SOCIAL

SCIENCE

Grade

9
Stephen Ranck
Introduction

CONTENTS
1 Places in the Pacific region 4
Finding places in PNGand the Pacific Region" . ."."""".".,,",,." .. "",,6
Shaping the land.." .."""".",, """.,, . ........."." ...... " 19
Climate regions in the Pacific ...................................................... 42
Vegetation in the Pacific region ,," . "." " 61
Land use in the Pacific... " ..71
Case studies for comparison with your local area .. " 90
Assessment . " 102

2 Population change, resources

and migration . 106
Studying population .... 108
Where people live and why ...." ... .." 119
Population change: comparisons .." .." " " " " .." "" 129
Migration: people on the move""" 141
Local population patterns and processes: your study "" ..." ..." ..." 148
The pull of the citv.... . 152
Assessment.... .." "" "" "..... . 170

3 Investigating Papua New Guinea

history 174
Introduction to studying history.... .... 176
The distant past and Melanesian development in PNG ".196
The world comes to PapuaNew Guinea (1600s-1900s) 213
The world wars in PapuaNew Guinea..... . " " "" 222
Assessment.. ..." .."",, ... ..." " 241

4 Civics and citizenship 244

Independence ." " " " ""." " "" ",,246
The citizen """""""""" " .. "......... .. " " 250
Citizens' rights and duties... .." " "" 255
Elections: the roles of citizens and leaders " " """ ,, 262
Being a leader...."".... ...." " " "".""." " 274
Government.. " ". "." " ". .....282
Law and order" " " " " "" " ..293
Ethics for government ........................................ 307
Assessment.. , .. ...... 319

Glossary , ,., , 322

Acknowledgments ,., ,." .., 327

Social Science Grade 9: Outcomes Edition

Dear student,
This textbook continues your journey in the social sciences. In Social Science Grade 9
you will cover four units. Each one is ten weeks long.
1 Places in the Pacific region is about geography.

2 Population change, resources and migration is about people and how their
numbers are changing the world.

3 Investigating Papua New Guinea history links what has happened in Papua New
Guinea to the world.

4 Civics and citizenship explores law, leadership and government.

You have studied all these subjects in social science during Grades 6, 7 and 8. You have
the foundation. In Grade 9 you will build on this.
This year you will do much more analysis What is analysis? Analysis is usinq all the
information you have. You examine the information. You evaluate the information. You
decide what the best answer or solution is.
Some of the tools of analysis are tables, graphs and diagrams. This year you will have
lessons where you get to use these. You will also make your own tables, graphs and
diagrams to help your analysis.

Prelims 3
For students
Unit summary
In this unit you will explore parts of geography.
You will use maps, tables, graphs and diagrams to
discover more about the region. And you will make
these so you can compare your place with other
places.
You will look at how land is shaped. You will also
study climate and vegetation in the Pacific region.
Climate and vegetation are both related to landforms.
That means you can explore connections between
the land, the vegetation and climates.
Then we move to human beings and how they use the
land.Youwill learn more about land use in the region.You
will be able to discuss land use with your classmates.We
will follow examples in Pacific region countries.
For teachers
In this unit students will have the opportunity to:
.I improve and apply their skills at mapping, making
diagrams and tables, making and interpreting
graphs, and making models
.I understand basic earth-shaping forces and identify
them in their local region
.I understand the basics of climate regions in the
Pacific and find climatic features in their local
environment
.I make and interpret climographs
.I understand the basics of vegetation in the
Pacific and find vegetation features in their local
environment
.I begin to understand the magnitude and variety of
land use in the Pacific region

Yes, it is big. We will .I manipulate data to compare their local area with
This map of the have to decide what at least one other place in the Pacific that is
Pacific is BIG! different from their place.

Assessment for this unit is described at the end of

the unit.
.I Assessment task one-a mapping test

.I Assessment task two-compare the physical

characteristics of your local environment with
those from one other Pacific region country

_ ' I ~ ~ _ ~~ "\"} j / (,f ,;~ ~~ '- \\

, ~ / - -' ~ --...:.-" ~ <:::j' ~"'-, ' !' r :~... '
4 Social Science Grade' 9: Outcomes Edition . ---, . ~ .:_ , \ \.\, ,
"'- -;:~ "i' ! ",," \ /
 Links with other units and strands
There are links with mathematics and personal development.

Syllabus references
Students can:
9.1.1 demonstrate a range of mapping skills
9.1.2 apply geographic skills to describe the physical surroundings they live in
9.1.3 demonstrate an understanding of physical characteristics of places in the Pacific

Unit 1 Places in the Pacific region will take 10 weeks to complete, including assessments. A suggested
timetable is shown below.

Modify materials, assignments and times as needed. The curriculum calls for fieldwork with teachers
planning according to their local conditions. Lesson mate rial can be incorporated.
~
Week 1 Places in PNG and the Pacific WeekS Climate regions in the Pacific il.'.
Region (continue Week 4 topics)
iii· Ii'
What is the Pacific region? Assessment task one I
Using maps, atlases and globes
WeekS Vegetation in the Pacific region ~,
Using scales on maps ~
World vegetation patterns It"
Using latitude and longitude
I Types of vegetation in the Pacific
iii!
Impacts on vegetation
Week 2 Shaping the land I~
Landforms
Week 7 Land use in the Pacific
•
The Earth's moving crust ).
Forestry, agriculture, industry :.',
The islands of the Pacific
Maps and shaping the land; making
! Land use for other resources
i',
Urban land use
maps
Land use in your local areal_!
Rapid changes that shape the land
,:'
Week 3 Shaping the land (continue Week
WeekS Land use in the Pacific I
3 topics)
Week 9
(continue Week 7 topics)

Case·studies for comparison with

iI
Week 4 Climate regions in the Pacific
Climate J PNG
Indonesia, Australia, New Zealand,
I:;::

The tropics
The temperate regions
Japan
Assessment task two
il
Desert climates ~
Week 10 Revision and Assessment task two
Climate in your local environment
(continue Week 9 topics)
~~fil;, ~
'" '~~"!Ji ,~. 1;:

Unit 1: Places in the Pacific region 5

J \ "- ,j I I,
FINDING PLACES IN PNG AND THE
PACIFIC REGION
Studying places in the Pacific
You are a Pacific person. You are part of the Pacific region. This region covers nearly half
the world. It is made up of many countries and peoples. It is filled with interesting places.
Your place is one of them.
What is the Pacific region?
Think about the Pacific Ocean, the largest ocean on the Earth. Discuss what countries and
places you think are part of the Pacific. Which countries are not part of the Pacific?
Next map what you think is the Pacific region. You can do this as a class using the blackboard
or as individuals on paper. Give your reasons for what you include and what you leave out.
Here are five Pacific organisations and their members:

Pacific Rim Regional Association of Resource Conservation and Development

Councils.
Members: Resource Conservation and Development Councils in Alaska, California,
Hawaii, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, American Samoa and the Marianas.

The Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC),an international The Pacific Science
assistanceorganisation. Association promotes science
in the Pacific. Eachcountry
Members: American Samoa, Australia, Cook Islands, Federated
or region has one national
Statesof Micronesia (FSM), Fiji Islands, France, French Polynesia,
member. This can be a
Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Caledonia, New
National Academy of Science
Zealand, Niue, Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), Palau, Papua New
or major university: Australia,
Guinea (PNG), Pitcairn Islands, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tokelau,
China-Beijing, China-
Tonga, Tuvalu, the United States,Vanuatu, and Wallis and Futuna.
Hong Kong, China-Taipei,
France, Guam, Indonesia,
Japan, Korea, Malaysia,
The Pacific Islands Forum (PIF), another international assistance
Okinawa, Singapore, South
organisation.
Pacific (University of the
Members: Australia, Cook Islands, FederatedStatesof Micronesia,
South), Thailand, the United
Fiji, Kiribati, Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea,
Kingdom, the United States
Republic of the Marshall Islands, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga,
and Vietnam.
Tuvalu and Vanuatu. Additionally, New Caledonia and French Polynesia
are associate members; Tokelau and Wallis and Futuna are observers;
and Timor-Leste has special observer status.

The Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership

Key term
(TPP), a free trade agreement.
Members: The TPP started in 2005 with Brunei, Trans acr ss.A
trans-Pacific group
Chile, New Zealand and Singapore. In 2010
is one from across
Australia, Peru, the United Statesand Vietnam the Pacifi!=
began negotiations to join.

There are thousands of Pacific organisations and associations. The five above provide good examples of the
variety. They raise the question: "What is the Pacific region?"
~ Do, think and decide
1 How many of the places mentioned in the five organisations described on page 7 can you find on a map?

2 How far are they from PNG?

3 What interests do you think they have in the Pacific region?

1m Explore
1 There are over 40 countries around the Pacific Rim. How many can you locate?

2 Organise these countries into specific groups with similar characteristics:

a those located in the northern or southern hemisphere

b those with populations below 300 000 and those with populations above 300 000.

3 Present your information as a chart.

Using maps, atlases and globes

Geography studies places. It looks at how location makes a difference. It also looks at how locations are
connected. Geography is a bridge that connects social and physical sciences. Maps are an important part of
this. You will work using different maps to find information about a place. You will see how scale makes a big
difference in what can be mapped.

C Discuss
1 What is a map? Discuss this in class.

2 Is there anything you cannot map?

One way of looking at places in the Pacific is using maps. There are many types of maps that show the
Pacific region:
• Part or all of the region can be shown on a single sheet of paper or cloth.
• An atlas is a collection of maps. An atlas of Papua New Guinea would be a collection of maps about
Papua New Guinea.
• A globe shows the Pacific region as part of the Earth that the globe represents.
• Maps can show parts of the physical world.
191 Explore
1 Study the maps that you have in the classroom. What do these different maps tell you?

2 List at least three things an atlas of the Pacific will show.

3 Can you find lines of latitude and longitude on the maps? (It is easier to study latitude and
longitude if you have a globe.)

4 Many maps have other ways of locating places. Can you find a map with a different
location system?

IiJ Review
Let's review basic map reading. In pairs, answer the questions below and be prepared to
present your information to the class.

Orientation: which way are maps oriented? (Hint: there is an arrow that points in this
direction on the compass.)

2 Compass: what is a compass? What are the four cardinal directions on the compass?

3 Key: what is a key on a map? What does it show you?

Using scales on maps

Key term
C Discuss scale a r tie of
size in a ap
1 What is a scale? Discuss this in class.

2 Is there anything in the physical world that you cannot scale?

A scale on a map is a type of ratio. You will have studied ratios in maths. A scale is a Did you know?
practical use of a ratio. The scale on a map tells you what one unit on the map equals The metricsystem
on the ground. wasstartedin
The units can be anything. For example, a scale of 1:5 means that one unit on the map France.The
original platinum
equals 5 units on the ground. If you put your hand on that map, you know that the same metrestick is kept
distance on the ground is five hands. If you put two hands on the map, what will the in France.It was
distance on the ground be? officially adopted
for measurement
We don't use hands for measures very often. The official measuring system for PNG is in 1795 by the
metric. To measure distance, we use linear measures. "Linear" comes from lines. The Frenchgovernment.
lines can be straight or curved. The measuring system is the same: Officially i is called
the Intemaional
• The metre is the basic measure. Systemof Units (51).
• Each metre can be divided into 100 centimetres. Almostall countries
of the world now
• Each centimetre can be divided into 10 millimetres. usethis system.
• A kilometre is 1000 metres long. Themainexception
is the USA.
 )
~ Discover
The simplest scale is one to one. A map with this scale would show it as 1:1.

1 As a class, discuss what this means.

2 Can you draw a map of anything using a 1:1 scale?

3 At left is a line that is exactly 20 centimetres long. It is just like a ruler. Make a map of
this line on a 1:1 scale. Next do it at a 1 2 scale. And to finish, do it as a 1:10 scale.

1:100 000
A map with a scale of 1:100000 is common in PNG. It means that one unit on the map
equals one hundred thousand units on the ground. If the unit is centimetres, then one
centimetre on the map equals 100 000 centimetres on the ground.
Do you remember what 100 000 centimetres is? It is 1000 metres. And 1000 metres
is 1 kilometre. So a 1:100 000 scale means that one centimetre on the map equals one
kilometre on the ground.

Large scale and small scale maps

Geographers talk about large scale and small scale maps. A large scale map will show a
small amount of land. A house plan or a street directory is large scale. You can provide
many details on a large scale map. The example below shows Lae at 1: 25 000.

This map shows Lae based on 1974 information. The airport is closed. If you live in Lae, you will notice
what other changes have happened. You see that you can locate each building at this scale.
 Here are three examples of the type of
scale you will find on large scale maps:
Large scale maps
• 1:2000 (a street map of Canberra,
Australia) S.h.
ow ascale
Small areua.
small maps

• 1:100 (plans for a building)

• 1:25000 (a map of L'ae).
Small scale maps show much more
--~
show a large area.

"".

territory. A good example is a globe. The

maps on globes are small scale. A small
scale map can show the whole world.
Small scale maps have less detail. Below
is a small scale map of the world. It shows
you where each continent is.

World map: Where are the continents? Where is the equator? Look at PNG and you should be able to
figure it out.

/
J Finding the scale
~ What is the scale of the world map on page 11? First, remember it is flat, so the scale is only good at the
equator. The rest is distorted (which is why Greenland looks so big.)
To find the scale, follow these steps:

till equator so the width of the map represents40 000 km.

2 Calculate how many centimetres 40 000 km is. To do this, go back to see how many metres are in a
kilometre and how many centimetres are in a metre.

40000 x 1000 = number of metres

number of metres x 100 = number of centimetres
When you have an answer; write the ratio like this:

length of equator on the map in centimetres: length of equator in the real world in centimetres

Here are three examples of the type of scale you will find on small scale maps:
• 1:8750000 (a map of Indonesia and its Southeast Asian neighbours)
• 1:26 600 000 (a map of Antarctica and the countries around it)
• 1:37870000 (a map of the Pacific Ocean floor).

C Discuss
1 In small groups, discuss why a small scale has large numbers and a large scale has small numbers. Present your
findings to the class.

Using latitude and longitude

You have studied lines of latitude and longitude before. Figure 1.1 shows them as they circle the Earth. Figure
1.2 shows how they appear on a flat map. You can see some distortion below. Let's quickly review them.

North Pole North Pole

Equator

Longitude Latitude
Figure 1.1.
 +90
..c
t
0 +60
Each degree (OJ 2:
can be divided
into 60 minutes +30
CI)
(') and each '0
minute can be ....
:::l
'';::;
0
divide into 60 co
....I
seconds ("). 30

s:
....:::l 60
0 ~,j
en 90 /~ _.'it
180 90 0 +90 +180
West longitude East
Figure 1.2.

Latitude: You remember the equator. That is the longest line of latitude. It is zero degrees. You can move
north or south of the equator. Each line is shorter than the next as it goes around the world. You can go 90°
north or south. Port Moresby is at about nine-and-a-half degrees south of the equator, or 9°30',
Longitude: The prime meridian or first line of longitude is the line that runs around the world through both
the North Pole and the South Pole. It is zero degrees or 0°. It divides the world into east and west. You can go
180° east or west of the prime meridian. You hit the same line again at 180°. Port Moresby is about 1470 east
of the prime meridian.
You can locate any place by latitude and longitude. You report latitude first, that is, North or South. Then you
report longitude, either East or West. Each degree {OJ can be divided into 60 minutes. Each minute can be
divided into 60 seconds. You can calculate or estimate minutes depending on the scale of the map (or globe).
The same is true for seconds where you need large scales to
be accurate. Often you just want a general idea of the location.
You can just report degrees in that case.
Look at a world map. What is the latitude and longitude of
Port Moresby is
Wellington, New Zealand? From the equator you go south 9°30'S; 147°E,
about 41"S. and from the prime meridian you go east about
174°E. The location is about 41"S 174°E.
 JI Discover
1 Use a globe, atlas or other map to find the locations in latitude and longitude for these ten Pacific places.

Place Latitude Longitude

Juneau, Alaska, USA

La Paz, Baja California, Mexico

Guayaquil, Ecuador

Lima, Peru

Punto Arenas, Chile

Hobart, Tasmania, Australia

San Cristobal Island, Solomon Islands

Pagan Island, Northern Marianas

Taipei, Taiwan

Wenzhou, China

Measuring distances
How far is it from your home to school? How far from your home to the nearest trade store? How far is it to
the nearest hospital?

Distance is important. You can measure distance on maps using the scale. Many maps will give you both a
graphic scale and a ratio scale in the key. Here are examples of three ways a scale can be presented. The
examples are all for the Lorengau (Lou Island) map on page 17.

1 A graphic scale:
SCALE 1: 100 000
o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 kilometre.
ISSHSHssHsHssHSSSSHsHSSHSHssHsSSSHsHsSHSHssHSHSSHsHsSHsHssHsSssHsHssHSB

2 A ratio scale: 1:100000

3 A written ratio scale:One centimetreon the map is one kilometre on the ground.

/
You use the scale to help you measure distance. To measure a straight line on
HELP
a map is easy.
1 First determine what the scale is. Say it is 1:100 OOO-that is, 1 em on the Remember th t
map equals 100000 em on the ground. 100000 cm = rOOO m
and 1000 m = 1 km.
2 Measure the distance on the map to find how many centimetres it is. Then
So 1:100 000 means
multiply that number by 100000 to find the number of centimetres on the
that 1 cm on the map
ground. equals 1 km omthe
3 Convert the number of centimetres on the ground into kilometres. ground.

Example

A bird flies in a straiqht tine'frorn Big Village to Little Village. Its route is shown on a map with a cale
1:100 000.
A straight line from Big Village to Little Village is 10 cm on the map.
1em equals tkm.
Multiply 1 x 10 ~ 10.The distance is ten kilometres.

But what if the path or road is not straight? Figure 1.3 on page 16 shows what to do in this case to measure
distance on the map.
 ~-

1. Place straight edge of paper along
feature to be measured, e.g. a coast.
2. Make a mark where the paper intersects
the coast. Hold the paper steady with the
point of a pencil. (Be sure paper is right
against the coast as in the second frame.)
3. Swivel paper.
4. Mark where paper intersects with coast.
5. Keep going and repeat process if you want to
measure to C or D.
6. Measure the marks against the map scale for
total distance.

Figure 1.3: Measuring a crooked line on a map.

Take a piece of paper and a sharp pencil Place the edge of the paper along the first straight part of the
crooked line and mark off where that section starts and ends on the paper. Hold the paper steady with the
pencil point and swivel the paper to the next straight section of line and mark it off. In this way mark off each
section with the pencil. When you come to the end, you will have many small marks along the paper. You
measure from the beginning to the end of the paper marks for the total distance. That will be in centimetres.
You convert it to the real distance from the scale.

Another way to measure

crooked lines on a map is
to use a piece of string or
cotton thread. Carefully place
/
I
the string or cotton along
the line. When you reach the
end, straighten the string or
cotton and measure it. This
I
will tell you the distance from
beginning to end.
II Discover

1 Here is a portion of the Lorengau map sheet for a small part of the Manus Province,The scale is 1:1
map shows a section of Lou Island, famous for obsidian and human settlement for thousands of yea

a Can you fly to Lou Island or will you need to take a boat?

b How far is it from Rei to Solang if you walk on the track?

c How far is it if you go by boat along the coast around SovaraniPoint?

d How far is it from Lago around the coast to Paun?

