 has
no positive integer solution.
Suppose otherwise, let x = m, y = n be a
solution of the equation and such that m
is the smallest possible value of x that
satisfies the equation. Then m2 = 2n2
and this is possible only if m is even,
hence m=2m1. Thus, 4m12 = (2m1)2=2n2,
so n2 = 2m12. This implies n is also a
possible value of x in the equation x2 =
2y2. However, n < m, contradicting the
minimality of m.
M athematical Excalibur,
Excalibur Vol. 10, No. 4, Oct. 05- N ov. 05
Example 2 (Hungarian MO 2000):
Find all positive primes p for which
there exist positive integers x, y and n
such that pn = x3 + y3.
Solution. Observe 21 = 13 + 13 and 32 =
23 + 13. After many trials we found no
more primes with this property. So we
suspect the only answers are p = 2 or p
= 3. Thus, we need to prove there exists
no prime p ( p > 3 ) satisfying pn = x3 +
y3. Clearly we need to prove by
contradiction and one possibility is to
make use of the descent method. (In
this case we make descent on n and it
works.)
So we assume pn = x3 + y3 with x, y, n
positive integers and n of the smallest
possible value. Now p ≥ 5. Hence at
least one of x and y is greater than 1.
Also
x 3 + y 3 = ( x + y )( x 2 − xy + y 2 ),
with x + y ≥ 3 and
x 2 − xy + y 2 = ( x − y ) 2 + xy ≥ 2.
Hence both x + y and x2 – xy + y2 are
divisible by p. Therefore
( x + y ) 2 − ( x 2 − xy + y 2 ) = 3 xy
is also divisible by p. However, 3 is not
divisible by p, so at least one of x or y
must be divisible by p. As x + y is
divisible by p, both x and y are divisible
by p. Then x3 + y3 ≥ 2p3. So we must
have n > 3 and
3 3
p n x3 y 3  x   y 
p n −3 = = + =  +  .
p 3 p3 p3  p   p 
This contradicts the minimality of n.
Example 3 (Putnam Exam 1973): Let
a1, a2, ⋯, a2n+1 be a set of integers such
that, if any one of them is removed, the
remaining ones can be divided into two
sets of n integers with equal sums.
Prove a1 = a2 = ⋯ = a2n+1.
Solution. Assume a1 ≤ a2 ≤ ⋯ ≤ a2n+1.
By subtracting the smallest number
from the sequence we observe the new
sequence still maintain the property. So
we may assume a1 = 0. The sum of any
2n members equals 0 mod 2, so any
two members must be of the same
parity, (otherwise we may swap two
Page 2
members to form two groups of 2n Sylvester was annoyed to find that he
elements which are of different parity). was unable to tackle this deceptively
Therefore simple problem. It was later solved by
the technique of descent. The idea is to
0 = a1 ≡ a2 ≡ ⋯ ≡ a2n+1 (mod 2).
consider the smallest possible element
with a certain property.
Dividing by 2, we note the new sequence
will maintain the same property. Using the
Example 5 (Sylvester’s Problem):
same reasoning we see that 0 = a1 ≡ a2 ≡ ⋯
Given n (n ≥ 3) points on the plane. If a
≡ a2n+1 (mod 22). We may descent to 0 = a1
line passing through any two points
≡ a2 ≡ ⋯ ≡ a2n+1 (mod 2m) for all m ≥ 1.
also passes through a third point of the
This is possible only if the initial numbers
set, then prove that all the points lie on
are all equal to others.
the same line.
Example 4: Starting from a vertex of an
Solution. We prove an equivalent
acute triangle, the perpendicular is drawn,
statement. Namely if there are n (n ≥ 3)
meeting the opposite side (side 1) at A1.
points on the plane and such that they
From A1, a perpendicular is drawn to meet
are not on the same line, then there
another side (side 2) at A2. Starting from
exists a line passing through exactly
A2, the perpendicular is drawn to meet the
two points.
third side (side 3) at A3. The
perpendicular from A3 is then drawn to
Now there are finitely many lines that
meet side 1 at A4 and then back to side 2,
may be formed by the points of the
and so on.
point set. Given such a line, there is at
least one point of the set which does
Prove that the points A1, A2, … are all
not lie on the line. We then consider
distinct.
the distance between the point and the
line. Finally we list all such distances
as d1 ≤ d2 ≤ ⋯ ≤ dm, namely d1 is the
minimum distance between all possible
A6 points and all possible lines, say it is
A3
the distance between A and the line l.
We now proceed to show that l contains
exactly two points of the point set.
