Islam’s first wave

Islam religion brought forth by prophet Muhammad (ca. 570-632). After the death of prophet
Muhammad, Arab armies showed up, their ambition was to erase infidels, conversion to Islam was
boosted by Arab Muslim forces. In little more than 100 years, from Atlantic Ocean to Indus River, Islamic
empire was going to be the largest the world had ever seen. But lands they conquered were in revolt.
Caliph ruled the Islamic empire, caliphate was basically in Medina. Over the time of empire, Umayyads
dynasty (660-750) took the control of caliphate, and caliphate moved to Medina to Damascus and then
to Baghdad under the Abbasids (750-1258). In the last caliphate inhibited in Constantinople under the
Ottomans (1299-1922). The Arabs conquered Karman in 644, Suhail ibn Adi was appointed governor of
province, he organized a campaign in Baluchistan that brought some of that region under Islamic
control. Even then Islamic control in Karman was slight. Caliph Uthman sent Majasha ibn Masood in 652
to recapture Karman, reconquered Baluchistan as well. In 660 Haris ibn Marah Abdi successfully led a
large Arab force to control over Makran, Baluchistan, and Sind. But in 663, ibn Marah and his most of
armies were killed, and control over Baluchistan region was lost. Kabul and the Buddhist holy land of
Gandhara had been under the rule of the Shahi dynasty since the decline of the Kushan empire.

The first of the Shahis were Buddhists. In 663 an Arab army arrived at Kabul demanding its king to
accept Islam. For two years the Islamic warriors fought throughout the kingdom until, in 665, the city
fell. The king converted, and the Arabs withdrew. The Turkish king of Gandhara killed the ruler of Kabul,
and ceded Ghazni-Kandahar in southeastern Afghanistan to his brother. The Turk Shahi dynasty
controlled the area for next two centuries. The Arabs tried to collect tribute from two Shahi kingdoms,
but all efforts went in vain. In 632, dispute in Muslim community was over the question of succession of
caliphate resulted in the killing of Hysayn, and this led to the establishment of Shi’i branch and Sunni
branch in Islam. After this disruption, ruler who had been subjugated by Arab reasserted their
independence. General Qutaibah bin Muslim (d. 715) reconquered a large area of Transoxiana but was
unable to defeat the Kabul Shahi.

Arab in Sindh
In 710, Arab ship was carrying gifts from the king of Ceylon to caliph Walid 1, were seized and
imprisoned its crew and passenger by Debal pirates. In the response, governor of the Islamic empire's
eastern end, Hajjaj bin Yousuf demanded kingdom’s ruler, Raja Dahir, pay for ship and free its
passengers. But Dahir claimed that he had no relation with the pirates and broke down negotiations.
After two limited and defeated campaigns, finally Yousaf received major campaign against all Sindh.

The Campaigns of Muhammad bin Qasim

Muhammad bin Qasim was born around 695 AD. Qasim was an intelligent young man who at
the age of fifteen was considered by many to be one of his uncle’s greatest assets. At age 16 he served
under General Qutaibah bin Muslim. He came in Sindh with His attack force included 6,000 Syrian
horsemen, 6,000 troops on camels, and 3,000 Bactrian camels to carry supplies. First region of Sindh on
which he attacked was coastal strip of Makran. Then he attacked of Armabil. Qasim’s Armies dug
trenches at Debal on the Indus River Delta and awaited orders to attach. Debal's flag was soon knocked
down, and the town was conquered. Qasim next attacked Neronkut, which was under the rule of Raja
Dahir's son, Prince Jay Singh. By the order of Dahir, Prince Jay Singh left the city and joined his father at
Brahamanabad. Qasim then attacked on Sehwan, after another week of battle, Bhoj Rai, ruler of
Sehwan, fled. Sehwan became a center of Islamic power in Sind.

Final Victories
Bhoj Rai blocked the river crossing through Brahmanabad. Meanwhile, the army encamped on
its banks. After several weeks their supplies began to run out. On the request to Yousaf, Qasim received
2000 horses and vinegar-soaked cotton. After 50 days they crossed river by building a bridge of boats.
After several days of skirmishes, Dahir was decapitated by an Arab swordsman. The Multan fort resisted
Arabs for several months, but finally, they cut off the supplies to the fort. And Multan fort surrendered.
To protect their Temples, Multanis gave treasure to Qasim. Yousaf and Caliph Walid 1 died during the
campaign. Sulaiman, the new Caliph, ceded power to enemy. Before the further steps, Qasim was
recalled and executed.

Sind after Muhammad bin Qasim

Sindh remained the part of Islamic empire for next two years. Islam spread while Hindus and
Buddhists continued to practice their faith. After 10 years of Qasim’s conquests, Junaid, an Arab
governor, wanted to expand Sind’s empire to the east by taking over Kutch. But in 738, the Arabs were
defeated at the Battle of Rajasthan by the Pratihara Rajputs of the Thar Desert. Laladitya (724-760)
halted northward expansion into Punjab from Multan. Not only Arabs were seeking territory in the
region, but also Tibet ruled much of Nepal. In 726, Tibet conquered Skardu. In 747 the Chinese sent
troops to southern Chitral, where they replaced pro-Tibet ruler and put their brothers on the throne.
But Tibet dominated over the Gilgit Valley and upper Chitral. Arabs won the battle against Chinese for
the control of area at the Battle of Talas in 751. In the aftermath nomadic Turkish settled in region and
converted to Islam.

The Abbasids
In 750, after the era of Umayyads (661–750), Abbasid caliphate (750–1258) came into being.
Baghdad was founded as the new capital but was later replaced by Samarra. Baghdad was located
between Asia and Europe. First three centuries of Abbasid rule were golden age of Islam. During this
period, new techniques were developed that spread Muslim realm and Islamic art and architecture.

The Ghaznavids
The Hindu Shahi kingdom's western border was adjacent to Ghanzi. To expand his kingdom, the
Hindu Shahi Jayapala, attacked on Ghanzi, ruled by Turkish Muslim king Sebiiktigin (r. 977-997). After the
days of battle, Sebiiktigin accepted conditions of Jayapala, even then, Jayapala imprisoned Turkish
officers. In the response, Sebiiktigin attacked on his army, burnt temples, and destroyed properties. The
defeated Jayapala ultimately committed suicide.

Mahmud of Ghazni
Mahmud Gaznavi was the son of Sebiiktigin. In 998AD Mahmood took control of the Ghazni and
conquered Qandahar. He attacked South Asia seventeen times with a great victory. Mahmood of
Gaznavi was one of the undefeatable military commanders of the World. Mahmud of Ghazni destroyed
and looted many Hindu temples and Buddhist Temples. In 1001 he conquered Peshawar, and it became
an important centre of the empire.