2 Now go back to the map of Lae on page 10, The scale is 1:25000,

a How many centimetres on the map equal one kilometre on the ground?

b How much of the old airstrip is there from the edge of the map to its north-west end?

c Find the large building just north of the words "timber mill" and "Milford Haven','About how many
it at its longest part? Draw the building at a scale of 1:5000,
3 Above is a smaller scale map at 1:250000, It shows part of the D'Entrecasteaux Islands, This is another place for
obsidian, Check your map skills and answer these questions:

a What is at 9°30'S and 150030'E?

b Walk the coast from Kalo Kalo Mission to Wapolu Point. How far is it?

c Cross Moresby Strait from Kalo Kalo Mission to Nuatutu Point. How far is it to paddle an outrigger?

d Fly from Kalo Kalo airstrip to lamalale airstrip, How far is it flying in a straight line?

e Walk from lamalale airstrip to Saibutu. How far is it?

f Can you give an estimate of the area of coconut planted at Nuatutu Point? (Hint: use the area of a triangle to
make the astimate.l
 SHAPING THE LAND
Landforms
Look around you at the shape of the land. Look out the windows or step out of the Key term
class for a minute. How many landforms can you see from your school grounds? landform
Papua New Guinea has many landforms. Here are some of the basic ones: natural ~eature
of the E rth's
• Mountains are shapes or forms over 500 m high; they slope steeply in most of PNG. surface
• Hills are lower in height than mountains. They are often more rounded in shape and
slope. Some can still be very steep.
• Plains are generally flat or rolling. Western Province and the Sepik have large areas Did you know?
of plains. PNG'sfirst high
schoolis locatedon
• Plateaus are like plains but located at greater heights. Similar to plateaus are basins.
SogeriHlateau,close
They look like a bowl in the mountains while plateaus are flat. to PortMoresby.
Theplateauclimate
SlM ourrtatns
.. is cool r because
un d er t h e sea

I Guam is a Pacific island north of PNG.

It is near the equator. Mount Lamlam is
the highest mountain in Guam. It is just
of itselevation
(height).The Sogeri
Plateaumakesa
goodp aceto study.
Canyou think of
otherreasonswhy?
over 400 metres high to climb. But wait
a minute: Mount Lamlam is actually the
top of a submarine (underwater)
mountain that is over 11 000 metres

I
from bottom to top!
There are mountains below the sea
much higher than those on land.
Usually we are only interested in
II measuring the height of mountains
Mount Lamlam rises out of the Pacific.
above sea level. But when we study
the landform of an island, we could make measuresbelow sea level too. How
!l might that help us understand island landforms?

From these basic landforms there are many other landtorrns. Here pre some examples:
• coastlines, with many features caused by the interaction of the sea and land
including bays, cliffs, beaches and reefs
• islands, from unstable sand formations to island continents
• swamps and other wetland/water features such as lakes, rivers, marshes and bogs
• valleys, which form between mountains or hills.
And there are many more special land features on the Earth's surface.
 The Earth's moving crust
Did you know? The continents are moving. The whole surface of the Earth is moving. It is only by one
or two millimetres a year, but that is enough to make steep mountains and deep ocean
The E~rth's crust is
betweert-B and 64 trenches.
kilometresdeep. The thin continental crusts of the Earth are where humans live. Immediately
beneath the Earth's crust lies the lithosphere. Litho means rock. Tectonic plates
form the lithosphere. A softer and hotter layer lies far beneath the rocks called the
Key terms asthenosphere. The tectonic plates of the lithosphere are made of strong material that
lithosphere the can "float" and slowly move on the asthenosphere.
outer layersof
In some places the plates of the Earth's crust push or grind against each other. In other
the planet Earth
including the places they pull apart or rift. In some places one plate is sliding under another, making a
crust and mantle deep ocean trench. This is called subduction. Plate movement takes millions of years.
tectonic plate
Subduction occurs around the Pacific Plate. One result is the Pacific Ring of Fire. The
a section of the
Earth'ssurface ring is made up of volcanoes. The movement of the plate has allowed magma from
that slowly moves below the lithosphere and asthenosphere to erupt. (See Figure 1.4 on page 21.) The
over time result is volcanoes. Volcanoes are a common landform around the Pacific and are part
asthenosphere
a thick layerof of many small Pacific Island nations.
material in the
Earth'smantle
that allows for
tectonic plates to
move
crust the hard
surfaceof the
Earth
rift where two
tectonic plates
pull apart
subduction the
processof a
tectonic plate
forced downward
into the Earth's
.mantle by
another tectonic
plate
magma molten
rock and other
melted Earth
material

An undersea volcano erupts inTonga, a Pacific Island country with active volcanoes.
 Plate tectonics

Around 1600 AD some people noticed that South

America and Africa fitted together. Look at a world
map to seethis. No one could explain how they
moved apart with the Atlantic Ocean in between.
A German scientist published a theory in 1915
that said the continents had drifted apart after all
being together. But most scientists thought the
continents did not move. The theory of plate tectonics
finally explained this in the 1960s. New scientific
information made it possible.

Figure 1.4:Tectonic plate processes act over millions of years.

Scientists are still not completely sure about what makes the tectonic plates move. Heat from beneath
the plates, the Earth's rotation, and even the moon and tides have all been considered as part of the
movement process.

What is certain is that the Earth's major mountains and rift valleys are the result of tectonic plate movement.
Volcanoes have erupted where plate movement has thinned the layers enough for magma to break t rough to
the Earth's surface. The Hawaiian Islands are a good example of a volcanic chain of islands in the Pacific.
Change to landforms
Landforms are always changing. There are forces that build them up. Plate tectonics is a major force to change
landforms. The plates pushing against each other create mountains.
Usually this is a slow process over millions of years, but it can also be rapid and destructive. For example,
massive volcanic explosions have destroyed landforms and quickly created new ones. Earthquakes can cause
quick change. Fortunately, these types of events are rare. You can research volcanoes and how they change
the landscape, adding mountains and fertile soils to parts of the Pacific.

Tearing the crust down and creating new landforms

There are other building processes that shape the land. You can look for them happening around you. We will
look at four processes. They are:
• mass wasting • erosion
• weathering • deposition.

I Gravity: the force behind the forces

There are many forces that break down landforms. The basic force is the Earth'sgravity. Gravity is the force
that holds you on Earth and pulls you down when you jump up. The higher up something is, the greater
the force needed to bring it down.

An example of you and gravity
You jump off your chair and
gravity pulls you to the floor
No big changes.You are OK.
You drop from a coconut tree.
Gravity pulls you down faster
and faster. You are not OK.
Do not do this!
The same happens with
landforms: the steeper the
slope, the greater the height,
the quicker the changes.

On a steep mountain:

Note also that

Rain loosens a large
boulder. Gravity speeds
it down the steep side
and it breaks in pieces.
rainwater collects
into fast-flowing
tributaries that
bring soil and rock
down from the
mountain. Gravity
gives water more
force. It can cut
and erode more
quickly.
An earthquake shakes a
weakness in the mountain.
Millions of tonnes of
material crash down.
 Mass wasting

Some types of mass wasting.

Mass wasting is gravity pulling rocks and soil down. Mass wasting includes landslips,
Key term
rock falls or a single rock at a time falling down. You may be able to find examples of
mass wasting
mass wasting changing landforms. Sometimes it is a large, dramatic event. Often it is
types of erosion
many smaller events over a long time. caused by gravity
pulling material
down a slope

Earthq~akes and wet weather are.two triggers for dramatic mass wasting. Both are common in parts of
the Pacific.Along the coast of California In the USA, the highway can be blocked by mass wasting.
 Weathering
Key terms Weathering is a direct attack on rocks. It makes large rocks smaller and turns the
weathering smallest rocks into soil. There are different ways weathering wears rocks down. Here
the breaking are some:
down of rocks
and minerals
• Mechanical weathering. Here larger pieces of rock are changed to smaller pieces.
by chemical or Water can lodge in cracks and freeze. Frozen water expands. The ice can break
physical means the rock or make the crack larger until the rock breaks. Running water can cause
abrasion a type
abrasion. This is where rocks wear against each other. You can see this at the coast
of erosion where
loose material too, where wave action breaks rocks and smooths them smaller and smaller. Wind
wears away can also cause abrasion.
surfaces
• Chemical weathering. Much of chemical weathering actually has its source in
oxidation a
chemical process biology. Plants are responsible for creating more oxygen in our atmosphere. This can
that binds oxygen react with some types of rock. The process is called oxidation. Rust is the example
to other materials of oxidation you know best. There are other types of oxidation that break down rock
to create new
and change them chemically to be other types of rock. Plants and animals can create
compounds
acids. This usually happens when they die. The acids then break down rock.

Limestone is a soft, chalky rock common in PNG. Rainwater with just a little acid will chemically weather
limestone, leaving channels and pit marks in the rock.
 • Biological weathering. Pia ts can
Roots slowly grow into joints break down rock. Tree roots can act
in the rock. During decay of the
like ice and fracture rock. Look around
organic matter, organic acids
are released. you for examples of where plants
are breaking down rock. Can you find
examples of human-made rock (like
concrete) with cracking from plants?

Gradual opening
of the joint as the
root grows

How plants help weathering processes.

Erosion
Erosion both attacks rocks and carries material away. Rock, soil and sand can all Key term
be eroded. Water, wind and ice are all ways to carry material away. Erosion and erosion removal
weathering often occur together. of Earth materials
by various
Valleys are a good example of a landform created by erosion. A V-shaped valley is
natural processes
caused by water erosion. includjn~ wind,
water, chemical
and bieloglca I
processes

Did you know?

The Pacific Ocean,
like alia eans,
causeserosion
by water. It takes
material away
in many places.
Beach erosion is
common in coastal
PNG.
V-shaped valleys are cut by rivers. This is a form of water erosion.

Wind erosion can create sand dunes. Around Hood Lagoon in Central Province, ancient
sand dunes have been stabilised by vegetation. The plants have made the land more
permanent.
 Key terms Glaciers and erosion
glacier a large The last ice age lasted for about two million years. Glaciers and ice sheetscovered
massof ice that one-third of the land at the height of this ice age. It ended about 12 000 years ago.
flows like a river
Glaciers often carry rock or earth just as rivers do. But glaciers move very
but over a much
longer time slowly. One glacial result was the making of moraines. These can be hills or large
moraine piles of material dumped by the glacier.
landform caused There are examples in the highlands of PNG where glaciers once broke rock
by glaciers
into soils and created U-shaped valleys. They ground rock into fine soil. Some of
depositing
materials such as the best soiIs are glacial.
rocks

Frozen water acts like a slow river. Ice age glaciers cut U-shaped valleys. There are many technical terms
for what the ice did.

Key terms Deposition

deposition Deposition is where material from one place is deposited in another place. It is the
the process end product of erosion. Areas where this happens are called depositional systems. Soil,
of depositing sand or rock is moved and deposited.
material that has
been eroded One example is rivers making deltas by moving soil downstream. A delta is formed
from another at the mouth of the river. This can be rich, low-lying agricultural land. Rivers also make
place fans and flood plains with material carried by erosion.
delta a landform
created by a river The sea may deposit material to build sand islands or mound up coral rubble on atolls.
or watercourse These are further examples of deposition.
depositing
material where
it entersa seaor
lake
C Discuss and respond Vegetation is a
powerful force t at
1 In a small group discuss the woman's slows the forces that
statement at right. Can you explain it? erode landforms.
At the same time,
2 Write a short explanation that can be vegetation is a force
presented orally to the class. that breaks down
landforms.

The islands of the Pacific

What is an island? An island is land surrounded by water.

You can make an island. In this case it would be an artificial island. Some people have made islands for
defence. Others have done .it for recreation or to cool their environment In some places people have done it to
create more land to live on or farm. Nan Madol consisted of some 300 small islands made by people centuries
ago off the eastern coast of Pohnpei in Micronesia. They used large stones, and the ruins of this Pacific
civilisation are still visible.
Most islands are natural. There are two major types of islands:

• Oceanic. These islands rise up out of the ocean. Usually they are created by volcanic activity. In rare cases,
they may be tectonic. Plants and animals must migrate to them. For example, crabs can come out of the
sea, birds can fly to them, some plants and animals can float to them and the wind can blow seeds to them.
People arrive by boat.

From the walls of the sacred temple island in Nan

Madol, rulers and priests could look out over 300
islands made by the people. The path below is
lined with stone similar to that used for building
these artificial islands. Who did it? No one is sure,
nor where the stone came from.
 • Continental. Continental islands
were once part of continents. They
were separated by rising sea levels
or tectonic forces. They had living
environments on them before they
became islands. New Guinea is a good
example. It shares many living features
with northern Australia because it was
once a part of Australia. It became
separated from Australia about 8000
years ago. Tasmania is another
example. It became cut off from
BothTasmania and New Guinea were part of Sahul, or Greater Australia,
20 000 years ago. Today they are continental islands. mainland Australia about 16000 years
ago with people already living on it.

Many Pacific nations are island nations. Here are two more terms to learn about islands: archipelago and atoll .
• Archipelago. A group of islands is called an archipelago. The Indonesian archipelago has about 13000
islands. The. Philippine archipelago has about 7000 islands .
• Atoll. An atoll is a special type of volcanic island. Atolls form from coral growing on eroded volcanos. Barrier
reefs can have islands made through a similar process to atolls.

e1 Discover
1 Two other examples of Pacific archipelagos are the Japanese andTonganarchipelagos. Can you count the islands
in these two nations on a map?

Depositional islands are islands created by

the deposition (depositing) of materials.
They can be unstable and subject to
erosion and further deposition. Barrier
islands include large banks of sand
that the sea deposits near the coast.
Vegetation can help stabilise them. Delta
islands are created at the mouths of rivers.
The river deposits the material to make
the island.

\
I. The ocean piles up dead coral during storms to help build atolls. This is a
Tuvalu example.
How an atoll is formed

rising
levels

1 Volcano forms 2 Erosion

Volcanic vent, a tectonic "weak" spot, allows magma Forces of erosion attack the volcano and tea it down
to erupt

3 Corals 4 Atoll forms

Corals grow on the submerged volcano and build up As coral grows close to the sea surface, wave action
to create an atoll piles up broken coral and sand. Eventually plants and
animals colonise the surface.

fII Challenge
Can you find examples of delta islands
in PNG?

C Discuss and respond

1 In pairs, use your atlas to find the
Mekong Delta in Vietnam.

2 Look at the picture of the delta island

at right and list the type of life you think
people have living on a delta island. Give
reasons for your explanations.

3 Use your atlas to find examples of delta

islands in PNG. This is a delta island in the Mekong Delta in Vietnam. What type of life do you
think people have living on a Mekong Delta island?
 Maps and shaping the land
Key term
Topographic maps show the shape of the land. They can be presented in various
topographic map ways:
a map that shows
the shapeof 1 A three-dimensional model. This is a topographic model of the volcanic Timanfaya
land featuresand National Park, Lanzarote, in the Canary Islands of Spain.
elevations

2 A map of mountains that shows the use of relief for shading.

3 A map that shows relief using contour lines. These are the most common'
topographic maps. This example is part of Eastern Highlands Province at a-scale
of 1 100 000. The contour lines show shape. In this case, each line represents a'
difference of 40 m in elevation. You can see how steep this land is. 1he vertical
distance between lines is called the contour interval.

It is hard to grasp perspective with contour lines. Travel can look easier-than it is.
The Kokoda Track is the best example. Military planners looked at the m?p arid dld
not understand how steep the landforms are.

II Discover
1 What landforms can you find on the map above?
2 The map shows human features too.

a What are they?

b How have they changed the landscape?

 Making maps: studying and exploring your
local area
You can make simple maps. This will help you study, explore and analyse your
Did you know?
local area.
Mapsshowa
placeat onetime. Mud map
Featuresmay
A mud map is a simple or informal map. It provides simple instructions, usually about
changeafterthe
map is made.You how to get somewhere. Can you guess the origin of the term?
haveto updatethe
" mapwhen that
happens.

Key term
mud map
a simple or
informal map
drawn by hand

Please,Lapun, how do I Here, I've drawn it in the Four hours later ...
get to Roti village? dirt. Go down the path. That old man's map was
Cross Ori Creek.Go left easy to understand. Now
when the path forks. I hope my friend is here
You'll cross the hills and or it's a long walk back!
then come to Ori. Em i
liklik longway.

Simple maps and field sketches for fieldwork

Fieldwork is an important part of learning for geography. You must go into the field to see what is happening.
You will do this for surveys in other units too.
Geography uses some special tools for field work. Maps are very important. You can make simple maps in the
field. You can also do field sketches. These are drawings of the geographic features you find.

Why make simple maps and field sketches?

The purpose of all fieldwork is to better understand what is happening in the study area. Your first step is to
decide what you are studying or looking for. That is what you will map and or sketch.
Simple maps and field sketches can help you analyse the study area. That is their main purpose. They help you
understand what is happening. They help you question why something is happening. Actually doing the sketch
or simple map should help analysis. Ask yourself the following as you are doing it?
1 What is there? What do I see?

2 What is not there 7 What don't I see?

3 Why is it there?

4 Why is it not there?

The answers to these four types of questions may include types of soil, vegetation, landforms, geogra hie
processes like erosion, human construction, human activity, risks, hazards and other things you have studied.
Now let us look at simple ways to make maps and field sketches.

Sketch maps
A sketch map is a simple map of an area. You can make a sketch map on paper or cardboard. Sometimes
sketch maps are used like mud maps. Sketch maps give people simple directions for finding features.
You can use sketch maps to outline a study area. In this case, the focus is on study features. You wil record
all the important features for a study.
The sketch map is simple. It is another tool for analysis. It
uses a bird's eye perspective. You do not have to make it
to scale. But you should show North (N) with a letter and an
arrow. You may need a compass to be sure of the direction.
Also, give some idea of distance on your map if you can. At
the bottom of the sketch map you need to put the title, and
the date. You will need a key for the map to tell what all the
features are. You may also annotate a sketch map or label ~Oklforest

@ House
features directly on your sketch map. Look at the example
Sketch map example: Land use near Kuli bridge on the
for one idea of a field study sketch map Tumu River, 01/08/12

, Perspective
~
. Your perspective is how you look at something. In mapping, drawing and photography there are many
~ perspectives. That means there are many ways to view or see things. A ground-level perspective is how you
normally see things. Your view changes if you lie down on the ground-this is called a worm's-eye view.
Flying in an airplane, you get an aerial view of the land below.
How many different perspectives can you think of to draw a map?
Field sketches
Another type of simple mapping that you can do is a field sketch. The perspective is at ground level.
The orientation is from where the mapmaker is looking.
The tools you will need are the same as for a sketch map. Study the skills box and exercises to learn
how to make a field sketch.

Skills box
How to draw a field sketch
1 Use paper, a pencil and an eraser or rubber. Use a compass to give the orientation if you can, or give
an approximate orientation (looking southwest for example).You can use cardboard from a box to
support the paper - or draw on cardboard directly.
2 Look carefully at the scene what you want to draw. Frame it with your hands or make a simple frame
from sticks or cardboard.You need the frame to limit the picture. Framewhat you want to show.
3 Lightly draw the most important horizontal lines.This includes your eye level.
4 Put your arm out straight with your pencil held horizontal.With one eye closed, work out how many
pencil lengths fit across the scene you want to sketch. Divide your drawing into that many sections.
This is where using the frame at arm's length will help.The pencil measures should divide up your
frame.
S Here is an example of a fieldwork site.
The study is about human impacts on
vegetation. The teacher has taken students
to the edge of a bay.This is what they
frame for their field sketch.

Example of a framed scene to study.

6 You have followed the first four steps and

now have the most important horizontal
lines in place.
 /
7 Now put in the main shapes. Be sure to
keep them simple. You can use triangles,
rectangles and other simple shapes.

8 Fill in the most important details.

disturbed growth
9 Label your field sketch and add colour if
available.Shades of black and white are also
good using a lead pencil.
This example is very detailed. Your sketch
may be simpler. It depends on what you
want to show for your study.

boat house undisturbed m ngrove

P5I Challenge
Now step outside and choose a scene from the border of the school grounds to try for your first field sk t h.
Changing the perspective
Most maps that we use have an aerial perspective. "Aerial" means looking down from the sky. This is what
birds do when they fly, so another way to describe this perspective is a "bird's-eve view". Experiment to see
if you can change the field sketch you have done from the ground-level perspective to the aerial or bird's-eye
view perspective. What problems do you find in doing this?

Rapid changes that shape the land: natural hazards

You have studied natural hazards in Grades 6, 7 and 8. Different natural hazards can make or change the shape
of landforms. For example:
• Volcanoes can carve out new landscapes to include basins, mountains and islands.
• Flooding erodes landforms, making valleys and adding to flood plains .
• Drought can strengthen the results of wind erosion, moving millions of tonnes of soil or shifting sand
dunes.
• Earthquakes can cause landslips, dam rivers, break open lakes and cut material from cliffs.

Mount Pinatubo in the

Philippines released
over five billion cubic
metres of ash and
debris. How do you
think this changed
landforms?