A5
A2
Suppose not, say points B, C and D of
A4 the point set also lie on l. From A, draw
A1
the line AE perpendicular to l, with E
on l. If E is one of the B, C or D, say E
Solution. First note that because the and B coincide, we have the picture
triangle is acute, all the points Ai, i ≥ 1 lie
on the sides of the triangle, instead of A
going outside or coincide with the vertices
of the triangle. This implies Ai and Ai+1
will not coincide because they lie on d1
adjacent sides of the triangle. Suppose d0
l
now Ai coincides with Aj (i < j), and i is the
D C B=E
smallest index with this property. Then in
fact i = 1. For otherwise Ai−1 will coincide
with Aj−1, contradicting the minimality of i. Now AB = d1. However if we draw a
Finally suppose A1 coincides with Aj, j ≥3, perpendicular line from B to AC, then
this happens precisely when Aj−1 is the we will get a distance d0 less than d1,
contradicting its minimality. Similarly
vertex of the triangle facing side 1. But
if E coincides with C or D, we can also
we know that no vertices of the triangle
obtain a smaller distance.
are in the list, so again impossible.
(continued on page 4)
The following example was a problem of
Sylvester (1814-1897). Accordingly
M athematical Excalibur,
Excalibur Vol. 10, No. 4, Oct. 05- N ov. 05
Problem Corner
We welcome readers to submit their
solutions to the problems posed below
for publication consideration. The
solutions should be preceded by the
solver’s name, home (or email) address
and school affiliation. Please send
submissions to Dr. Kin Y. Li,
Department of Mathematics, The Hong
Kong University of Science &
Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon,
Hong Kong. The deadline for
submitting solutions is December 10,
2005.
Problem 236. Alice and Barbara order
a pizza. They choose an arbitrary point
P, different from the center of the pizza
and they do three straight cuts through
P, which pairwise intersect at 60˚ and
divide the pizza into 6 pieces. The
center of the pizza is not on the cuts.
Alice chooses one piece and then the
pieces are taken clockwise by Barbara,
Alice, Barbara, Alice and Barbara.
Which piece should Alice choose first
in order to get more pizza than Barbara?
(Source: 2002 Slovenian National
Math Olympiad)
Problem 237. Determine (with proof)
all polynomials p with real coefficients
such that p(x) p(x+1) = p(x2) holds for
every real number x.
(Source: 2000 Bulgarian Math
Olympiad)
Problem 238. For which positive
integers n, does there exist a
permutation (x1, x2, …, xn) of the
numbers 1, 2, …, n such that the
number x1 + x2+ ⋯+xk is divisible by k
for every k∈{1,2, …, n}?
(Source: 1998 Nordic Mathematics
Contest)
Problem 239. (Due to José Luis
Díaz-Barrero, Universitat Politècnica
de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain) In
any acute triangle ABC, prove that
 A− B  B−C  C − A
cos  + cos  + cos  +BP’ = PB + PC. The case P is on line AD
 2   2   2 
2  a +b b+c c+a
≤  + +

2  a +b
2 2 2 2
b +c c2 + a2
Problem 240. Nine judges
independently award the ranks of 1 to
20 to twenty figure-skaters, with no
ties. No two of the rankings awarded
to any figure-skater differ by more than
3. The nine rankings of each are added.
What is the maximum of the lowest of the
sums? Prove your answer is correct.
*****************
Solutions
****************
Problem 231. On each planet of a star
system, there is an astronomer observing
the nearest planet. The number of planets
is odd, and pairwise distances between
them are different. Prove that at least one
planet is not under observation.
(Source: 1966 Soviet Union Math
Olympiad)
Solution. CHAN Pak Woon (HKU Math,
Year 1), LEE Kai Seng (HKUST), WONG
Kwok Cheung (Carmel Alison Lam
Foundation Secondary School, Form 7) and
YEUNG Wai Kit (STFA Leung Kau Kui
College, Form 5).
Let there be n planets. The case of n = 1 is
clear. For n ≥ 3, suppose the case n–2 is
true. For the two closest planets, the
astronomers on them observe each other.
If any of the remaining n – 2 astronomers
observes one of these two planets, then we
do not have enough astronomers to
observe the n – 2 remaining planets.
Otherwise, we can discard these two
closest planets and apply the case n – 2.
Commended Solvers: Roger CHAN
(Vancouver, Canada) and Anna Ying PUN
(STFA Leung Kau Kui College).
Problem 232. B and C are points on the
segment AD. If AB = CD, prove that
PA+PD ≥ PB+PC for any point P.
(Source: 1966 Soviet Union Math
Olympiad)
Solution 1. Anna Ying PUN (STFA
Leung Kau Kui College).