In this section we will focus on earthquakes. You can expand what you learn with your own research on
other hazards.

Natural hazards versus natural disasters

Natural hazards become natural disasters when people are not prepared for them. For example, a magnitude
7.0 earthquake struck Haiti on 12 January 2010. Haiti is a half-island nation in the Caribbean. The earthquake
was a terrible disaster for Haiti. The nation was not prepared. No one is sure exactly how many people died.
Somewhere between 90 000 and 200 000 lives were lost.
 One of the strongest earthquakes ever recorded took place in the Pacific Rim country of
Chile. A magnitude 8.8 earthquake struck Chile on 27 February 2010. Chile was better
prepared than Haiti. Only 500 to 700 people died. Chile had learned from its last large
earthquake in 1960. It had better buildings to withstand the earthquake. It also had
much better preparation to help people affected by the earthquake.

Measuring earthquakes
Magnitude means size. The magnitude of an earthquake can be measured on the
Richter scale. This is a logarithmic scale, which means each whole number is ten a scale f am
times greater than the one before. So an earthquake that measures4 on the Richter 1 to 10 fqr
scale is ten times greater in magnitude than one that measures3. measurilg the
magnitude (size)
Earthquakes measured between 1 and 5 tend to have much lessforce. A of earthquakes
magnitude 6 earthquake is moderate. Earthquakesscaled at 7 and above are much
more powerful. The force of the Chilean earthquake was much more than ten times
that of the Haiti earthquake, for example.
Many scientists now use the moment magnitude scale, which is similar to the
Richter scale. The Richter scale and moment magnitude scale will give about the
same number for an earthquake event. A magnitude 8.0 earthquake happens about
once a year on average.

The magnitude scales for measuring earthquakes do not measure the damage they do.
Damage depends on what is on the ground close to the earthquake. Measuring damage
has to happen on the ground.

Items are displayed for sale in front of a collapsed building in Port-au-Prince, Haiti in August 2010, seven
months after a massive earthquake reduced much of the capital city to rubble.
 r::J Discuss and respond
1 Some big earthquakes do little or no damage. Why is that? Write a short explanation.

2 Some moderate earthquakes can be very damaging. Again, why?

Key term Earthquakes are seismic hazards. Seismic means something that comes from an
seismic waves earthquake or other cause that shakes or vibrates the Earth. (For example, bombs and
the energy explosions can also cause seismic waves.) The strength of the seismic wave tells the
releasedby
earthquakesor strength of the earthquake.
other shocks(e.g. Look at the map of seismic hazards (Figure 1.6). What is the situation for the Pacific
a nuclear blast)
~ region?

Figure 1.6: Global seismic hazard map: white (least danger) to red
(most danger).
From the global seismic hazard map, you can see that many
places are at risk. The map provides a forecast of likely seismic
activity. For example, a magnitude 9 earthquake is very damaging.
Scientists estimate these happen about every 20 years. In the
regions around PNG, there are three likely places for a magnitude
9 earthquake: Java, Burma and the Himalayas of northern India.
Find these places on the map.

r::J Discuss
1 Should the people and governments in these places be worried? How can they prepare
for possible seismic activity?
 Form two teams in class and debate: "Governments can do nothing to prevent earthquakes from
happening and causing major damage and loss of life" vs "Governments can prepare and protect p
from earthquake and tsunami hazards".

J.I Discover
1 a Use the global seismic hazard map on page 38 to make your own map of the Pacific countries that face the
most seismic hazards.

b Compare your map with the map of the Pacific Ring of Fire in the PapuaNew Guinea Seconderv selDol Atlas
(Oxford University Press), page 60.

2 Draw up a table like the one below. Complete it with information you have gathered from sources like this book,
newspapers and other sources.
Preparing for seismic hazards

Individual Comtnunitv Government

What can be done to preparefor seismic

hazards
II
Examplesof action alreadydone in PNG
or other Pacificcountries

i Your local area

1

~ 1 Consider your own environment. Discuss the likely natural. hazards you face and make tables fOI
them similar to the one you made for seismic hazards.

12 Invite a village elder or community leader to explain about natural disastersthat have occurred im
your region in the past. What was done after the event to ensure minimal damage in the future?

I
High speed mapping
Computers and computer programs are changing mapping forever. A map that used to take days to r ft can
now be done much more quickly. Now satellites provide information to make or update maps.
People with computers connected to the Internet can find maps of the world at many places. Two maj0r
sources of maps and satellite images of the world are:
• Google Earth at http://maps.google.com/maps/mpl
• Microsoft Bing at http://www.bing.com/maps/
Below are some examples of mapping information available from Google and Bing on Papua New Guinea.

Satellite image of Rabaul (from Bing). Satellite image around Losuia, Trobriand Islands (from
Google Earth).

Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook

The Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook usesdifferent digital information. This produces
different maps. Many schools have a copy of this handbook. It has maps for each province to show:
• introduction: where people and roads are
population density
accessto services
income
subsistence agriculture
land potential
agricultural pressure and potential
• disadvantaged people.
The maps use colours for the key. Each map after the introduction has a bar graph too. The colours on
the bar graph and the colours on the map show the same information in different ways. If your school has a
~ copy, study this reference book in class.

k
 /

Human changes to landforms

People change landforms. They may remove part or all of a landform in mining, to make cities or to build roads.
Human activities can speed up erosion. Look for changes to landforms in your local area that are the result of
human activities.

~ Do, think and decide

Invite a community leader to your class to explain changes that have occurred in your local area as a result of
human activity. Write a short summary listing positive and negative activities.

2 Give suggestions that can be implemented in your community to ensure natural landforms are protected.

C Discuss and respond

This new road in Aceh, Indonesia, cuts through a hill 55 m high. What new landforms are created?

2 Are there any possible negative outcomes to this new landform for the future?
 CLIMATE REGIONS IN THE PACIFIC
Climate
Climate is the normal weather conditions of a particular place as observed over a long
period. Weather is the day-to-day pattern of the climate. Weather changes frequently;
climate changes more slowly. Presently climate change is a major issue. The world's
atmosphere is heating. The oceans are becoming more acid. You can research the
impacts this has had in different parts of the Pacific.

Jan.-June warmest first half of year on record ~

2010 tops 1998 temps; question now
is whether 12 months will break 2005
record for warmest year
Global land and ocean surface temperatures
in the first half of 20I0 were the warmest
January-June on record, the [USA] federal
climate service reported Thursday.
2010 has also surpassed 1998 for the
most "warmest months" in any calendar
year, the centre stated.
"Each of the 10 warmest average global
temperatures recorded since 1880 have
occurred in the last fifteen years," it added.
"The warmest year-to-date on record,
through June, was 1998, and 2010 is warmer
so far."
© 2010 msnbc.com

Using the Koppen system to classify climate

Key terms
A common system to describe climate is called the Koppen classification of climate.
Koppen
classification a This is named after the man who invented it. He has died, but geographers keep
way of classifying updating this system. There are other systems, but Koppen's is commonly used at
different climates world and regional levels.
according to
precipitation The Koppen classification of climate uses two types of measurement:
(rain, snow etc.) 1 Precipitation. This is water in the atmosphere that falls to the Earth. You have
and temperature
studied the water cycle and may wish to review if. Precipitation can be frozen,
precipitation
water that falls like snow, sleet or hail. Precipitation can also be rain or fog. The common measure
to the ground is rainfall.
in various forms
(rain, snow etc.) 2 Temperature. Average temperatures are determined over years and years
of measures.

Koppen was a botanist. Rainfall and temperature are very important for vegetation. The
Koppen system uses vegetation to describe the climate type. It has been modified over
time, but it still gives a good sense of both the climate and general type of vegetation
of regions.
The original system devised by Koppen had five major categories listed as letters from
A to E. A sixth zone, added later, is known as either F or H (most people use H).
 A tropical climates-hot and wet

B dry climates-little rainfall

C mild, temperate climates found in the middle latitudes-dry summers and wet winters

D more severe mid-latitude temperate climates found in the middle parts of continents

E very cold climates includingthe North and South Poles

H highlandsclimateswhere altitude hasa major impacton climate

Each major climate zone can then be subdivided for more detailed information on precipitation and
temperature. For example, Papua New Guinea is generally tropical (A) with some H climate zones. T e world
map is too small a scale to show this. We look at PNG's climate zones later in this unit. You will see that many
more climate types can be shown at larger scales.
The example gives you the general idea of climate zones. Scientists are modifying and working on
climate zones-all the time. The map in Figure 1.7 incorporates research on climate and a modified KOIPRen
classification for the world. (The small letters show subgroups within the main zones. Af, for example, eans
tropical with rainfall in all months while Am means tropical with rainfall in the monsoon season. A full list of
classifactions is on the next page.)

_N_~D~D~D~_~D~D~ u
_~ D ~D~D~D~_~_~D~_ff
BSh _ ewe _
_ Aw
DBSk _Dsd_Dwd_Dfd
Owe _ Ctc _ Dsc _ Dfc

Figure 1.7: Updated Koppen-Geiqar climate map of the world. (Geiger helped Koppen and continued to
refine his system after Koppen died.)
Koppen climate classifications

A Tropical humid Af Tropical wet No dry season

Am Tropical monsoonal Short dry season; heavy monsoonal

rains in other months

Aw Tropical savannah Winter dry season

B Dry BWh Subtropical desert Low-latitude desert

BSh Subtropical steppe Low-latitude dry

BWk Mid-latitude desert Mid-latitude desert

BSk Mid-latitude steppe Mid-latitude dry

C Mild mid-latitude Csa Mediterranean Mild with dry, hot summer

Csb Mediterranean Mild with dry, warm summer

Cfa Humid subtropical Mild with no dry season, hot

summer

Cwa Humid subtropical Mild with dry winter, hot summer

Cfb Marine west coast Mild with no dry season, warm

summer

Cfc Marine west coast Mild with no dry season, cool

summer

D Severe mid-latitude Dfa Humid continental Humid with severe winter, no dry
season, hot summer

Dfb Humid continental Humid with severe winter, no dry

season, warm summer

Dwa Humid continental Humid with severe, dry winter, hot

summer

Dwb Humid continental Humid with severe, dry winter,

warm summer

Dfc Subarctic Severe winter, no dry season, cool

summer

Dfd Subarctic Severe, very cold winter, no dry

season, cool summer

Dwc Subarctic Severe, dry winter, cool summer

Dwd Subarctic Severe, very cold and dry winter,

cool summer

E Polar ET Tundra Polar tundra, no true summer

EF Ice Cap Perennial ice

H Highland

Source: http://geography.about.com
II Discover
Look at the major climate zones of the world as shown in Figure 1.7(page 43). What patterns can you see?
Do you remember from studies in Grade 8 why these patterns exist?

2 Here are questions about world climate. Discuss them in class with your teacher.

a What type of climates do you find around the equator?

b Where are the two driest parts of the world? (Hint: look at items in B and E.)

c Why do you think C and D have so many subcategories?

3 Next use the world climate map to make a map of the Pacific region (or some of it).The world map is at a very
small scale.This means your Pacific map will be on a small scale too. It will allow you to have some idea of the
climate of PNG's neighbours.

4 Use your Pacific climate zones maps in the lessons that follow to add more information to your map as you
learn more.

Malaysia has a tropical climate that is wet and warm along the coast.

The tropics
The tropics are warm places. The coldest average month in the tropics in the Koppen system is 18°C.
This is the limit for some types of tropical palm trees to grow. You see how the climate system is lin ed
to vegetation.
In the tropics there are three subdivisions:

Af tropical rainforest-hot andwet

Am tropical monsoon-hot andwet with winds shifting due to the monsoonand a drier period,usuallyin t e
cooler months
Aw tropical savannah-wet and dry with a regulardry season
 ~ Do, think and decide
Below is a Koppen system map that shows a little more detail about some of PNG's
neighbours. You see the belt of tropical climate regions that extend north and south of
the equator.
a Compare this map with the Koppen map in Figure 1.7. What do you notice?

b How much more does the slightly larger scale show you?

C HUMIDTEMPERATE
CUMATE
• No dry season} a:hot summer
~ Dry winter b-coot summer
rr.:l c-short. cool
~ Dry summer
summer

Wet and dry climates

Key term A wet climate is often called a humid climate. Humidity is the amount of moisture in
humidity the the air. Relative humidity is a measure of moisture in the air. It can be used to tell the
amount of likelihood of rain. When there is 80% humidity the air is very moist. Dew forms when
moisture in the
it is 100% humidity. This is called the dew point. The dew point is reached in clouds
air
arid dry when it starts to rain. Papua New Guinean climates are humid for most or all of the
year. Tropical islands near the equator all have hot and humid climates.
A dry climate is often called an arid climate. The humidity in a dry climate is low. Dry
and humid climates are opposites. A dry climate has little moisture in the air. This
means there is little water vapour in the air. There is little moisture to make clouds in
the water cycle. The driest climates are deserts. Australia has large arid areas. The
Atacama Desert in Chile is one of the driest places in the Pacific region, and in the
world.
The Atacama Desert has a very arid climate. Some arid places average a little rain every ten years. Some
places have no record of rainfall. Other places have enough rain to support drought-resistant vegetation.

People are most Very high humidity

comfortable when the occurs in warm
relative humidity is tropical climates. It
between 30% and 60%. makes people feel
The skin starts to dry out hotter because the
when it is lower. body cannot rid itself
of heat quickly.

Very low
humidity and no i
water to drink I
can kill people in
hot deserts in a
single day. J
The temperate regions
Temperate climates are found between the tropical and arctic regions of the world: They do not have the very
hot temperatures of the tropics. They do not have the very cold temperatures of the arctic. They are not as dry
as deserts and other arid regions.
The temperate regions cover a very large area of the world. The Koppen system divides them into two large
categories, C and D. Leaving the tropics, we find these areas north and south until the climate becomes arctic.
In all these places, average monthly temperatures drop below 18°C. The tilt of the Earth and the changing
angle of the sun is greater. Seasons are more marked. Temperate climates have cooler winters and hotter
summers There are many variations.
Some subdivisions have much colder
winters than others.
The world climate map (page 43) and
PNG's Pacific neighbours climate map
(page 46) show you the many variations of
temperate climates. Again, at larger scales
you can see more detail for a country. In
Figure 1.8 are more details for Australia
and Oceania. You see that Australia has
, both tropical and temperate climates.

ewe
"
eta .Dsa Dwa Dfa
New Zealand has only temperate climates.

Figure 1.8:Climate in Oceania.

Temperate seasons
Temperate climates are marked by four seasons. These seasons come at the opposite time of the year in the
northern and southern temperate latitudes.

Season Temperatures North temperate area South temperate area

Spring mild March-May September-November

Summer warm/hot june-August December-February

Autumn (Fall) mild September-November March-May

Winter cool/cold December-February june-August

Desert climates
The map shows Australia also has desert climates where there is very little rainfall. This is the B category in
the Koppen system.
 Making climographs Key term
Climographs are one way to help understand the climate of a place. They can be dimograph a
linked directly to the Koppen system. We will use a simple climograph to show the graph sh wing
the precipi ation
relationship between rainfall (precipitation) and temperature.
and temperature
10 80
9
of a pia over
70
time
60
7
50

5 40
4
30
3
20
2
10
0
z .... "..
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Moscow, Russia

90 11

80 10

70 9

In a climograph, 60 8
precipitation is 50 7
shown on one Months are
vertical axis. It is shown on the 6
represented by horizontal
5
the bars on the
c
graph.
4 ss
'0.
'c
l!:
c,

Temperature is
shown on the other
vertical axis. It is
represented by the
line on the graph.
Let's look at some typical climographs. We will use the island of Viti Levu in Fiji. Fiji has a tropical humid
climate, Af in the Koppen system. We will look at climographs for two places, the cities of Nadi and Suva.
(Remember that d is pronounced nd in Fijian, so Nadi is pronounced Nandi.)

lm Explore
1 Look at the map to locate Nadi and Suva. Determine how far apart they are. Do you expect the climates in these
two places to be different?

oO.~~~~~~ 100kms
60 miles
Vatauua

Qelevevu

VASAWA.j1 Yudua",
GROUP
!J Bfigh Water • Naitaba
Naviti
~f Vanua Balavu
aKoro
• Makogai Vatu Vara-s e Maqo

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Nadi LOMAIVTI I> Nairai LAU
GROUP~ o GROUP
KOROSEA
Suva Gau ~ Lakeba
4 Beqa
Oneata -
Vatulele q 4Moala
KADAVU
GROUP <:)
MOALA Totoya Yuaqava 0

vunisea~ d
GROUP r- Kabara 0
SOUTH PACfFfC ~ V Ka avu o Fulaga I -Oqea
OCEAN Matuku Levu
Fiji

Climograph data: You need average temperature and average rainfall measures to make a climograph for
a place. On the next page, Table 1.1 shows the data for the two Fiji cities and Figure 1.9 shows what the
climographs based on these data look like.
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rI Discover
1 Compare these two climographs. You are looking at two places in the same climate zone.

a What differences do you see between the two places?

b Can these differences explain why sugar cane grows better around Nadi than around Suva?

2 a Why do we need a more detailed study for the climate of any particular place?

b What other factors can influence climate at the local scale?

3 In Fiji, the average annual rainfall on the coast is between 2000 mm and 3000 mm on the coast and in low-lying
areas. But in the mountains, average rainfall can be as high as 6000 mm. What does this tell you about the impact
of mountains?

Climographs for PNG

The Pacific region around Papua New Guinea is mostly tropical. There are some highland areas that provide
an exception.
Climographs provide a little more detail about the climate of a place. It is now time for you to make some.
On pages 54-55 are data for seven PNG places. Your teacher will decide how many climographs you make
and when to make them. A "Skills box" on the next page explains the steps to make a climograph.
Look carefully at the tables to see how they are constructed. You need graph paper and two different
scales. On one side you have a temperature scale in degrees Celsius. On the other side you have a rainfall
(precipitation) scale that shows rainfall in mm.
i, Skills box
How to make a climograph

I
Label the graph with the name of the area it represents.
~ 2 Along the horizontal axis, label the months from January to December.
3 Mark the precipitation scale in 50 mm divisions on the left vertical axis. Mark the

1
I
temperature scale in 5°C divisions on the right vertical axis.

I
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E 50"
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F M A M J J A 5 0 N 0

I· Plot the precipitation first. It is represented by bars on the graph. Start with January.
Move your finger up the January column until you reach January's rainfall using the

I left hand scale. Rule a line. Do the same for each month.

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5 Now plot the temperature. Start in January again and move up the column until you
reach the right temperature using the right hand scale" Mark the temperature with a
dot. Do the same for each month.
6 Use your ruler to connect each of the temperature dots.

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Climate in your local environment
It is time to research your local climate. This section provides you with some information. It can help you
research your climate. You will also need to ask people about your climate.

I Local climate survey

You can find out a lot about the climate in your local area by talking to the people who live there.
1 Design and carry out a survey about your local climate. For example, you can ask:
• Are storms common? • What are the times for wet and
• What about frost? dry seasons?

• Are rains so heavy they bring • What influence do landforms

flooding or flash flooding? have on the local climate?

(For help on conducting surveys. see page 323.)

2 Record your findings and write a summary report.

Features of Papua New Guinea climates

Here is more information to help you start understanding what may be happening in your local climate.
• Most of PNG's climate is hot and humid. Average annual rainfall is high, between 2500 mm and 3500 mm.
Some lowland areas have even higher rainfall. Only around the National Capital District is the average yearly
rainfall lower. (Make a climograph to see what it is [for data see page 54].)
• The Highlands are wetter. Average annual rainfall is over 4000 mm per year and can be much higher in
some places.
• Average high temperatures in coastal areas range from 30 to 32°C.
• Average low temperatures around the coast are around 23°C.
• Average temperatures get lower as elevation rises. For example, in the Highlands at elevation from 1500 m
to 2000 m. average high temperatures are from 22 to 25°C and average nightly lows from 11° to 15°C.
• Frost can happen above 2200 m altitude and this hazard increases to become more common over 3000 m.
• The most important landform for the PNG climate is the chain of mountains that runs along the spine of
the nation.
 )/
Monsoon winds Did you know?
Monsoon is the word for winds that change direction as the season changes. PapuaNew Guinea
The Asian monsoon blows from the south-east in July.This is when northern (like Australia)
is vulnerableto
hemisphere Asia is hottest. It shifts direction and blows from the north-west in
droughtduring EI
January when Australia is hottest. Like sea breezes, the winds blow from hot rising Nino eventsin the
air to low sinking air. Monsoon winds are stronger than sea breezes and bring rain. easternPacific.
There is drought if they fai I.

Seasonal Monsoon System

Surface Winds PNG has two s asons
--+January defined by wind patterns
that are part of the
monsoon.The south-east
season lasts from May to
October.The Winds are
easterly.They come from
the south-east.This is a
drier time in rnanv parts
of the country.

The north-west
season is from
December to
February.Winds
from the north-
west bring
moisture to the
J
whole country.
The sea and your local climate
The major climate
The sea is a moderating influence on climate. It holds heat hazards for PNG
longer than the land. Places surrounded by the sea reflect are flooding,
drought, frost
sea temperatures more than land temperatures
and (more rarely)
Land and sea breezes may be part of your climate. During cyclones.
the day, the sea stays cooler than the land. Air flows down to
the sea. The land is warmer. Air flows up on the land.
This creates a breeze from the sea to the land. In some
cases it can carry moisture to the land.
During the night, the opposite happens. Sea breezes become
land breezes. During the night, the sea stays warmer than the
land. The warm air flows up from the sea. The land is cooler at
night. Air flows down on the land. This creates a breeze from
the land to the sea.

Sea breeze during the day.

Land breeze at night.

 Mountains and your local climate Key terms
Another influence on climate are the mountain landforms and winds. There are two anabatic "Y'nd
categories of winds you may find that are part of your climate. One category consists . wind cau e
of anabatic and katabatic winds. These are similar to the day and night sea breezes. by air flo il1g
upwards or up-
Another name for them is up-slope and down-slope winds. A difference in temperatures
slope
causes these winds. katabati ind
d

Figure 1.10:Anabatic winds happen during the day. The ground at lower elevations gets hotter than
Have you elt
ground at higher elevations. This causes an up-slope wind.
cold air rus ing
down a mount in
at night?Th~t's a
katabatic WI .

Figure 1.11:Katabatic (down-slope) winds can happen at night when a higher elevation cools faster than
the lower elevation. They are strongest on cloudless nights because without clouds hot air escapes and
this makes temperatures cooler. Katabatic winds can start about half an hour after sunset.

The second category of wind that can impact climate in parts of PNG is Foehn wind.
This is a type of warm, dry wind that can cause rain when it strikes a mountain range.
This happens mainly on one side. On the leeward side, you may have no rain. You may
feel the wind a long way from the mountain (Figure 1.12).
It is strong enough to push air over mountain ranges. The air cools as the wind rises.
Rain is the result. Most of this happens on the windward side of the mountain. The
temperature rises more quickly on the leeward side. Much less rain occurs on this side
with Foehn winds, but some does. Then it stops and the hot dry wind blows down
across the land. These winds are found in both the north-west and south-east seasons
in PNG.

(
 windward side leeward side
of mountain of mountain

Figure 1.12:The Foehn wind is hot and dry.

IIInvestigate
Investigate your local climate. Here are some questions to guide you.

1 Look at the diagrams of how the different types of wind work (Figures 1.10to 112). Are
these winds part of your local climate?

2 Are there climate differences in various parts of your area?You may not be able to find
detailed measures, but you can use local knowledge. Ask local people about climate
differences.

3 Many places will have differences in rainfall because of elevation. In your area, are there:

a higher areas that are wetter?

b places with more frost?

4 Look at vegetation in various parts of your area to see what hints it may give you about
climate differences.

5 Present your findings in a sketch map of your local climate and the differences you find in
your local area.

Assessment task one

Complete a mapping test. Turn to page 102 for a full description of how to prepare for
this assessment task.
VEGETATION IN THE PACIFIC REGION
World vegetation patterns
The Pacific is a huge ocean. A world vegetation map is a good way to start exploring
Pacific vegetation. The east coast of the Pacific covers major vegetation types from
desert to tropical rainforests. The west coast is also diverse. The scale on the map
(Figure 1.13) is very small so it shows little detail. Many Pacific islands disappear at
this scale.

PACIFIC
OCEAN

).
Figure 1.13:World vegetation. The Pacific coast goes for thousands of kilometres.

Another way to look at vegetation is to look at biomes. A biome is a large geographic

area. It is determined by climate and landforms. The plants and animals that live in a
biome are adapted to its conditions.
Biomes are named after vegetation types. A map of biomes is another good way to
understand the diversity of vegetation types around the Pacific Rim. (The map in Figure
1,14 splits the Pacific Ocean in two. You must reconnect it in your mind.)
 • Tundra

• Taiga

• Grassland
Deciduous
• Forest
.Chaparral

• Desert

• Desert-Scrub

• Savannah

• Rainforest
• Alpine

Figure 1.14: Major biomes of the world.

Combining vegetation and climate at a world scale we can see the main dry land areas (Figure 1.15).

• Very dry

.. Dry

Semi-dry

Dry sub-humid

Figure 1.15: Dry land vegetation represents areas of limited or no agriculture,

C Discuss and respond
1 Compare the vegetation patterns for Pacific lands on the three maps on pages 61-62 (Figures 1.13 to 1.15)

a What is similar and what is different?

b What are the general patterns for vegetation in the Pacific?

Types of vegetation in the Pacific

The Pacific region covers many types of vegetation:
• forest, including rainforest and temperate forests
• grassland, ranging from tropical grasslands to temperate and alpine grasslands
• savannah, which is a mixture of grassland with scattered trees
• desert scrub, ranging from scattered patches of growth to cactus in parts of the eastern Pacific, at
areas of spinifex in Australia
• freshwater wetlands, including swamps and lakes
• mangroves and saltwater marshes.
Rainfall is the most important thing for vegetation. Soil is also important, but good soil and little rain limits
vegetation more than poor soil and plenty of rain. This changes if humans remove the vegetation. Then rainfall
and good soil become equally important. Volcanoes have created good soil around much of the Pacifc in the
Ring of Fire.

0-10
10-30
_ 30-50
.50-70
_70-100

Figure 1.16:World forest map.

Forest
The Food and Agriculture Organisation calculated the forest area for the world to be a little over 4 billion
hectares in 2010, This covers 31 % of the total land area, The small scale map in Figure 1,16 on page 63 shows
the patterns for the world and the Pacific, Light green colours are low forest-cover countries and dark green
colours are high forest-cover countries,
Forest covers about 70% of PNG's total land area, Forests along the coast and in other accessible places
are being harvested, Replanting and sustainable forest logging is not well practised, This pattern of original
rainforest and heavy human use is common among many of Papua New Guinea's neighbours and in the small
island states of the Pacific, The worst case is Easter Island, where all forest was destroyed,

Rainforest
Papua New Guinea has many types of rainforest. Each is a different environment and these environments
change locally, Tropical rainforests are found to the north, from Indonesia to southern China, Tropical
rainforests are more limited in northern Australia,
New Zealand, Canada and the USA have examples of temperate rainforests, These survive in cooler climates
where the average temperature drops below 18°C, They can get cold and must be wet, but they are rarely
freezing.
Rainforests need plenty of rain. They get at least 150 cm annually, Tropical rainforests are hot and humid. The
plants and ground may soak up water that is then released to evaporate and make more rain, They have a wide
diversity of plant life and biomes (ecosystems) Scientists estimate that half of all plant types are in tropical
rainforests. The tropical rainforests represent just 6% of the Earth's land, but they are a precious resource,

The Sitka spruce is a tree that marks the temperate rainforests Temperate rainforests are found also inTasmania.
of North America. These forests are found along the coast
from south-eastern Alaska (USA) through Canada to southern
Oregon (USA).
 Tropical rainforests are found near the
equator. The tropics are defined as being
between the latitudes called the tropic of
Cancer and the tropic of Capricorn. With
special local conditions, some tropical
rainforest may extend further.

Tropical rainforest provides many different

environments in PNG.

~ Do, think and decide

1 Look at the photographs of temperate rainforests on page 64. What is similar and what is different between the
North American and Australian temperate rainforests?

2 How do they compare with tropical rainforests?

Temperate forest
North of the tropic of Cancer and south of the tropic of Capricorn are the temperate forests of the Asia-Pacific
region. These types of forests cover many different climates. In general they have warm, wet summers and
much colder winters. Trees can cope with freezing temperatures. The forest may be covered with snow.
Some of the forests are evergreen. They keep their leaves all year. Others are deciduous. Their leaves falloff
in winter.

_1

Some temperate climates are mild and have forests adapted This is a temperate deciduous forest in the mountains of Japan
to mild temperature conditions. Others must survive frozen in summer. In winter the trees lose all their leaves.
winters when the land is covered with snow.

(l
Savannah
Savannahs are a mixture of grassland and trees. The trees are thinly spread out. This is a seasonally dry
climate. It may have a wet season and a longer dry season. The plants are adapted to drought. They have long
tap roots that go far below the soil to find and conserve water.

Brisbane

• tropical savannah

The shaded region shows Australia's

Figure 1.17:Australia has the largest savannah
tropical savannahs. Research is carried
out at the locations marked on the map. areas in the Pacific. Australia, Indonesia and Papua
New Guinea all have areas of tropical savannah.

Tropical savannah in northern Australia. The baobab tree is found in savannahs in Australia and Africa.
This tree in Western Australia was once used as a gaol.

Grassland
Grasslands can be made by the climate where it is too cold or dry for other plants to grow Fire is another way
to create or keep grasslands. A final way is by animal grazing. Some grasslands are natural and some have
been made by humans. No one is sure if the grasslands around Port Moresby were made by human burning or
are part of the drier climate. Both factors could be responsible.
 There are large areas of grassland in the
Pacific region. There are many different
types of grassland. Forest areas have
been changed to grassland by people. This
has happened in highlands and lowlands
of the Pacific.
In temperate regions, grasslands are
located between forests; in tropical
regions, they are found between deserts
and rainforests. There are many different
types of grasses. They adapt to the
local conditions. Grasses can be drought
resistant in some places like Australia.

China has extensive grasslands. Many are under threat from overgrazing.
This can turn grassland into desert in times of drought.

Wetland
Wetlands are very important areas for
breeding fish and waterbirds. They
represent a small portion of the world's
land area. Many are under threat from
other uses. Draining swamps has been
a development that destroys wetlands.
Papua New Guinea has some large areas
of marsh, bog and swamp.
Swamps may contain trees and can cover
large areas. Marshes may have few or
no trees, but again can cover large areas.
Bogs are smaller, lovv-lvinq wet places.
Although not as large, they are still
important sources of specialised plants.

A swamp in Indonesia where trees rise from shallow water in a wetland

environment.

(
 Desert
Key term
Both savannah and grassland can merge with desert vegetation. Nothing may grow
per annum each
in the driest part of the desert. but this is unusual. The vegetation is highly drought
year
resistant because deserts are dry. They get less than 250 mm of precipitation per
annum.

Plant life blooms and

expands with rainfall
in the Simpson Desert,
Australia. When rain is
scarce; some of these
plants will die after
dispersing seed to wait
for the next rain. Others
are adapted to survive.

rI Discover
1 Draw this table in your exercise book and use the information about vegetation to
complete this table.

Vegetatiqn Characteristics Location

Forest
Rainforest
Temperateforest
Savannah
Grassland
Wetland
Desert

2 Write a short summary of the major forms of vegetation in your local region.

Impacts on vegetation
What causes vegetation to change? What are the impacts on vegetation today? The
two most important impacts are growing human populations and introduced vegetation.

Human impacts
Human populations are increasing. These expanding populations put pressure on the
land. Many plant types are being lost because their environment is being destroyed.
There are modern ways and traditional ways to destroy environments.

(
For example:
• Factory farming, tree plantations and over-grazing can clear huge areas of land using machines an
modern technologies.
• Traditional burning can clear huge areas of land and keep them clear.
• Urban and other land uses result in land clearing and habitat loss. With no habitat, there can be no plants.
• Introducing new types of animals. The classic example is bringing rabbits to Australia. These anim Is remain
a pest. Other introduced animals that have destroyed vegetation and ecosystems in parts of the Paoific
include the Norwegian rat, goats, pigs, buffalo, camels and Australian possums introduced to New Zealand.

A forest bu rnt in
Indonesia for a palm oil
plantation.

Introduced vegetation
• Agriculture. Agriculture has introduced many plants to the Pacific Some of these have been very
beneficial. The sweet potato is a classic example for Papua New Guinea. It changed a large part of
Highlands culture. The chilli is another example of an American plant that is now culturally important in the
food of countries from Indonesia to Thailand and southern China.

IIInvestigation
Carry out a survey of the introduced agricultural plants in your local area. (See "How to conduct a survey" on
page 323)

2 Compile a list and write a paragraphabout them and how they impact you.

3 How different would your life be if you did not havethem?

• Pests. Many exotic plants have come to the Pacific. They have proved to be pests. They become unwanted
plants, also called weeds. There is a cost to get rid of them. They may take over or destroy some plant
communities. Water hyacinth and salvinia are two examples that have caused great problems in t e Pacific
region's waterways and wetlands.
/

A huge clump of water hyacinth reduces fishing areas in the Salvinia molesta is an exotic fern that grows in the water.
Solomon Islands. It was introduced to the Sepik and quickly spread.

An exotic plant comes from a different ecosystem. It may be able to spread quickly
Key term
because it has no natural e~emies. If that is so, it is called an invasive species. Invasive
invasive species species:
plants or animals
that come from • may be purposely introduced by people
a different
• may be accidentally introduced by people
environment
and invade new • may naturally find their way to a place by winds, birds, animals or waves.
environments
All the countries of the Pacific region have problems with invasive plants. Rapid
transportation and the movement of human populations make accidental introduction
of new plants a constant threat. Air service, yachts and international fishing boats can
accidentally spread plants to small Pacific islands.

C Discuss and respond

1 What unwanted plants have been introduced to your area? How big a problem are they?

2 Write a "Letter to the Editor" to the national newspaper to highlight the problem of
unwanted plants in your local area.

(
LAND USE IN THE PACIFIC
Overview
Land use is the way humans change the land. Human beings have settled and used land in many di
ways. We start this section by looking at land use at a world scale (Figure 1.18). It is a very small s
should be able to discover patterns of land use for the Pacific and the countries around it.
Here are six major categories of world land use shown on the map:
Forestry. The green areas show the world's declining forests.

2 Agro-pastoralism. Pastoralism is herding animals like goats, cattle and sheep.

where this is done. This category may also include limited agriculture.

3 Agriculture. This is shown in shades of brown.

4 Urban areas (black) and wet lands (blue). Urban areas contain nearly the half the world's popu
the scale is too small on this type of map to identify them.

5 Bare areas. These are places people think of as "bare" for land use (light orange).

6 Water and inland fisheries. These features are only visible as some of the great lakes of the
(pale blue).

~-
.~-

PACIFIC
OCEAN

KEY
. _ Forestry

ATLANTIC _ Urban areas

OCEAN
. INDIAN "'I., _ Wetlands
OCEAN r---, Herbaceous (natural
L___j and protected areas)
D ~~~b~~~~~t~o~~storalism
I· D Bare areas
~ Agro-pastoralism

2000 _ Agriculture
kilometres
o Water

Figure 1.18: Land use systems in the Pacific at a world scale.

 m Discover
What are the major patterns of land use around the Pacific Rim countries?

1 Use your finger to trace a line starting with the islands of New Zealand andTasmaniain Australia. Go north to
PapuaNew Guinea, the Philippines, the Pacific coast of China and Russia. Continue east to Alaska and trace
southward along the American side of the Pacific Rim.You will end in Chile at the southern tip of South America.

2 Make a table of the major land uses you can identify at this scale. Use the six basic categories and show where
they are found in the Pacific region

3 Go back to the climate and vegetation maps on pages 61-63). Compare the land use on your table with the
vegetation and climate in each Pacific area.Write a paragraphon how the vegetation, land use and climate are
related or not related.

Debate
Conduct a debate with two teams putting these different points of view:
• Team 1: Land use is the most important activity to help people develop.
• Team 2: Conserving biomes is important to balance development and protect the natural world.

Forestry
Forestry uses a valuable resource and is an important economic activity in parts of the Pacific. The forest
resources of small islands can be quickly removed. Forestry has often been done like mining. The trees or
timber is harvested completely, leaving nothing for the future.
Pacific forests include rainforests and temperate forests. The tropical rainforests of Indonesia, Malaysia and
Vietnam have been harvested unsustainably. Australia has had the highest rate of tropical forest removal. Little
tropical forest is left in Australia. Across the Pacific, on the coasts of North and Central America and Colombia,
the same has happened. Much of the forest has been removed or very heavily logged.

Logging redwood in the north-west Pacific provides income and profit to Across the Pacific in Tasmania, the same issues of
some. Others think these last old growth forests should be preserved. protecting or exploiting old growth forest exist.

/
Temperate forests of the Pacific have also been under pressure. The north-west coast Did you know?
of North America remains a highly productive forestry area. The original temperate
Mahogany is a
forests of Asia, North America and Australia are all very much smaller than they were tropical ardwood.
200 years ago. The greatest pressure is on old growth forest that is 200 years old or It is a geljleral name
more. It represents ecosystems that cannot be replaced once cut down. for several tropical
trees. It' valuable
In many places there is conflict over forest land use. Loggers now practise more to loggers.
sustainable cutting in some places.
Papua New Guinea has the largest rainforest resources in the Pacific and forestry is a
major land use on the coast. Rapid logging is still happening in Papua New Guinea. The
practice is unsustainable. It is removing resources very quickly from the nation.
Fiji also has forest resources. A dispute over a mahogany forest was one of the reasons
for the continuing cycle of political coups there. Forestry is often open to corruption and
disputes in the Pacific.
Atolls and other small Pacific Islands have little or no forest.

II Discover
Trends in wood removal,
1990-2005 (million m3)
• •
Industrial Woodfuel
roundwood

800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Africa Asia Europe North Oceania South
and Central America
America

Forestry serves two major purposes: fuel wood and commercial timber.'

1 Study the graph above carefully. What do you notice about the trend and purpose of
forestry in Oceania?

2 Write a paragraphthat compares forestry in Oceania with forestry in other parts of

the world.

The land area covered by forests is growing smaller. From 1990 to 2000, each year
about 16 million hectares of forest was removed permanently. The rate from 2000 to
2010 slowed to about 13 million hectares each year. This was because some countries
like the USA and China are planting new forests.
 Did you know?
Agriculture
The world's population is growing. You will study population in the next unit. Land use
Forestsare changed
to agricultural for agriculture is very important if people are not going to starve. The Pacific region
land use in many has the country with the largest population (China). It also has some major agricultural
places. Indonesia is
producers. In this section, you will produce graphs and tables to learn about agricultural
losing forest area to
palm oil and other
land use in the Pacific region.
agricultural uses. There are the two main categories of agricultural land use or production:
Austral ia has lost
forest to agriculture • commercial
and pastoral • self-sufficiency or "own-use" agriculture.
land use, and to
bushfires. In many Pacific Islands people produce food for their own use. This is often called
subsistence farming. It allows people to be self-sufficient. Subsistence farming is hard
to measure and figures are often estimates.
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) produces information on agricultural land
Key term
use. We will use FAO data to learn about the Pacific region (Table 1.2). We will take 16
subsistence
Pacific countries. This is the sample you will work with. It represents about a quarter of
self-sufficiency:
supplying all all world agriculture.
one's own needs (Note: the figures in this table are given in 1000 hectares, which is 10 square
kilometres. So American Samoa has a total of 20 000 hectares or 200 square kilometres
of land.)

Growing coffee is a type of commercial agriculture. Growing taro and sweet

potato for the family to eat is a type of subsistence agriculture. Selling taro or
sweet potato at a market changes it to commercial agriculture.
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II Discover
Step 1: Make tables

1 Divide the countries into two groups. Notice that each country has a number beside it to tell you which group to
place it in.

2 Separate the number 1 and number 2 countries. Put them in two tables like the one below. Order each table from
the country with the smallest total land to the one with the largest, using 2007 figures (columns 1 and 2).