Suppose P is not on line AD. Let P’ be such
that PAP’D is a parallelogram. Now AB=CD
implies PBP’C is a parallelogram. By
interchanging B and C, we may assume B is
between A and C. Let line PB intersect AP’
at F. Then PA+PD = PA+AP’ = PA+AF
+FP’ > PF + FP’ = PB + BF + FP’ > PB
is easy to check.
 Solution 2. LEE Kai Seng (HKUST).
.
 Secondary School, Form 7) and YEUNG
 Consider the complex plane with line AD as the
real axis and the origin at the midpoint O of
segment AD. Let the complex numbers
correspond to A, B, P be a, b, p, respectively.
Since | p ± a |2 = |p|2 ± 2Re ap + a2, so (PA +
PD)2 = 2( |p|2 + |p2–a2| + a2) . Then
Page 3
(PA + PD)2 – (PB + PC)2
= 2( |p2–a2| + a2 – b2 – | p2–b2| ) ≥ 0
by the triangle inequality. So PA+PD ≥
PB+PC.
Also equality holds if and only if the ratio of
p2 – a2 and a2 – b2 is a nonnegative number,
which is the same as p ≥ a or p ≤ –a.
Commended Solvers: CHAN Wai
Hung (Carmel Divine Grace Foundation
Secondary School, Form 7), WONG
Kwok Cheung (Carmel Alison Lam
Foundation Secondary School, Form 7) and
YEUNG Wai Kit (STFA Leung Kau
Kui College, Form 5).
Problem 233. Prove that every
positive integer not exceeding n! can
be expressed as the sum of at most n
distinct positive integers each of which
is a divisor of n!.
Solution. CHAN Ka Lok (STFA Leung
Kau Kui College, Form 6), G.R.A. 20
Math Problem Group (Roma, Italy),
LEE Kai Seng (HKUST) and YEUNG
Wai Kit (STFA Leung Kau Kui
College, Form 5).
We prove by induction on n. The case
n = 1 is clear. Suppose case n – 1 is
true. For n > 1, let 1 ≤ k ≤ n! and let q
and r be such that k = qn + r with 0 ≤ r
< n. Then 0 ≤ q ≤ (n–1)! . By the case
n –1, q can be expressed as d1 + d2 + ⋯
+ dm, where m ≤ n – 1 and di is a divisor
of (n – 1)! and di’s are distinct. Omitting
r if r = 0, we see d1n + d2n + ⋯ + dmn + r is
a desired expansion of k.
Problem 234. Determine all
polynomials P(x) of the smallest
possible degree with the following
properties:
a) The coefficient of the highest power
is 200.
b) The coefficient of the lowest power
for which it is not equal to zero is 2.
c) The sum of all its coefficients is 4.
d) P(−1) = 0, P(2) = 6 and P(3) = 8.
(Source: 2002 Austrian National
Competition)
Solution. CHAN Pak Woon (HKU
Math, Year 1), G.R.A. 20 Math Problem
Group (Roma, Italy), WONG Kwok
Cheung (Carmel Alison Lam Foundation
Wai Kit (STFA Leung Kau Kui
College, Form 5).
Note c) is the same as P(1) = 4. For
P(x)=200x(x+1)(x–1)(x–2)(x–3)+2x+2
=200x5–1000x4+1000x3
+1000x2–1198x+2,
M athematical Excalibur,
Excalibur Vol. 10, No. 4, Oct. 05- N ov. 05
all conditions are satisfied. Assume R
is another such polynomial with degree
at most 5. Then P and R agree at –1, 1,
2, 3. So
P(x)–R(x) = (x+1)(x–1)(x–2)(x–3)S(x)
with degree of S at most 1. If S is
constant, then b) implies P(0)–R(0) is 0
or 2. Then S(x) = –1/3 and we get
R(x) = P(x)+(x+1)(x–1)(x–2)(x–3)/3
= 200x5 + ⋯ –1196⅓x,
which fails b). If S is of degree 1, then a)
and b) imply S(x)=200x–1/3 and we
will get R(x) =
P(x) – (x+1)(x–1)(x–2)(x–3)(200x–1/3)
= x4/3 + ⋯,
which fails a). So no such R exists and
P is the unique answer.
Problem 235. Forty-nine students
solve a set of three problems. The
score for each problem is an integer
from 0 to 7. Prove that there exist two
students A and B such that, for each
problem, A will score at least as many
points as B.
(Source: 29th IMO Unused Problem)
Solution. LEE Kai Seng (HKUST) and
Anna Ying PUN (STFA Leung Kau Kui
College).
For n = 0,1,2,3, let Sn be the set of
ordered pairs (0,n),(1,n),⋯,(7–n,n) and
(7 – n, n + 1),⋯, (7 – n, 7). Let S4 =
{(x,y): x=2 or 3; y= 4,5,6 or 7} and S5 =
{(x,y): x=0 or 1; y=4,5,6 or 7}.