3 In column 3, enter the total amount of agricultural land.You calculate this by adding together the figures for arable
land, permanent crop and pasture for the year 2007. (Example: for Samoa, arable land is 2000 ha, permanent crop
is 3000 ha and pastures are 0 ha. So 2000 + 3000 + 0 = 5000 ha.)

4 Now calculate the percentage of total land area taken up by agricultural land.The "Skills box" below will help you.

Skills box
To work out the percentage of agricultural land to total land area:
• Take the total agricultural land area and divide it by the total land area.
• This will give you a decimal number.
• Multiply the decimal number by 100 to get the percentage.
• Round off all the numbers to whole numbers.
Example:
American Samoa has a total land area of 20 000 ha and a total of 5000 ha of agricultural land.
Therefore: 5000/20 000 (or 5/20) = 0.25
.,J
0.25 x 100 = 25%.
Conclusion: 25% of Samoa's land area is used for agriculture, leaving 75% non-agricultural land.

5 In the last column, enter the percentage of non-agricultural land.

6 Decide on what you will call each group of countries. Give your tables appropriate names.

Here is an example and guide for table one (countries numbered 1 in the data):

Country Totalland area Totalagricultural Percentage of Percentage of

(1000 hal land in 2007 agricultural land to non-agricultural
(1000 ha) total land in 2007 land
AmericanSamoa 20 5 25% 75%

Tonga 72

Samoa 283

Vanuatu 1219

Timor-Leste 1487

Fiji 1827

SolomonIslands 2799

PapuaNew Guinea 45286

Step 2: Graph your answers

1 The percentages in your two tables will show a pattern. Use bar graphs to show the pattern. Eachcountny will
have two bars. One bar will show the percentage of agricultural land and the other will show non-agric
land. Here is an example:

100%

90%

80%

70%
(/)
Q)
Ol 60%
co
......
c
Q)
o
....
Q) 50%
Q.
co
.... 40%
Q)

co
"C
C
co
...J 30%

20%

10%

0%
American Samoa

2 Study the pattern of the table and bar graph for group 1 countries. Write a paragraphon what the patter
you about agricultural land use in these types of countries.

3 Do the same with the table and graph for group 2 countries.

Changes in agricultural land use

Arable land is very important. It is the land that annual crops are grown on-crops such as rice, wh
sweet potatoes. What is happening to agricultural land use?
To answer this question, you will need to make another table to show the changes over time. Then you
can make three bar graphs to show this visually
JI Discover
1 In group 2, take the three largest countries (China, USA and Australia). For each year, show the percentage of
agricultural land use compared to total land.Youwill need to do it for each year in each category.

&J Example

. ...
To cal6ulate the percentage.
. ..
of arable'laA.d
~, compared-to total lana for Australia in 199§, take the arable
land (4'0097 thousand hectares) and divide it by the total land area (768230 thousand hectares). You
will get a number close to 0.05. Multiply by 100 to get 5%.
Your table should look something like this:

Arable Permanent Pasture

1995 2000 2007 1995 2000 2007 1995 2000 2007

China

USA

Australia 5%

2 Use the percentages to make three bar graphs showing different kinds of land use in the three countries. (Hint:
you will need to use different scales for the three graphs.)

• Graph 1: arable land

• Graph 2: permanent land
• Graph 3: pasture.
3 Write a paragraphto explain what is happeninqto land use in these categories in the three countries.
a What is the main type of agricultural land use?

b Is land area expanding or declining?

c How would this impact population growth?

You can come back to this table for comparisons with other countries and your own area. It provides good
information for-you to use and to graph.

Industry
Industrial land use tends to be concentrated around cities. The growing industrial giant of the Pacific region
is China. Japan, South Korea, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan and Vietnam are all Pacific Rim countries
with growing industrial areas. In the eastern Pacific, the United States has lost industries to countries with
lower wage costs.

China produced 38% of the total crude steel in the world in 2008. There is little reason to think this trend will
stop soon.
(

©.OrumQi

China has rnanv

industries along
its eastern Pacific
seaboard. This map
\J Iron and steel cOlI Agricultural -j Textile
also shows Taiwan,
h Aluminium ih Electronic @ Cement
J;;. Copper 6BI Transportation 0' Chemical the island east of
6. China, whi is highly

o
A Tin Shipbuilding
e Lead -i- Engineering industrialised. You can
.. Major industrial area see large groupings of
500 kilometers
500 miles
industry in red.

Japan has concentrated industries. In the centre is theYamaha Thailand has a growing industrial land use sector. The
Corporation's headquarters. Yamaha builds everything from petroleum-chemical industry is important to support other
robots to electronics, motorcycles and musical instruments. large industries.

\
 ((C)"1 ...\)
~/!)J
/

Industrial land use may have high pollution

Air pollution from industry is a major problem in China and many other
countries.
Water pollution is another industry problem.
costs. Industry uses large quantities
of water and produces polluted waste
water. Few countries have tight control
on industrial land use and the pollution
that industry produces Singapore is
an exception. It has very strict rules for
industry. Singapore shows it can be
controlled.
Industry contributes to global warming.
This is proving more difficult to solve. But
the benefit of well-managed industry is
employment and wealth creation.
The Pacific Island nations have little
industry. Most of it is in manufacturing
food and drink. There is limited ship
repair and some boat building. Most of
the Pacific Island countries are far from
markets, have limited skilled labour and
few resources.
Papua New Guinea is an exception. It
has major forest resources and mineral
resources including gas and petroleum.
None of these have been used to build
large industries.

Debate
Conduct a debate with two teams putting these different points of view:
• Team 1: PNG should develop industries to build employment because it has the resources and the
land to use.
• Team 2: PNG should not develop industry but sell its resources and keep the land to produce raw
materials or plantation crops.

Land use for other resources

Mining, gas and petroleum extraction are land uses that can produce wealth for a nation. They can affect other
land uses. This impact can sometimes spread far beyond the mine itself. Waste material from mining and
processing ore can pollute rivers for hundreds of kilometres.
 I

There are two basic types of mining,

• Surface mines can be called "open cut mining" or "strip mining". This method has a major impact on land
use. It is particularly destructive where the mineral is spread over a large area. This is the case with coal in
parts of Australia and the USA, for example.
• Underground mines come in various types and are less common. They make up about 15% of all mining.
Many of the smaller Pacific Island nations have few or no mineral resources, including Samoa, Tonga, Cook
Islands and Niue.
Some of the main mineral products of Pacific region countries are shown in Table 1.3 on page 82.

Surface mining in Nevada, a dry American state.

(The mountains in the background stop moist
Pacific air from reaching this area.)

Underground mining in New Zealand can be

dangerous because of seismic activity.

I
Table 1.3: Mineral products of the Pacific region

Country Mineral products

American Samoa pumice, pumicite

Australia bauxite, coal, iron ore, copper, tin, gold, silver, uranium, nickel, tungsten, mineral sands, lead,
zinc, diamonds, natural gas, petroleum (Note: Australia is the world's largest net exporter of coal,
accounting for 29% of global coal exports)
Chile copper, timber, iron ore, nitrates, precious metals, molybdenum
China coal, iron ore, petroleum, natural gas, mercury, tin, tungsten, antimony, manganese,
molybdenum, vanadium, magnetite, aluminium, lead, zinc, uranium potential (world's largest)

Timor-Leste gold, petroleum, natural gas, manganese, marble

Fiji gold, copper, offshore petroleum potential

Indonesia petroleum, tin, natural gas, nickel, timber, bauxite, copper, petroleum, coal, gold, silver

Japan few mineral resources (having no energy natural resources, Japan is the world's largest importer
of coal and liquefied natural gas; it is the second largest importer of oil)

Kiribati phosphate (production discontinued in 1979)

Nauru phosphates

New Zealand natural gas, iron ore, sand, coal, gold, limestone

PNG gold, copper, silver, nickel, natural gas, petroleum

Philippines petroleum, nickel, cobalt, silver, gold, salt, copper

Solomon Islands gold, bauxite, phosphates, lead, zinc, nickel

USA coal, copper, lead, molybdenum, phosphates, uranium, bauxite, gold, iron, mercury, nickel,
potash, silver, tungsten, zinc, petroleum, natural gas, timber (Note: the US has the world's largest
coal reserves with 491 billion short tons accounting for 27% of the world's total)
Vanuatu manganese

rI Discover
1 Choose one country from the table and research the land use risks for mining the type of minerals it has. You can
use newspapers, books and other sources.

2 Present your information as a flow chart.

Mining is a dangerous job. There are many risks to employees. All mining removes some part of the land.
Generally the damage mining does remains a cost to the environment and other land uses for many
the mine is finished.

I Mud volcano
Sometimes mining impacts are dramatic and disastrous. A mud volcano started flowing in Sidoarjo

I
Village, located in EastJava, Indonesia. Read the report below. What happens to villagers in this situation?

I By James Morgan,
Science & Environment reporter,BBC News
The eruption of the Lusi mud volcano in
Indonesia was caused by drilling for oil and
After debating new evidence at a conference
in South Africa, most geologists voted drilling

gas, a meeting of 74 leading geologists has

concluded.
Lusi erupted in May 2006 and continues to
spew out boiling mud, displacing around 30,000
people in East Java.
Drilling fum Lapindo Brantas denies a nearby
well was the trigger, blaming an earthquake

I
280km away.
Around 10,000 families who have lost their
hornes are awaiting compensation, which could
run as high as $70m.

I
I) Investigate
Invite a government official to your class to explain about land use problems as a direct result of min'
this information, as well as other collected materials from sources such as newspapers, to write
the following:

a the land use problem associated with a mining activity

b the monetary value of mining compared with the risks to the environment and the people who
mining site.

2 What solutions can you suggest to stop these types of problems? Make a table of the problems and '
suggested solution for each one.

Problem Possible solution

 The island nation of Nauru

Most of Nauru has been mined

for phosphate. The process
continues for the small remaining
amounts of this mineral. This is
an extreme example of surface
mining destroying the environment.
Compensation was paid by Australia
and Great Britain to the government
and people of Nauru, but all the
money is now gone.

I
Key term Urban land use
urban relating to Urban is the word that covers cities and towns. You will look at urban changes in Unit
a town or city 2, "Population change, resources and migration". Here we look at some of the main
land uses in urban areas in the Pacific.
Urban land use concentrates on human activities. It totally changes the natural
environment. Urban land becomes more expensive as cities grow This contributes to
urban land use patterns.

Urban land use can spread out or "sprawl': Here is an example Urban land use can concentrate housing. This is shown in
of Melbourne, Australia. Can you see different urban land uses Singapore, where whole communities can be housed in one
in this photograph? building.
Urban land use models Urban Land Use Models

Different cities and towns will have different Burgess Zone Model Hoyt Sector Model

urban land uses. There are different models

of urban land use. An American urban
geographer named Ernest Burgess created
one of the first in 1925. He saw the city
developing in concentric rings-like the
small waves created when a rock is tossed • Central Business District (eBO)

II Inner City - Wholesale

o
Light Manufacturing
into water. He was followed in 1939 by
Inner City - Low-class residential
Homer Hoyt, who saw the city developed III Inner Suburbs - Medium-class Housing

by sectors, often following main roads. Then o Outer Suburbs - High-class residential

more complex models were developed Figure 1.19:Here are two models or diagrams showing urban land use
(Figure 1 19) and how it develops. The most important part of any city is the centre.
This is called the "central business district" or CBO. "Residential"
means where people sleep and have homes.

Zones and sectors

The models are simple ideas of urban land use. They help urban planners think about what is the b st land use
for cities. Both models recognise change. The city is always changing. Cities grow and sometimes dJecay.
Urban planning can divide a city into zones or sectors. Here are some important zones:
1 Central Business District. This is the most expensive land. It is the central part of the city.

2 Light industry. This is where there is some manufacturing.

It may produce clothing or other items that do not have a
large polluting or dangerous part to the process

3 Heavy industry. This is where basic resources are converted

into manufactured items. It includes steel works, chemical
works, automobile manufacturing and other large industries.
They may be dangerous.

4 Housing (also called residential). There are many types

of urban housing. It can be very crowded. It can be very
expensive. Housing is most expensive in the CBD. In the
ring model, old and cheap housing is often nearby as part
of history. The old housing is falling apart. That is why it is
cheap. Often it becomes a target for redevelopment.
The poor people are moved out. New expensive housing
replaces it.

5 Other zones or sectors. Power plants, power distribution

networks, sewerage treatment, waste disposal, water works,
roads and other transportation, parks, preserves and other
urban functions may be in separate zones or sectors.
Transportation is an important land use in Pacific
cities. Overcrowding is common. Manila is the
Philippines' capital city. It has 41 00 I people per
square kilometre in the CBO.
 /

Urban land use plans

Urban land use in the Pacific is complex.
It is not as simple as the models. Good
urban plans and zones make some cities
easier to live in. There is little planning
in some places. Zones are not enforced
or do not exist. This allows a mixture of
housing and industry. The results can be
bad for people's health.

Squatter zones
Zones for housing are a problem where
there are many more people than houses. In Manila, Philippines, squatter settlements are a common urban land use for
Squatter settlements are one result. housing the poor.

People make informal arrangements with

land owners to settle near the city. They may also settle on government land. The land is often not zoned for
housing. Sometimes this is because it has natural hazards like flooding or land slips.

IIInvestigate
1 Examine the town or urban centre closest to you.

a What type of land use is there? Add any new categories you may need.

b Make a land use model of your nearest town.

2 Write a paragraphcomparing your model with the models described on page 85.

a What can you find that is the same?

b What is different and why?

Research and debate

1 Invite a government official to your class to speak to you about zoning in your area.

2 Form two teams and stage a debate putting different points of view. Invite the official back for the
debate. Choose one of these debate options:
Debate option 1 Debate option 2
• Team 1: Zoning and good town planning • Team 1: Zoning develops the economy of
are important to make a safe and economic cities for everyone.
urban place. • Team 2: Zoning laws are too expensive for
• Team 2: People should be free to decide most people to obey and only help a few
what to build or do in a city for business and rich people.
housing without zoning rules.
Coastal land use
The Pacific coast defines Pacific countries. If you have no Pacific coast you are not a Pacific country.
The coast is an area of change. It is subject to seasons, storms, changing currents and rising sea levels he
coast is a valuable resource for all Pacific countries.
Coastal land use covers all the land use categories you have studied so far. The coast adds another landfbrrn
to consider when thinking about land use. The ocean meets the land at the coast. This provides benefi s. Here
are some examples:
• The ocean moderates the climate.
• The ocean provides the base for sea transportation.
• The ocean provides the base for fisheries and other marine-based activities including fish farming.
• The coast provides a scenic setting for tourism and local leisure activities.
• The coast attracts a large part of populations in many parts of the Pacific.
Coastal land use can be rural or urban. Urban coastal land use has problems in many Pacific Island co
Other problems and risks in coastal areas include:
• overuse or poor land use-these can end in flooding, erosion or other damage to coastal resources
• storms, changing currents and tsunamis-these can cause erosion and flood damage
• pollution-this can damage or destroy coastal resources
• poor coastal management
• failure to fairly share coastal resources among the different people who live along the coast.

e1 Discover
1 On page 88 are four pictures of coastal land use.
a If you are near the coast, sketch pictures of two more types of land use in your area. (Hint: refer to the section
where there is a step-by-step instruction on how to draw a field sketch on page 34).

b If you are away from the coast, collect two more pictures of different types of coastal land use.

2 Make a table about the six pictures like the one below. For each picture your table should list:

• benefits of the activity

• problems with the activity
• ways to solve the problems.

Place and activity Benefits Problems Solution

1 Philippines,tuna fishing

2 Bali,tourism

3
4
5
6
(111nthe Philippines, 150000 workers and small tuna fishermen are set to
lose their jobs with a two-year ban on tuna fishing from the beginning of
2010.

(21"Mass tourism on the island of Bali over

the last three decades has caused considerable
environmental damage to its beaches and coastal
areas, an environmentalist said:' (From a tourist
article on Indonesia in 2007.1

(31 Urban land use has left no access to the coast for locals in Honiara,
Solomon Islands. The beachfront has been sold to businesses and politicians.
Most local people must leave the city to enjoy the sea.

C Discuss and respond (4)The airport on Rarotonga, Cook Islands, uses

a large piece of the total flat land in Rarotonga.
A SPREPdraft report on land use and zones for
1 Why is it logical to have island industry around ports and airports?
Rarotonga says, "It is logical for the designated
industrial area to abut the Airport and Avatiu port.
2 Is this the case in your local area?
This category also includes areas set aside for
solid waste disposal and areas for disposal and
3 What is the logic (the reason) for the location of the airport
treatment of urban waste:'
nearest you?

4 a Is your airport using scarce flat land or other scarce land

resources?

b Where do you think this is an issue, and why?

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Land use in your local

area Be sure you only chose
an area that you or your
It is now time for you to investigate land group can cover. This
use in your local area. There are two ways might be one square
kilometre. It could be more I
you can do a local study. Decide with your or less depending on your
teacher on which type of local area study area and the resources for;
you will do. The study can be individual or the study.

group.
For either type of study you should
produce:

• a map
• a table
• three paragraphs explaining what you
have found.
The two possible local area studies are
shown below.

~ Local area land use ~ Local area land use

tb Study 1: One type of r( Study 2: All land use in
~
~ land use f
~
one area
-

In this study you look at all types of land use,

~ In this study you look at one type of land use.
G= 1 Investigate where and why it happens. For Define the area you are studying. Make

I
~

!
2
example, you might choose a cash crop in
your local area.

Draw a map of it in a designated area.

3 Write your three paragraphs to answer

~'
I':
2
categories for the different types of land use
in the area.

Draw a map of all the land use in the

designated area.

('I these questions: 3 Write your three paragraphs to answer these

• Where and why is land being used in this
way?
• What patterns appear when you map it?
• How can you explain these patterns?
• Do soil, vegetation, climate, landforms and
other things help to explain the pattern?
• What impact does this land use have on the
questions:
• What patterns appear for the land use?
• Can you explai n the reasonsfor the patterns?
Do soil, vegetation, climate, landforms and
other things help to explain the patterns?
• What impact do these different types of land
use have on the environment?

I environment?

('
 CASE STUDIES FOR COMPARISON WITH YOUR
LOCAL AREA
As part of your assessment for this unit, you will compare your local area with at least one other place in the
Pacific region. The other place should be different from your place You need to make the comparison on the
basis of four physical characteristics:
1 landforms

2 climate

3 vegetation

4 land use.

A description of the assessment task can be found on page 104.

You will find information relevant to this task in the tables and maps you have already studied. You can use
this information to make maps, tables and graphs for your study, The following sections provide information
on other countries. You may also find more information in atlases, books, newspapers, magazines and on the
Internet (if you have access to it),
More information is given for four Pacific countries, There are maps and tables that you can use to make other
maps, tables and graphs, You can interpret and analyse the information to make comparisons,

Indonesia
Indonesia is a tropical neighbour of Papua New Guinea. It has highland areas like PNG's directly across the
border and on some of its other islands.

Landforms
Indonesia is a very large archipelago or collection of islands. It is just over 5000 km from east to west and
around 1700 km from north to south. It has five very large islands. Two are part of the Sunda chain of islands,
They are Sumatra and Java. This island chain continues into the Lesser Sunda islands. (Can you find the
Greater Sundas 7) This island chain is volcanic, with active volcanoes running from Sumatra along the spine of
Java into Bali, Lombok and Flores,
Sulawesi, Kalimantan and West Papua are the other three major islands. The total number of islands is over
13 000. The map shows the major mountain areas, You may find many more details on Indonesian landforms
in an atlas, The total land area of Indonesia is approximately 1 919000 sq km.

Climate
Most of Indonesia has a tropical climate. It is wet, warm and moderated by the sea on many islands, Climate
changes with elevation. Mountain areas of Indonesia are cooler. There is a glacier in West Papua. It is melting
and will probably disappear in another 20 to 30 years of global warming.
 Indonesia's climate characteristics
• A tropical wet and dry season pattern. Wet season: November to March. Dry season:April to VL.lUl~L

• Wetter in the northern part than in the south, but there are local variations and differences (particu
with West Papua).
• Rainfall in the lowlands averages 1200-3700 mm each year.
• Rainfall in mountain areas can average 6100 mm each year.
• Average annual temperatures range from 25 to 27°C.

Climographs to make: On the next page are three sets of rainfall (precipitation) and temperature d
can locate the places on a map and graph the data to compare with your own area's climate. You
compare between the three places.
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Land use
Figure 1.20 shows the major areas of land use in Indonesia .

• Oopland
• .Oopland / Pasture
Managed Pasture
• Agriculture wt~ forest
Agriculture wlh other 'vegetation
• Agriculture I forest mosaic,
. • Agriculture I Oth~r mosaic
Agriculture /2 other I..,d cov"'t'ypes
Plantations "
Legend • For"st with a!l"icjJt,ure
• R'imarily Forest (>60%)
• O!:her vegetation with agriculture
• Other vegetation: wetlands. "",i>9roves
R'imarily Gras'Sland (>60%)
NOn-vegetated "Sparsely vegetoted
_ In·land water
Ocean
Islands
Other

Figure 1.20: Land use in Indonesia.

Australia
Landforms
Australia is an island continent. It faces
the Pacific to the east and the Indian
Ocean to the west. It has one large island
to the south, Tasmania.
Australia's major landforms are old.
They are weathered and eroded. Much
of Australia is flat. There is little water.
The highest mountain on the mainland is
2228 m above sea level. Australia's total
land area is about 7 687 000 sq km. The
topographic map (Figure 1.21) is based
on satellite images with colour coding for
elevation. Note, the island of Tasmania is
mountainous, but the highest Tasmanian
peak is only 1617m.
Climate
Australia has many climate zones because it is so big. There are tropical climates in the north, dese 1i climates
in the dry centre extending north-west and temperate climates to the south. Go back to the maps i the
general section about climate and study the Australia map closely (page 48).
Climographs to make: You can make c1imographs for the following cities:
Cairns, Queensland Sydney, NSW Hobart, Tasmania
(16°53'S 145°41'E) (33°57'S 15P6'E) (43°S 147°E)
Month °C Rainfall Month °C Rainfall Month °C Rainfall
(mm) (mm) (mm)

Jan 27.6 415.5 Jan 22.1 103.4 Jan 16.75 477

Feb 27.3 4214 Feb 22 111 Feb 16.8 40.1
Mar 26.6 453.4 Mar 20.9 131.3 Mar 1545 45
Apr 25.2 247.5 Apr 18.3 129.7 Apr 13.1 51.2
May 234 106.2 May 15.2 123 May 10.7 46.4
Jun 21.6 62.7 Jun 12.8 129.2 Jun 8.55 53.8
Jul 21 34 Jui 11.8 102.8 Jui 8.05 52.5
Aug 21.6 35 Aug 13 80.3 Aug 9.1 52.8
Sep 23 38.3 Sep 15.2 69.3 Sep 10.75 52.5
Oct 24.7 46.1 Oct 176 82.6 Oct 12.35 61.8
Nov 26.2 94 Nov 19.4 81.4 Nov 13.95 53.9
Dec 272 195 Dec 212 78.2 Dec 15.55 56.9

Vegetation
The vegetation of Australia depends on rainfall. Low rainfall limits vegetation in many areas.
original vegetation of the continent has been changed by human activity. Some of the tropical vegetati
similar to PNG's. Remember, the original vegetation once was connected by a land bridge South and I
the vegetation changes and is very different from anything in PNG.
There are four major zones of vegetation in Australia:

1 Tropical. Similar to parts of PNG, this includes tropical rainforest, savannah like the area around Po
Moresby and tropical grasslands Tropical vegetation is found in the north only. It adapts to drier co
in the north-west of the continent. This includes flooding during the wet season.
2 Cool temperate. These vegetation types are found further south, inland and along the coast of much of
Australia. This includes open woodland of two main types of tree communities: Eucalyptus and Aca ia.
One common type of Eucalyptus woodland is called dry sclerophyll.
3 Arid areas. These are dry places with low rainfall. Australian vegetation has adapted to these large reas
of the continent. Vegetation includes desert and scrubland plants with few trees. The spinifex plant IS
common in many of the dry parts of the continent's centre. Dry vegetation areas extend to the central
coast of Western Australia. Large parts of the central scrubland have been destroyed for cattle grazi
Underground water is pumped to support this activity because rainfall is often not enough.
4 Subalpine. This is the smallest climate
zone and is located at elevations
above 1350 m where snow covers
vegetation for up to four months a
year. The topographic map will show
you subalpine areas. They are limited
to a small part of south-east Australia.

Land use
The federal and state governments of
Australia combine to produce land use
maps at different scales. Figure 1.22
is the land use map for the nation at a
small scale. You can see that much of

---~
__,_ ...-

-
the land use is concentrated in cities (red
areas on map) because Australia is 90%
......
urban. This leaves much of the country for
_ ...~
c:.:....r_
extensive land use. That means it is not
concentrated. For example, cattle in the
Australian vegetation.
central areas need one square kilometre
each to survive.

Figure 1.22:Australian land use.

New Zealand
Landforms
New Zealand has two main islands and a set of smaller islands to the north. Both main islands are
mountainous.
There is volcanic activity in the North Island. It also has a large central plateau. The South Island has more
rugged topography. Its mountains are called the Southern Alps. They run like a spine some 500 km along the
South Island. They include glaciers and fast-flowing rivers. Major landforms are visible on Figure 1.23.
New Zealand's total land area is about 269 000 sq km.

MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL

(mm)

6400
3200
2400
1600
1200
800
400

Figure 1.23: Landforms of New Zealand. Figure 1.24: Rainfall in New Zealand.

Climate
The general climate of New Zealand is wet temperate with changes due to altitude. There are local coastal
variations due to mountain features.
Figure 1.24 shows average yearly rainfall. This is called mean annual rainfall. You can see where mountains are
acting to block cloud cover.
New Zealand has four seasons. This is a feature of temperate climates. Summer is the warmest season,
from December to February. Average summer temperatures are between 20 and 30°e. Winter is the cold
season, from June to August. Average winter temperatures are between 10 and 15°e. In mountain areas,
temperatures can average much lower.
Climographs to make: Use the tables below to make graphs and tell more about New Zealand's climate.
What are the average spring and autumn temperatures?
Auckland, NZ Wellington, NZ Christchurch, NZ
(36°51 'S 174°42'E) (41°S 174°E) (43°S 172°E)

Month °C Rainfall Month °C Rainfall Month °C Rainfall

(mm) (mm) (mm)

Jan 18.2 43.9 Jan 16.6 79.2 Jan 16.5 52.5

Feb 18.9 116.9 Feb 16.7 79.5 Feb 16.2 45
Mar 177 871 Mar 15.6 85.1 Mar 14.6 52.4
Apr 15.3 130.5 Apr 13.6 98.3 Apr 12 50.4
May 12.8 130.2 May 11.2 1212 May 8.7 68
Jun 10.7 118.6 Jun 9.3 124.1 Jun 6.2 64.8
Jul 9.6 136.9 Jul 8.5 139 Jul 5.7 66.3
Aug 10.5 1415 Aug 9 120.8 Aug 6.9 53.7

Sep 11.8 92.9 Sep 10.5 99.3 Sep 9.3 44.8

Oct 13.5 110.8 Oct 12 104.9 Oct 11.6 45.1

Nov 15.1 84.9 Nov 13.5 879 Nov 13.5 48.4

Dec 17 95.3 Dec 15.4 89.5 Dec 15.4 55.1

Vegetation
The original vegetation of New Zealand included a large variety of
plants and trees. Much of the vegetation is different from that in
other places. New Zealand plants had 82 million years of isolation
to develop. As in other Pacific places, humans have changed
much of this. Much of the country was originally covered by
different types of evergreen forest (mixed broad leaf evergreen
forests and southern beech forests). Other vegetation included
grasslands and shrub lands. There were areas of mixture where
the different forest types met or forest met scrubland met
grassland.

Kauris are among the largest trees in the world. They used to be an important
part of New Zealand's broadleaf forests. Most have been cut down for timber.
Land use
Land use in New Zealand reflects landforms and economic activities. Agriculture and tourism are two
important rural land uses. Figure 1.25 shows land use at a small scale.
~------------------------------------~
CQ!TIil.nt land Use Cia.""
_O"Y
.ImtlJl ...... tp&D_
_ ".tG'-"'Y#"ccJltom
KEY _i'lg'I~n,y.n'IIIlI..DIl9I'
_LUff
Continuous beech forest

D Patches of beech forest _UlI:an

_PlSIB1Itl!tt~!
Stand of beech

_""II-"'
_Orr~~
-~,flljJ
_1I"ny

_swr.mr:r"'~
_TICP~!II'fII;t
_!Ooi'I~rut
_F1oo;et:

lll'ldroY Clen ...

-
_r ack
_N~f!l1Ut
RM!n,lliCII,tlllWl.lCl

....

This map shows southern beech forests. These forests have Figure 1.25: Land use in New Zealand.
four main species of beech tree. They are not as varied as the
broadleaf forests.

Japan
Landforms
Japan is another island nation. Japan's
total land area is about 378 000 sq km.
About 70% of this is mountains. Japan
is in an active seismic (earthquake) risk
zone. Review the hazard map (page 38).
The mountains are a manifestation of
four tectonic plates that meet around
Japan. This also produces volcanos. Other
landforms are visible on the map (Figure
1.26).

Climate
All of Japan's climates are temperate.
But they differ from very warm and mild

Figure 1.26:A topographic map of Japan shows some of the major landforms.
temperate climates to cool and very cold
The four main islands are named in blue. temperate climates. This is because Japan
stretches so far from north to south. (Find the border and calculate the different latitudes.) Northern
heavy snowfall in winter. Southern Japan is milder and more like New Zealand.
Figure 1.27 is a map of annual average temperatures. Compare it with the rainfall map (Figure 1.28).

o
c 100
.~ ~ 250
.g_ ~ 500 •
.~ ~I 750.
~ - 1250.
2500.

Sea of Japan

Figure 1.27:Temperature averages in Japan. Figure 1.28: Rainfall in Japan.

Climographs: Below is data for climographs to help you determine the seasons and climate types of
Kagoshima, Kyushu Sapporo, Hokkaido
Tokyo,Japan (southern Japan) (northern Japan)
(35°41'N 139°41'E) (31°34'N 130030'E) (43°24'N 141°13'E)
Month °C Rainfall * Month °C Rainfall Month DC Rainfall
(mm) (mm) (mm)

Jan 3.6 49.9 Jan 6.9 82 Jan -5.4 100.2

Feb 4.3 71.5 Feb 77 104.7 Feb -4.6 79.1

Mar 74 106.4 Mar 10.9 155.4 Mar -0.9 69.5

Apr 13 129.2 Apr 15.6 225.3 Apr 5.7 60.6
May 173 144 May 19.2 2376 May 11.1 59.2

Jun 20.8 176 Jun 22.7 414.5 Jun 15.4 64.9

Jul 24.7 135.6 Jul 26.6 304.6 Jul 19.7 85.8

Aug 26.1 148.5 Aug 272 204.3 Aug 21.3 1171

Sep 22.4 216.4 Sep 24.5 218.5 Sep 16.7 136

Oct 16.5 194.1 Oct 19.2 118.8 Oct 10.1 113.9

Nov 11.1 95.6 Nov 14 913 Nov 3.5 106.4

Dec 6.1 54.4 Dec 8.9 79.5 Dec -2.4 101.9

* ForTokyo and other Japanese cities, some of this is snow or other frozen water forms In winter.
(

Vegetation
Key term Japan has conserved or replanted many of its forests. Economic activity and human
deciduous a settlement has removed much of the nation's original vegetation, particularly around
deciduous tree
built-up areas. The original vegetation was pine forests in the north and deciduous
looses all its
leaves in winter broad leaf forests, also in northerly areas. To the south, there are evergreen broadleaf
forests in the much warmer climate.

Land use
The majority of Japan's land is forest. The forests are growing smaller. Agriculture is
still an important rural activity. Japan tries to produce all its own rice. Table 1.4 on
page 101 shows the major categories of land use in Japan.

Deciduous trees and pines in Hokkaido, the northernmost island of Japan.

Much is planted forest.

A deciduous broadleaf forest in Japan. An evergreen broad leaf forest from the warmer temperate climate of
southern Japan.
 --
CJ Cultivated land

Mountain forest

Marshland LAND UTILIZATION

-
Native forest
~:=m
• r.:.~~l~t.:~~;=
III Sifttleel'Ol!Pinc:peddyric.
Plantation forest
.. SI~~:V~:::ischiefIyWh
.. t.
Urban rE:J Fortsl domlnlnt wtlh 10m. 111$111"
Indwnr.llnd
- NGrtlllrnllmUo'wlalftCtoplklpecldyfMN.

SflfClALTY CROPS
¥ ......
• T..
• Cltnasfruit

-.; M.JorfisllfnaPGrt

Vegetation of Japan. Land use in Japan.

Table 1.4: Land use in Japan

Approximate land Percentage of total

area (sq km) land
Agricultural area 525000 14%

Forest 252000 67%

Waste land 27000 1%

Rivers, lakes and reservoirs, watercourses 131 000 3%

Roads 117000 3%

BUilt-up area (housing, factories and other urban) 164000 4%

Other 293000 8%
Assessment

ASSESSMENT
Assessment task one: a mapping test
For assessment task one you must complete a mapping test that includes:
• applied mapping skills (including latitude and longitude)
• scales to calculate distance
• correct map labelling.
(30 marks)

How can I do well on this assessment?

• Go over maps and atlases. Be sure you understand how the different keys work.
Look at all the different keys to the maps in this text. Each is showing different
information. You see that some categories are different because of scales or the
words different countries use.
• Go over the climographs you have made during this unit and review the process for
making them.
• Make up questions with your friends and test each other.
1 Here are some questions to help you prepare for your test:
a How has land use changed vegetation in the country you studied?
b What place is at 12°S nOW?
c About how many kilometres is it if you travel from 0° along the equator to 900E?
d Staying along the equator, you travel from 900E to 900W. How many kilometres
is that? How many metres is that?
e Now you decide to cool off and travel along the prime meridian from the equator
to the North Pole. How many kilometres have you travelled?
f On a simple map, there is a straight road from Nemba Village to Yuli Village. The
distance is 12 kilometres. This is 48 centimetres on the map. What is the scale?

2 For the map on page 103, the scale is 1:50 000.

a If you travel 2 cm on the map, how far have you gone on the land?
b About how long is the Wewak airstrip on the map?
c Measure the distance for this trip. You go by boat from the start of the sewage
outlet pipe on Cape Boram to the sewage outlet pipe at Cape Moem. Start
where the pipe meets the land. Take a straight line to where the next pipe meets
the land. How many kilometres have you travelled?
d About how far is it by road from the War Cemetery on Cape Moem to the
General Hospital on Cape Boram? ,

Answers to these questions are on page 105.

102 Social Science Grade 9: Outcomes Edition '

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3 Making climographs.
Apia, Samoa (13°48'5 171°42'W)

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jut Aug Sep Oct Nov
°C 27 27 27 27 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26
Rain (mm) 437 360 356 236 174 135 100 111 144 206 259 374

a Use this data on Samoa to make a climograph. Remember to put in the latitude
and longitude.
b Next, from the climograph tell what type of climate Samoa has.
c Finally, give your reasons why Samoa has this climate.

Unit 1: Places in the Pacific region 103

Assessment

Assessment task two

For assessment task two you must compare the physical characteristics of your local
environment with those of another Pacific region. Use the information in the case study
section (pages 90-101) to help you complete this task.
• Compare the physical characteristics of a Pacific country (not PNG) with your local
environment, and explore the human use of the environment. Use maps, sketches,
diagrams, graphs and tables to make physical comparisons.
• You must choose a country that contrasts with your local area. "To contrast" means
to show differences between things. For example, a highland climate would contrast
with a tropical climate.
• In thinking about the different parts of the physical environment, you should cover at
least:
- landforms
- climate
- vegetation
- land use.
(70 marks)
How can I do well on this assessment?
• Remember to use all the skills from the mapping test you did in assessment task
one. Go over that assessment again. Be sure you know why you got anything
wrong. This time you may need to make a map or two to show contrasts. If you do,
remember:
- Orientation. Maps you are comparing should have a similar orientation.
- Scale. The scales between maps will need to be similar or you will need to
explain the differences. A very small scale map and a very large scale map will
be difficult to use for comparing and showing contrasts.
- Labels. Be sure the labels are similar on your maps and sketches.
• You need to describe both your local environment and the country you are comparing
it with.
• Think how you can show information using:
- maps
- diagrams
- tables
- graphs
- pictures.
• Be sure to write a paragraph for each one of these that you do. You must explain the
information to the reader (your teacher).

104 Social Science Grade 9; Outcomes Edition

Answers (page 102)
1 b Lima, Peru
c 10000 km
d 20000 km; 20000000 m
e 10000 km
f 1 :25000

2 a 1 km
b Just over 1.5 km
c Just under 3.5 km
d About 6 km

Unit 1: Places in the Pacific regio n 105

For students
Unit summary
In this unit you will explore how societies are
growing, moving and changing. This unit looks at
populations of people.
You will start with the basics of human population
studies. You will investigate how populations grow.
You will learn new terms and how to make special
graphs to study populations. You will continue to look
at the interaction between land and people. You will
see some of the impacts of expanding populations on
the land. You will investigate and compare the local
situation with situations in other parts of the Pacific
region. You may make small surveys of people near
you.
106 Social Science Grade 9: Outcomes Edition
For teachers
In this unit students will have the opportunity to:
.I grasp the basics of population studies
.I make and interpret graphs of populations
(population pyramids)
.I compare and contrast different features of
different populations
.I understand features of migration and analyse the
local situation compared with other situations in
the Pacific region
.I understand the basic features of urbanisation and
urban pati:erns including problems and benefits
.I model settlement patterns in the local area and
compare this with more general models of urban
land use
./ understand the importance of urbanisation while
balancing the importance of rural areas in Papua
New Guinea
./ explore visions of the future city.
Assessment for this unit is described at the end of
the unit.
.I Assessment task one-a test on interpreting
population statistics .
.I Assessment task two-an oral presentation on
population change or migration.
Links with other units and strands
Population and migration are studies that link with mathematics and personal development.

Syllabus references
Students can:
9.2.1 demonstrate an understanding of population change and its impact on the environment
9.2.2 describe the social issues caused by population change
9.2.3 demonstrate graphing and mapping skills

Unit 2 Population change, resources and migration takes 10 weeks to complete, including assess
suggested timetable is shown below.

Modify materials, assignments and times as needed. The curriculum calls for fieldwork with teachers ning
according to their local conditions. Lesson material can be incorporated.

Week 1 Studying population Week 6 Population patterns and proeesses:

Discussing population issues your study
Principles of population study
Population change and population
Week 7 Population patterns and processes:
growth
your study
Reducing populations
(continue your study)
Food and population

Week 2 Studying population WeekS The pull of the city

(continue Week 1 topics) The rise of the city
Rural-urban migration
Week 3 Where people live and why Urbanisation in the developed
Looking at sex and age in populations fc4
developing worlds
Cohorts Advantages and problems of ci i s
World population growth Urbanisation in PNG
The future of the city
Week 4 Population change: comparisons
Changes to population in different ~.
nations
Population change in PNG
~. Week 9 The pull of the city
(continue Week 8 topics)

Week 5 Migration: people on the move

l>'
Migration in history and today ~ Week 10
Short-term and long-term migration
Why people migrate

"" ~-

Unit 2: Population change, resources and migration 107

STUDYING POPULATION
Discussing population
The first lesson in this unit is a time for class discussion. Start with your ideas about population. You should be
able to cover these four discussion areas:
1 defining a population

2 studying populations

3 effects of populations

4 your local population.

If you finish the first four discussions, you

may have time for the extra discussion on
page 111.

Discussion topic one: Defining a

population
There are no right answers in this
discussion. It is a discussion of opinions.
You could call them "hypotheses". Do you
remember the idea of a hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a statement of what you think the answer to a question or a study may be. Then you do
the study to test the hypothesis to see if it istrue or false.