For each student, let his/her score on the
first problem be x and on the second
problem be y. Note if two students have
both of their (x,y) pairs in one of S0, S1,
S2 or S3, then one of them will score at
least as many point as the other in each
of the first two problems.
Of the 49 pairs (x,y), there are [49/6]+1
= 9 of them belong to the same Sn. If
this Sn is S4 or S5, which has 8 elements,
then two of the 9 pairs are the same and
the two students will satisfy the desired
condition. If the Sn is S0, S1, S2 or S3, then
two of these 9 students will have the
same score on the third problem and
they will satisfy the desired condition by
the note in the last paragraph.
Commended Solvers: CHAN Pak Woon
(HKU Math, Year 1), LAW Yan Pui
(Carmel Divine Grace Foundation
Secondary School, Form 7) and YEUNG
Wai Kit (STFA Leung Kau Kui College,
Form 5).
Olympiad Corner
(continued from page 1)
Problem 5. Let ABC be an acute triangle
with orthocenter H, incenter I and AC ≠
BC. The lines CH and CI meet the
circumcircle of △ ABC for the second
time at points D and L, respectively.
Prove that ∠ CIH = 90˚ if and only if
∠IDL = 90˚.
Problem 6. In a group of nine people
there are no four every two of which know
each other. Prove that the group can be
partitioned into four groups such that the
people in every group do not know each
other.
The Method of Infinite Descent
(continued from page 2)
Now if the perpendicular from A to l does
not meet any of B, C or D, then by the
pigeonhole principle, there are two points
(say C and D) which lie on one side of the
perpendicular. Again from the diagram
A with a > 0 and b > 0. Assume now (a0,
d1
d
d0 l
D C E B
We draw perpendiculars from E and C to
AD, and we observe the distances d0 < d <
d1, again contradicting the minimality of
d1. From the above arguments, we
conclude that l contains exactly two
points.
From the above example, we have
Example 6 (Polish MO 1967-68): Given
n (n ≥ 3) points on the plane and these
points are not on the same line. From any
two of these points a line is drawn and
altogether k distinct lines are formed.
Show that k ≥ n.
Solution. We proceed by induction.
Clearly three distinct lines may be drawn
from three points not on a line. Hence the
statement is true for n = 3. Suppose the
statement is valid for some n ≥ 3. Now let
A1, A2, …, An, An+1 be n + 1 distinct points
which are not on the same line. By
Page 4
Sylvester’s “theorem”, there exists a
line containing exactly two points of
the point set, say A1An+1.
Let’s consider the sets Z1 ={A1, A2, …,
An}and Z2 ={A2, A3, …, An, An+1}
Clearly at least one of the point sets
does not lie on a line. If A1, A2, …, An
do not lie on a line, by the inductive
hypothesis, we can form at least n lines
using these points. As An+1 is not one
of the members of Z1, so A1An+1 will
form a new line, (A1An+1 contains no
other points of the set) and we have at
least n + 1 lines. If A2, A3, …, An, An+1
do not lie on a line, then again we can
form at least n lines using these points.
As A1 is not one of the members of Z2,
so A1An+1 will form a new line, (A1An+1
contains no other points of the set) and
we have at least n + 1 lines.
The method of infinite descent was
used to prove a hard IMO problem.
Example 7 (IMO 1988): Prove that if
positive integers a and b are such that
ab + 1 divides a2 + b2, then (a2 +
b2)/(ab + 1) is a perfect square.
Solution. Assume (a2 + b2)/(ab + 1) =
k and k is not a perfect square. After
rearranging we have a2 − kab + b2 = k,
b0) is a solution of the Diophantine
equation and such that a0 + b0 is as
small as possible. By symmetry we
may assume a0 ≥ b0 > 0. Fixing b0 and k,
we may assume a0 is a solution of the
quadratic equation
x2 − kb0x + b02 − k = 0.
Now let the other root of the equation
be a′. Using sum and product of roots,
we have a0 + a′ = kb0 and a0a′ = b02 − k.
The first equation implies a′ is an
integer. The second equation implies a′
≠ 0, otherwise k is a perfect square,
contradicting our hypothesis. Now a′
also cannot be negative, otherwise
a′ 2 − ka′b0 + b02 ≥ a′ 2 + k + b02 > k.
Hence a′ > 0. Finally
b02 − k b02 − 1 a02 − 1
a' = ≤ ≤ < a0 .
a0 a0 a0
This implies (a′, b0) is a positive
integer solution of a2 − kab + b2 = k,
and a′ + b0 < a0 + b0, contradicting the
minimality of a0 + b0. Therefore k
must be a perfect square.