Here is a chance for you to discuss your ideas. Then you can test them over the next 10 weeks.
• What is a popu lation?
• What is the national census? What does it tell us about the Papua New Guinea population?
• What do you think the important features of population are 7
• Are the numbers of males and females important?
• Is age important?
• What do you think the most important things are about a population?
 Debate
Form two teams in class and debate these statements: "A country needs an equal number of males an
females so that it can prosper" vs "Equal numbers of males and females are not important for a countr
to prosper."

, Researching population

fi" There are many sources of information about population. Throughout this unit, you can search for
information in many ways, for example:
I;j • read newspapers .
• write away for information
• invite representatives from NGOs (non-government organisations) that are concerned
about population to speak about these issuesand leave relevant literature.
You can keep a portfolio of collected articles to help with your study.

Discussion topic two: Studying populations

For us, a population study is about
people. There are other populations.
Dog populations, insect populations and
wallaby populations are all examples.
Some scientists have tried to compare
human populations with other
populations-rats, for example. They
crowded rats into small living spaces.
Some rats started fighting. The scientists
thought this might be the same with
human populations. Overcrowding is seen
as a problem for humans. Do you think
people respond the same as rats? (We
shall look again at overcrowding later in
this unit.)
Here are questions to guide your discussion:
• Why do we study populations?
• Who can these studies help?
• What do differences between populations in different countries tell us?
• Can we compare human populations with studies about animal populations?
• Can we experiment with human populations?
 Discussion topic three: Effects of populations
:;.
Different populations can have different effects on the land. These effects can be called impacts. You have
studied the first settlements in the Pacific, for example. Growing populations changed the land. The Highlands
of Papua New Guinea have changed with human settlement from forest to grasslands.
Here are some ideas to discuss:
• Do large populations have large impacts
on the land?
• Do small populations have small
impacts on the land?
• Can you think of a large population that
has had a small impact on its
environment?
• Can you think of a small population
that has had a large impact on its
environment?
• How important is population size for
making an impact on the land and other
parts of the environment 7

Human settlement has changed PNG.

l RJf>ULAT/ON FX?LOStONJ

Discussion topic four: Your local population

Think about your local area, the school, community and province.
• Where are populations growing larger? Why?
• Where are populations shrinking (growing smaller)? Why?
• Is population growth good or bad? Why?
Now think globally. Discuss the same questions. Think back to what you know of the Pacific region and the
rest of the world.
I Extra discussion: Big issues
World population is around seven billion people. That is 7000 million or
7 000 000 000 people. This population is growing. It may reach nine billion people
by 2050. Scientists don't think it will grow much larger than that.
• What values should we apply to population growth? Should we see it as good or
bad?Arid why are some people for population growth and others against it?
What will happen to resources as population grows?
• What is the impact of world population growth on Papua New Guinea?
• Is there a connection between population growth and global warming?

Principles of population study

Population study is a special science. Demographers study human populations. You
remember from studying democracy that demo means people.
We will look at some of the basic parts of populations and population study.

Population change
A population can grow, shrink or stay steady. World population has grown very slowly
for most of history. Sometimes it was steady or even shrinking a little. In some places it
grew. It other places it got smaller. In Unit 3 (" Investigating Papua New Guinea history"),
you may discover the history of groups in your area that grew small or disappeared.
Over the last hundred years, however, populations have been growing very quickly.
Today, most populations are growing in the developing world. This includes Papua New
Guinea. World population is now between six and seven billion people. It is unlikely it
will double again. It may grow to nine or ten billion. The impact of such a big population
on the world's resources in 2050 will be greater than today.
 Measuring growth
There are two ways for populations to grow in a year. One is by natural growth. The
Key terms other is by migration.
natural growth
1 Natural growth by birth. Natural growth increases population when there are more
population
growth where births than deaths, There are three simple measures to calculate this. They are all
more people based on the measure for every 1000 people in a population. This is a simple or
are born than "crude" measure. The three are:
die. Also called
natural increase • Crude birth rate. This is the total number of live births for every 1000 people in the
migration the population per annum.
movement
of people or • Crude death rate. This is the total number of deaths for every 1000 people in the
animals from population per annum.
one location to
another • Natural increase or natural growth. Subtract deaths from births and you get the
rate of natural increase per 1000 people in the population. For example, if there are
20 births per 1000 people in a population and six deaths per 1000 people in the same
population, then the population is growing at 14 people per thousand (20 -16 = 14).
This is a growth rate of 1.4% per year (see "Skills box" for how to work this out).
This is often written as "1,4 % per annum".

Skills box
How to calculate the annual population growth rate
• Subtract the number of deaths per 1000 people from the births per 1000 people.
• Divide the difference by 1000 (because birth and death rates are given as the
number of people per thousand head of population).
Did !:IOU know?
• Multiply by 100 to express as a percentage.
Somecountries'
populationsare
shrinkingrather
thangrowing.The
oppositeof natural
growth is natural
decline,wherethere
are moredeaths
than birthsper
annum.

The population of PNG is increasing by about 2.07% per annum.

/
 2 Imported growth by migration. Migration is the second way a nation's population can grow. Migration
increases population by people arriving from other countries. Again, a rate can be determined per [lOO
people already in the population.

Internationally, a person who comes into a country to stay is called an immigrant. The same perso eaving
a country to go to another country to stay is called an emigrant. Immigration and emigration are opposites.
Emigration is leaving a country. That process decreases the population.

Sometimes emigration and immigration balance each other out. Sometimes they are so small it real y does
not matter. In some places, emigration and immigration are very important.

rI Discover
Immigration to the USA is at a rate of 7 per 1000.The total population of the USA is 310 million. About
immigrants arrive each year?

2 Immigration to Australia is at a rate of 6 per 1000.The total population of Australia is 22 million.

immigrants arrive each year?

C Discuss and. respond

1 On the next page are two articles about immigration in the USA and Australia.

a Readthrough the articles as a class.

b In small groups discuss these questions and record your answers in a table like the one below.

• What are the population issues here?

• What are the problems?
• What possible solutions can you think of?
Pi:Jpylation problem~, Popuiatj()7'isiJlutions

USA

Australia

/
 Illegal immigration to the USA

These are mainly people who have

entered the US without the necessary
documents or who have overstayed
temporary visas.
The pace of unauthorised arrivals has
accelerated over the last two decades. On
average, nearly five times as many illegal 03/
2005
immigrants enter the country each year
now as did in the 1980s.About 40% of
illegal immigrants have been in the US
five years or less.
BBC news service

1990 1995 2000 2005

New asylum boat adds fuel to policy debate

By Joe Kelly
Another boatload of suspected asylum
seekers has been intercepted by a customs
vessel acting under the control of Border
Protection Command four nautical miles
north of Ashmore Reef.
The asylum seekers were intercepted
yesterday afternoon and initial indications
suggest there were 43 passengers and four
crew on board ...
Earlier today the opposition attacked
the government for its border-protection
policies, claiming more people had arrived
by boat this year than in all of2009.
Immigration spokesman Scott Morrison
released a statement which set out a log
of boat arrivals showing 2873 people had
come illegally by boat to Australia this year
compared with 2792 last year.
"The arrival of the latest illegal boat
over the weekend means that, barely four
and a half months into the year, 2873 people
have arrived illegally by boat, 81 more than
the 2792 who arrived during the whole of
2009," he said.
"This is a shameful indictment of our
immigration and border protection chaos
under Kevin Rudd and his failure to take
direct action to fix a problem of his own
making," he said.
The Australian, 17 May 2010
Why does population grow, decline or stay steady?
A big family was valuable to farmers 200 years ago everywhere in the world.
grow food, look after livestock and do other work. Cultures valued big families. Some cultures particular y
valued sons. Other cultures valued both sons and daughters. Many children did not survive.
Nations wanted to grow. A big population would make a nation strong. In the year 1900 the world pORUation
was about 1.5 to 1.7 billion people. No one could have guessed how populations would grow World
population has changed like never before over the last 100 years. In the 20th century (1900 to 1999) population
increased about four times.
What are the reasons for this growth? A
combination of high birth rates and lower
death rates is the simple reason. But how
does this happen? Birth rates have been
high for most of history. Death rates for
infants and mothers delivering them have
been high for most of history.
Improvements to mother and child health
have been substantial over the past 150
years. There have been improvements
to general health also during that time.
Sanitation, clean water and protection
against disease have grown. This has
meant that more people stay alive for
longer. It means that fewer babies and
mothers die from problems at birth or
from disease. Better health assists rapid
population growth.

IIInvestigate
What is the population situation in your area? Survey clusters of
HELP
houses to find out.
A "cluster" is a group that is
1 Choose five houses or families close to your house to survey
together. A group of houses r
(if this is safe).
families that are close to one
2 Survey this cluster of houses to determine answers to these is a cluster.
questions:

a What is the average number of children for a mother in your cluster?

b How well are health services helping mothers and babies in your area?

c Do people value big families or want smaller families?

3 Present your survey summary as a written report.

 Reducing population
Death reduces population. International migration can lower the population in one country but it increases the
population in another. There is no net difference to world population from migration.
Another way to lower or reduce population is to lower birth rates. One way to lower birth rates is by family
planning. This reduces births. There are four basic ways to lower or stop births:
1 Abstinence from sex. This means not having sex, so no babies are conceived.

2 Contraception. Contraception prevents pregnancy. There are different types of contraceptives. The only
one that can also stop. the spread of HIV/AIDS is the condom. The invention of the contraceptive pill and its
use starting in 1960 changed the ability of many women to lower the number of children they have.

3 Abortion. This means removing the unborn foetus from the mother's womb. This is illegal in Papua New
Guinea under adopted Western laws. It has become legal in many Western and Asian countries.

4 Infanticide. This is an ancient practice of killing a newborn child. It is illegal the world over. In past history it
was practised when a woman had too many children to feed.

Contraception and ab-ortion have lowered

birth rates in many Western and other
countries. Another reason for lower birth
rates is female education. Birth rates
are lower where women are educated.
Contraception and education cost money.
This is the reason why they are more
widespread in developed countries.
Indonesia has had a strong education
system and a strong family planning
program for over 20 years. This has
lowered the rate of population growth.
Culture is another important variable for
birth rates. Birth rates increase in cultures
where:

• women marry early

• women have fewer rights than men
• women are less educated than men
• both men and women value large Still from a Blue Circletelevision advertisementpromoting family planning
families. in Indonesia.
Food and population
A growing population must eat! Long
ago people understood that a growing
population must have growing food
supplies This means garden or farm land
must increase. This is what happened
over history until the 20th century.
Many people started to worry in the
1950s as population rapidly increased and
there was little or no new land to grow
food on. A group of concerned scientists
and others in the 1970s predicted mass
starvation in the near future.
Large families can have trouble feeding all their children. Malnutri
Since then there has been famine, but
result.
the world has not run out of food. Steadily
increasing food supply is another reason that populations have been able to grow. Science has made it
possible to grow much more food on the same land. Land has not increased. In fact, cities and settle ents
keep taking over good farm and garden land. But people have been able to grow more food from the same or
less land so far.
There are problems when people get little food or the wrong food. Malnutrition results from a poor diet It can
hurt the health of populations.

~ More people, more food

In early 19th-century England, Thomas Malthus wrote
, ~ about the growth of populations. He predicted that when
- populations grow, the demand for food grows faster than
the supply of food. Malthus's basic idea is that population
-< increases geometrically while foodstuffs only grow at an

arithmetic rate. In other words, you multiply for population

but only add for food production.
So far this has not happened. Thomas Malthus, born in
1766, could never have imagined a world of seven billion
r. people. Today world population growth is slowing. Even
;>J populations in poor countries are starting to slow their
growth.
 IIInvestigate
What is the food supply in your area? Conduct some research to find out.

1 Examine the food resources for your family. Make a table in which you list food that is
home grown, bought and imported:

Home grown food Bought food Imported food

2 Do the same for one other family. Youcould choose one of the families you surveyed
earlier about population.

3 Collate the information to answer these questions:

a About what percentage is home grown 7

b About what percentage is bought?

c About what percentage is imported?

Home-grown food.

Imported food. Bought food.

WHERE PEOPLE LIVE AND WHY
Where do people live in the world? The answers are found in population distribution Key terms
and density. population
People live where there are resources. Look at Figure 2.1. Population distribution
is where people have settled around the world. You can see that the distribution is
uneven. There are places with many people and places with no people.
Population density is the number of people in a given area. Normally we measure this
as persons per square kilometre. A kilometre is 1000 metres long. A square kilometre
is 1000 m X 1000 rn. That equals a million square metres or 100 hectares. The most
densely populated nation on Earth is Bangladesh. It has over 1000 people per square
kilometre. Its total population is over 160 million and growing.
Population density is highest in cities. In Tokyo, Japan, there are over 5700 people per
square kilometre. Cities like Jakarta (Indonesia), Manila (Philippines) and Delhi (India) are
double that Even higher densities exist: Seoul (Korea) has 16 500 people per square
kilometre while Lagos (Nigeria) and Karachi (Pakistan) have over 18 000 people per
square kilometre.

Population
ARCTIC OCE.AN

PACIFIC

o C E AN

o C E AN

• Over 10 million
• 5 millionto lOmitiion
• 1 million to 5 million

Figure 2.1: Pattern of world population distribution and density. The map shows number of people per
square kilometre.

<>.
~0) J
 Cities are the areas of
greatest population
density.

Factors that influence population density

!) Physical factors
• the physical shape of the land (flatter land is easier to settle)
• fresh water
• land for farming and gardening (called arable land)
• climate (very cold and very dry climates have few or no people)
• other physical resources such as minerals, timber, fisheries and fuel.
Human-made factors (social, cultural, political and economic)
borders and types of government (some places are easier to get to than others; some countries allow
their citizens many more freedoms to develop than others)
• trading centres
• manufacturing centres and other centres with attractive economic opportunities
• history, technology and investment (a small city may have grown as technologies improved to provide
the resources to support more and more people).

II Discover
1 Divide into small groups and look at Figure 2.1 ("Pattern of world population distribution and density") on page 119.

2 Eachgroup picks a continent to study (Asia,Africa, North America, South America, Europe or Oceania-do not
use Antarctica). Make a table to show the areas or countries on the continent where population is higher and
where it is lower.

3 Use the box" Factors that influence population density" above to explain why some parts of the continent are
densely populated and other places are not.

4 Present your findings as a oral report to the class.

Looking at sex and age in populations
You can divide up populations in different ways. For example, you can separate the
males and the females. This is dividing the population according to sex. Or you can
divide it by age. Age is often divided into categories. The simplest categories are young,
middle-aged and old.
You must count both males and females, and all age groups, when determining
population growth.

Cohort
Cohort is an important term for population study. A cohort is a group. An age cohort
Key term
is an age group. Often age cohorts are groups of people of the same age in five-year
categories The youngest age cohort in this system is zero to four (0 to 4) years. (This
uses the Western counting system for age in which you are only one year old when you
have completed your first year.)
Age cohorts are divided by sex for population studies. Population studies make plans
and predictions. They can do this because everyone will either grow older or die. The
age cohorts show how many people are in different stages. A person needs and does
different things at each stage of life.
There is a general rule for sex and birth. Usually between 104 to 107 boys are born for
every 100 girls at birth. In Western countries there are 100 boys for every 100 girls at
age 21. The ratio between them is even. The numbers become even because boys take
more risks and some die before they reach 21. But in many places, the ratio is different
at age 21.
II Explore age and sex differences
Below are population figures for an imaginary country called Pitalea.The total population is 19341. People here finish
school at 19 and look for work. They stop work at 65 and retire. So there are three major groups in the population.
These groups are shown by age and sex in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Population of Pitalea

Category Yeats Male Female Total in % % Female %

.- age group Male Total

1 Dependantyouth: this part o to 19 3860 3620 100%

of the populationis too young
to work

2 Productiveor working adults 20 to 64 4910 5530 100%

3 Aged dependants 65 and over 590 831 100%
Total 9360 9981
Totalpopulation 19341

1 Copy out Table2.1 on a separate sheet of paper and complete it.

a Calculate the total number of people in each age category.

b Determine the percentage of males and females for each age

category. HELP

2 For category 1, "Youth': you see an imbalance between the Remember, to find what percentage
sexes. Why do you think this is 7 a number is of a larger number, you
divide the number by the larger
3 Now look at the percentages for category 2, "Productive or
number then multiply by 100.
working adults'.'Here is another imbalance.What could the
reasons be?

4 Now look at the third category, "Aged dependants'.'What has

happened here7
I
Here are some reasons for an imbalance between the sexes in some countries
• Femalesget better health care than males.
• Femalesare treated poorly in general. .
• Scientific techniques allow for more males to be born, up to 130 males to 100 females at birth.

Here are some reasons for an imbalance in productive or working adults in

different countries:
• Males leave the country to work in another country ..
• Males find no work in the country and have a high death rate from suicide, disease and high-risk
behaviour.
• Fighting and warfare in the country lowers the male population more than the female.

Here are a few reasons that might help explain the aged dependants situatio
• Femalestend to outlive males in old age. The exception is where there are high death rates when
giving birth.
• Some countries do not have good health services. They have smaller ageing populations.

III Challenge
Combine categories 1 and 3. These are the groups that depend on category 2 to support them.
many people are there in category 2 to look after one person in category 1 and 3 combined?

2 What would happen if:

a category 1 was 55% and category 3 was 7% of the total Pitalea population?

b category 1 was 30% and category 3 was 20%? Why would this be a bigger problem over time?

Data in five-year intervals

Data is information. Let's look further at the data for Pitalea. Look at the age and sex cohorts in five~ ear
groups. We often call these five-year intervals. They are very common in population studies.
Table 2.2 shows the age and sex cohorts for Pitalea's population divided into five-year intervals.
 Table 2.2: Population of Pitalea
Ag~ cohort Males Females Age cohort Males Females
in iive-veer in five-year
intervals intervals
~
o to 4 1030 940 50 to 54 510 520
5 to 9 960 910 55 to 59 420 470
10 to 14 950 890 60 to 64 350 410
15 to 19 920 880 65 to 69 280 350
20 to 24 710 800 70 to 74 130 210
25 to 29 650 720 75 to 79 120 150
30 to 34 520 700 80 to 84 50 80
35 to 39 610 670 85 to 89 10 30
40 to 44 590 650 90 to 94 0 10
45 to 49 550 590 95 to 99 0 1

C Discuss
1 Up to the age of 19, what do you notice about the number of males compared with the
number of females? What are the possible reasons for this?

2 From the age of 20 onwards, what do you notice about the numbers of males and
females? Is there a change? If so, why?

3 Why do you think there are still more women than men in the years after the men have
finished working (65and over)?

Population pyramids
Key term
Your next task is to make a population graph of this information. The technical term is a
population
pyramid
population histogram. Often it is called a population pyramid.
(histogram) a A population pyramid shows the division of males and females in a population at
type of graph to
different ages. Figure 2.2 (page 125) shows two examples of population pyramids. The
show population
structure by age number of males (in millions) is shown on the left side of the graph, the number of
and sex females on the right side. The ages are shown up the middle.
You can see that the population pyramid for the Philippines makes a clear pyramid
shape. Other population histograms make different shapes, depending on the
distribution of the population. Australia's population, for example, no longer makes a
pyramid shape.
 100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
7 5.6 4.2 2.8 1.4 0 0 1.4 2.8 4.2 5.6 7

Figure 2.2: Example of population pyramid (in millions): Philippines.

100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
o

Figure 2.3: Example of population pyramid (in thousands): Australia.

l'I Explore
1 Go back to the data inTable 2.2 and use it to draw a population pyramid for Pitalea.The "Skills box" on page 126
explains how to do this.

2 Answer these questions from the population pyramid:

a Which age cohort has the most people in it?

b Which age cohort has the least people in it?

\

f
~
Skills box
How to draw your population pyramid
y

I
Youwill need graph paper. If you have no paper,you can do this as a class
exercise on the blackboardor on cardboard.

I Remember, on a graph the y axis runs up and down (vertical) and the x axis runs
left to right (horizontal).
~ Here i, how to make the qraph:

I
95-99

10-14
5-9
0-4
Male Female Male Female

1 Start by dividing the paper into two parts
down the middle. This divides the graph
between males and females.
-
95-99
2 Insert the 20 cohort groups or intervals along the
y axis at the side of the graph.The youngest is
at the bottom. The oldest is at the top. (This is
a little different from the examples on page 125
which had the ages up the middle.)
95-99 f-I---f-+-+-++-+-+-H

10-14
5-9
0-4
Male Female
1050
---0 ---1050 ---1050

3 At the centre of the base, start the x axis
at zero. Have each square stand for 50
people. You will need 21 squares in each
direction. The last square will be 1050
people (21 x 50).This is the number of
males for the first cohort of 0-4 years.
4 Continue for each cohort. You can colour the
male and female parts different colours if you
want. When you finish, you should have what
looks like a pyramid.

This population study was for an imaginary country. Next we will look at what happens in real countries.
World population growth
World population growth may have started about 150 000 years ago. Genetic studies show evidence that
every human being on Earth is related to a woman who lived around this time. Scientists estimate that
populations were between five and ten million people at the start of the Holocene (the geological epoc
began about 10 000 years ago).
It took centuries for population to grow. Different scientists have made estimates about world populati n
growth. We can trust the estimates more the closer they come to the present. There are higher and 10
estimates. Table 2.3 shows the lower estimates for the last 1800 years to the year 1950, and Figure 2.
graph of that data.
Table 2.3: Lower estimates of population growth, 200-1950 AD
Year ,"Populationin Year Population in
millions, low millions, low
-estimetes estimates
200AD 190 1300 AD 360

400AD 190 1400 AD 350

500AD 190 1500 AD 425

600AD 200 1600 AD 545

700 AD 207 1650 AD 470

800AD 220 1700 AD 600

900AD 226 1750 AD 629

1000 AD 254 1800 AD 813

1100AD 301 1850 AD 1128

1200 AD 360 1900 AD 1550

1250 AD 400 1950 AD 2400

Population(in millions). low estimates

3000

2000

1500

1000

500

Figure 2.4:World population graph (low estimates)

Now look at Table 2.4, which gives the higher estimates of population growth during
the same period.
Table 2.4: Higher estimates of population growth, 200-1950 AD

Y@8t ." Populetion in Year Population in

millions, high millions, high
.0 es~imat@j estimates
200AD 256 1300 AD 432

400AD 206 1400 AD 374

500AD 206 1500 AD 540

600 AD 206 1600 AD 579

700AD 210 1650 AD 545
800 AD 224 1700 AD 679
900AD 240 1750 AD 961

1000 AD 345 1800 AD 1125

1100AD 320 1850 AD 1402
1200 AD 450 1900 AD 1762
1250 AD 416 1950 AD 2557

~ Do, think and decide

1 Make a graph using tlie table of higher estimates (Table 2.4). Use the graph in Figure 2.4
as a model.

2 Compare the two tables and the two graphs. Lower or higher, what is the picture of
population growth from the year 200 to 1950?
 POPULATION CHANGE: COMPARISONS
In this section you will be given information that allows you to compare Papua New
Guinea's population with the populations of other countries. Everywhere, populations
are changing.

Changes to populations in different nations

There are four big trends or changes to
different nation's populations today. They
are:
, The growing youthful populations
of developing countries. These
countries have growing populations of
young people. The age cohorts of 0-4,
5-9, 10-14 and 15-20 are swelling.
These countries have high birth rates
and more children are surviving to
become young adults.

2 The ageing populations of the

developed countries. These countries
have lower birth rates. They have
fewer children. The age cohorts of 65
and over are growing at around 7% to
14% of total population.

3 Populations in transition. Populations

that are changing from the developing
youthful type to the ageing type
are called populations in transition.
Transition means change. There are
many signs of change or transition in the world's population. World population in the
future will depend on how strong the transition is.

4 Population patterns. There have

been big changes in population
patterns in many places in the world.
This is the fourth trend. It is called
urbanisation. More people are moving
to more cities around the world. This
makes population more dense and
concentrated in many places. Today
more than half the world's population
lives in cities.

/
 You can see the firstthree types of change in the population pyramids (histograms) of the countries below.
Look at the different examples and answer the questions about each graph.

Solomon Islands
This is an example of a youthful Population pyramid (in thousands): Solomon Islands-2010
population. The total population of the
Solomon lslands in 2010 was about
560000 people.

r::J Discuss and respond

1 About what percentage of the total
population is 19 years old or younger?

2 About what percentage of the total

population is 14 years or younger?

3 If school-age children are between 5 and

14 years old, how many possible school
children were there in 2010?

4 What jobs, business or other economic

opportunities will there be for these
youths as they become adults? What
type of planning will the nation need
to do?
5 What differences can you see between
males and females? Who lives longest
on average?
HELP
To work out question 1, you will need to calculate the values
of all the bars for males and females on the bottom four
levels. Add them up, divide by the total population then
rnultiplv by 100 to get the percentage. /
,I·

Japan and Germany Population pyramid (in millions): Japan-2010

Japan and Germany are called mature 100
Ma~ 95 Female,
economies. They are examples of 90
85
ageing populations. Germany has used 80
75
immigrants to help build its workforce. 70
Japan has atlowed much less immigration. 65
60
In 2010 the population of Japan was 55
50
about 127 000 000 and of Germany about 45
40
82300060. 35
30
25
20
15
10
5
o

I
!
C Di~cuss and respond
Male
About what percentage of the population is
65 and over

a in Germany?

b in Japan?

2 About what percentage of the total

population is 19 years old or younger

a in Germany?

b in Japan?

3 Who will have to take care of the growing

older population?

4 Does it look like this will become easier or

harder?

5 What differences can you see between males

and females? Who lives longest on average?

India and China

Asia accounts for over 60% of the world's
population. India and China each have over
one billion people. They have the largest
populations in the world. Combined, they have
more than one-third of the world's population.
Both cultures value males and having sons
more than females and daughters. China has
been in severe wars starting in the 1930s.
'It has had a strict one-child policy from
-.~~~
Population pyramid (in millions): China-2010
Male
the 1960s until very recently. This means
families in urban areas were supposed to
have just one child each. This policy is still
strong in many parts of China. India has tried
to encourage family planning. It hopes it is
starting to transition to a population of smaller
families.
Both India and China have technologies that
can tell parents the sex of a child before it is
born. Both countries practise abortion.
C Discuss and respond HELP
1 Compare the two population pyramids for India and China on
To calculate the sex ratio, divide the
page 131 and explain what the biggest differences are between total number of boys by the total
the two populations.
number of girls-the average at birth
2 Which population do you think will grow more and which one will is about 105 boys to 100 girls (l05
slow down in growth? Give reasons for your answer. boys for every 1 girl, or l05: 1).

3 Examine the two age cohorts 0-4 and 5-9 in both populations.

a What are the differences between total males and total females in each cohort?

b What are the sex ratios for boys to girls in each cohort?

4 Were people living longer in China or in India in 20107 (Youwill need to use percentages to compare older cohorts
in the two countries.)

Papua New Guinea and Indonesia Population pyramid (in thousands): Papua New Guinea-2010
100
The population of Papua New Guinea was
just over 6 000 000 people in 2010, and
Indonesia had about 243 000 000 people.
Indonesia has had a strong voluntary family
planning program for over 20 years. It is a
population in transition.
Papua New Guinea has had different
approaches to the census and population
counting each time. Some people may
not have been counted. This happens in
all countries, but in PNG the number of
missing people may be larger than in some
other countries.

r:::J Discuss and respond Population pyramid (in millions): Indonesia-2010

1 Compare these two population pyramids

with all the other ones.

a Write a paragraphon what type of

population pyramid PNG has.

b Compare it with the type of population

pyramid that Indonesia has.

2 Make a table for the PNG cohorts. Explain

what type of services each cohort will
need now and in the future.

3 Consider that 85% of the PNG population

is rural. How will this change the future for
the different cohorts?

\,
Most population in PNG is rural.

Population change In Papua New Guinea

Year
You have looked at world population. You have seen how different countries have
1950
very different population graphs. They used to all look like pyramids. Now the world
is changing and ageing. The developing countries are adding much more to world 1980
populations. This has impacts in each country. 2010
In this section we look at PNG and how its population is changing. At right is United
Nations' data for the population of Papua New Guinea in three intervals of 30 years
each.

~ Do, think and decide

Graph this data.

2 What is the biggest change between each 30-year interval?

3 What does your graph tell you?Write a summary statement.

The explanation for this growth is a high birth rate and a lower death rate. This provides
rapid population growth. The death rate is lower because there is protection from more
diseases. Many children still die from disease and malnutrition in PNG, but the rate is
lower.
Disease and warfare are two causes of death that can lower population, or lower the
rate of growth.
• Disease. Diseases like HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis are health risks in PNG.
There are other diseases, with even flu killing many people in small populations once
in a while. The growth rate of PNG population has not shown much slowing down
yet because of any disease. Learning about disease and the prevention of disease
should help you and your family to stay healthy.
• Warfare. Traditionally growing populations have caused population pressure on the People
land. In many places this has led to war over land. Population pressure may be one over land fOP its
resources' 1 Europe
of the reasons there is fighting in PNG over land and resources. The lack of other
for thousa ds of
economic opportunities may be another reason. There is no data to show what years.
fighting is doing to population It does not seem to be making much difference to
growth. It is a big problem for people living in fight areas.
 Traditional fighting or warfare has a long history in Papua New Guinea. Sometimes people have lost
their land and other times little change has occurred. Groups may have fought for centuries in low-level
warfare.

There are a lot more No, I think it's

people in PNG these because people
days and that is what f are going back
is making people to old ways.
fight more.

C Discuss
What do you think? Which person is right about the cause of fighting in PNG? Are they both
right? Or is the answer different and more complex?

I
Impacts of population growth in PNG
More people mean more mouths to feed. This can place pressure on traditional
agriculture. It can increase land disputes. It can see land divided more and more
between more people. It can result in some people leaving the land to find other
opportunities. (That is called migration and we look at it in the next section.)
Pressure on food can lead a nation to
import food to feed its people Papua New
Guinea has imported rice to help feed
people. Rice is a staple for some people
in urban areas. Some rice has been given
to rural people when frost or drought has
hurt their crops. But many rural people
got little or no rice and used traditional
bush foods to survive. How important is
imported food for your family?

, Population and food survey

~ 1 Design a survey about population and food in your area.
!:Eh Make it simple. Choose just a few important questions to

l
~

@) 2
investigate-a maximum of four. Be sure to have gender
balance. Divide the work so that each student surveys a
fixed number of people.

The findings in your earlier investigation about local

~ food (page 118) will give a good background for this
survey. Keep in mind that some food is home grown,
some bought and some imported ..

Areas you could build the survey around are:

Population pressure on land and food

• Is there pressure on local land to grow food?
• [Add two or three more questions.]
Population and access to food
• Is it hard or easy for people to get food?
• [Add two or three more questions.]
Record your findings and write a summary report.
Population and services for health and education
More children in a population mean there is a greater demand for education and child health services. This
requires resources. The government has to spend more money on schools and health centres or the demand
is not met. Presently, much of the demand is not met. The PNG health system is having many problems with
a growing population and new diseases.

PNG health system near collapse: UN

By Ron Corben
A senior United Nations AIDS official
says the AIDS pandemic in Papua New
Guinea is pushing the health system to
near collapse and wants Australia to work
closer with health authorities to combat
the virus spread.
Prasada Rao, chief of the UNAIDS
team for Asia and the Pacific, said Papua
New Guinea was the region of most concern
across Asia and the Pacific, where generally
progress had been achieved in combating the
AIDS virus over recent years.
But in Papua New Guinea the virus
spread was still escalating.
©AAP2009

Overcrowding
Growing population can lead to overcrowding. More people need to fit into the same space. There can be less
economic opportunity unless the economy is growing strongly.
This can happen in the countryside or the cities. It can be both a rural and an urban problem. In PNG it is more
of an urban problem with crowded settlements. But in a country like Indonesia, it has been both a rural and an
urban problem.

Overcrowding has led to substandard living conditions for millions of people.

(

\ /

IIInvestigation
Are there problems with overcrowding in your area? Have each class member do a small
survey of five men and five women. Ask each of them:

• What do you think about the growing population?

• Is it helping our area?Yes/No (Why?)
• Is it hurting our area?Yes/No (Why?)
2 a Combine the answers into one table. The table can look like this:

Question/answer Men say Men say Women Women Totalyes Totalno

yes no say yes say no
Populationgrowth
is helpingour area
Populationgrowth
is hurting our area

b Make a graph to show these results.

c What do your table and graph tell you about what people think about population
growth in your area?

3 Next, make a table of the main reasons people gave for help or hurt.

a Are there differences between men and women?

b Did you find any other groups with different answers?

c Can you explain the differences?

Youth
For all countries, there are more law and order problems when the youth cohorts are
growing. This can explain some of the problems with law and order in these countries,
but not all of them. Other reasons for these problems include societies changing, poor
leadership and corruption. Population pressure is only one part of law and order.
 IIInvestigation
1 Do a small investigation on law and order problems. The goal is to see how much
population growth is the reason for these problems. This can be done by groups of
students with a teacher or adult.

2 Speak to the police and to citizens about crime. You may like to ask a representative of
the police to visit your class. Some of the questions you will need to ask are:

a What are the crimes in your area?

b Who is committing them?

c Are they part of growing population and having more young people?
d Are they part of something else 7

e What are the solutions for preventing crime?

3 Write a page of your findings. Make a conclusion about population growth and crime.

Key term What is overpopulation?

overpopulation People often worry or complain about overpopulation. This is a term with
having too
different values to different people. Other terms are "population explosion" and
many people
for the available "overcrowding". They all refer to population pressure on resources.
resources In Unit 3 you will study the Second World War. One of the reasonsgiven for the
war was population pressure in Germany. The leaders said the people needed more
living space, called lebensraum in German.
Germany had more territory before the Second World War than it has today.
Back then it had a population of about 70 million people. Today it has lessterritory
plus another 12 million peopLewith a population of 82-83 million. But there is no
threat of war for land now. Technology, politics, society and a different economic
system have changed the needs of the country.
Compare the populations of Japan and Papua New Guinea
We end this section with you doing a comparison of the population structures of Japan and Papua Ne
Guinea, You can do this final exercise as pairs, in groups or as individuals, Your teacher will decide.

IIDiscover
Look at the three population pyramids for Japan
(Figure 2.5).The one for 2050 is an estimate only. HELP
Compare the 2010 PNG population pyramid on page In this exercise you are covering 100 years
132 with the 2009 Japan population pyramid. Consider how rapidly changes can happen
2 UseTables2.5 and 2.6 on page 140 to make two over 100 years. Could someone in 1950 ha
population pyramids for PNG:a 1950 population predicted such a change in Japan? Why ar e
pyramid and an estimated 2050 population pyramid. changes so big? What might this mean for G?
Consider comparisons of:
3 Compare these with the Japanese population
pyramids for the same years. • age
• sex
4 Write three paragraphscovering:
• dependency
a 1950 comparisons
• types of economies
b 2009/2010 comparisons • other factors.
c 2050 comparisons,

5 Write a final fourth paragraphon your reasons for thinking the 2050 estimates are correct or not correct.

2009
Male Female

65 and over 65 and over

(4.9%) (22.7%)

15-64

Millions Millions
Figure 2.5: Population pyramids for Japan.
00z: a ooz: +OOl +OOl
009 l 009 OOl z 66-96 66-96
OOL L OOZ:t: 000 II 176-06 009 z 000 8 OOL 9 176-06

000 9Z: 00Z: 8l OOZ:88 68-98 68-98

001709 00888 008 S8 178-08 178-08
00898 008 SL 009 09l 6L-9L 0099 0069 008 II 6L-9L

009 iz: 000 lZ:l 009 Z:17Z: 17L-OL OOL 6 OOL oi 008 OZ: 17L-OL

0017 l8l 00Z: L8l 009898 69-99 0068l 0099l 0086Z: 69-99

00990Z: 0088lZ: 0088Z:17 179-09 001717l OOZ:9l 009 08 179-09

0088817 8 0096998 008860 L 69-9l 008z:l17 0098917 0017 l88 69-9l

OOl 178Z:l OOl H8 l OOZ:199 z 17l-0 OOZ:1708 OOZ:08S 00171719 17l-0

sef8we:} S8tellV teJ01 afji;l se/ewe:} seje/llJ teio; e6'r;f

MIGRATION: PEOPLE ON THE MOVE
Migration started long before written history
Migration means moving from one place to another place. The first people on Earth were hunter-gath rers.
They would migrate to different hunting-and-gathering spots to collect food. This also improved sanita i n. Old
campsites would renew and become sanitary.
Human migration settled the world. People have now explored all the continents. They have pushed
settlements to the extremes of the Earth. In Unit 3, you will look at the early migrations to New Guine
original migration of humans was out of Africa to Asia, Greater Australia (which was then connected to New
Guinea by land), Europe and then North and South America. The journey started about 60 000 years ago

Migration today
Today people are on the move allover the world. Political boundaries are now very important. Each na 0 -
state controls its borders and tries to decide who can come in and who cannot. There are two basic types of
migration:
1 International migration. This is called emigration for the people leaving a country to go somewhere else.
It is called immigration when people come into a new country.

2 Internal migration. This happens inside a country. People leaving a place are part of out-migration. People
coming to a new place in the same country are part of in-migration.
Basic categories and names for migrants
Migration International National or internal

Personleaving emigrant out-migrant

Processfor leaving emigration out-migration
Personarriving immigrant in-migrant
Processfor arriving immigration in-migration
 "'Maj~ migration scheme
v::::i>M·mer . .
migration sc h eme

Patterns of the largest flows of international migration.

Short- and long-term migration

There are many types of migration. Another basic category is short-term and long-term migration.
• Short-term migration. People may only emigrate for six months or two years to work or study overseas.
This is short-term immigration. They then return to their home country. Within a country an out-migrant may
leave home for the same short-term reasons.
• Long-term migration. The opposite of short-term is long-term migration. Sometimes, short-term migration
can change to become long-term. The person intended to return home but did not. Long-term international
migration includes the immigrants from Europe who moved to North America, South America and Australia
over the last 400 years.

Short-term workers face difficult housing and

work conditions in many places in the world.
South Asians who work in the Middle East are one
type of short-term international migrant.
 Why do people migrate?
The reasons for national and international migration are similar. There are both push and
pull factors.

PUSH FACTORS PULL FACTORS

Factors that push people to migrate

1 Economic push. There may be little or no economic opportunity where they are.
Few jobs are available. There may be few resources or too many people for the
resources that are there. This is a problem of population pressure. Some people
may own all the resources. This is a problem of distribution of resources in a
population. For example, in some countries, a few rich families own much of the
land. Most people in these types of countries are landless or have very little land.

2 Social push. In some places society is prejudiced against certain people. They are
not given the same chances as others. They are made to feel inferior. This can be
tied to limited economic opportunity as well. Another social push that is linked to .
politics and economics is violence. War, conflict, the threat of violence and terror are
all examples. Violence can push people into a migration process.

\3 Environmental push. Natural hazards can push people out of places. Flooding,
volcanic explosions and other hazards can make a place vervditficult (or impossible)
to live in. People choose or are forced to leave. Another type of push is poor
\ management of the environment. This is where people wreck their environment and
have to leave it. For example, poor soil management may make farming impossible
or difficult and this pushes many people away. Poor forest management may result
in flooding an area and people have to leave.
\
 Factors that pull people to migrate
1 Economic pull. This can be very strong. The opportunity to earn much more money
often attracts people to new places. About a million economic immigrants arrive in
the USA every year They come from all over the world. The majority come from
Key terms
Latin America. Some are short-term, but many are long-term.
economic
migration when There is economic migration across Asia. Much of it is short-term or medium-
people move to
term. Governments will not give workers long-term visas. There is some economic
find economic
opportunity migration from PNG to Australia. Some people have been able to enter Australia
chain migration from PNG by crossing the Torres Strait to find work informally. The Australian
when people Government is experimenting with ideas to let some Papua New Guineans come to
from a place
follow others Australia for short-term work in agriculture, especially fruit picking.
.from that place
In all these cases, people are being pulled by the power of more money.
to a particular
country or city 2 Social pull. This is particularly strong from rural areas to urban areas. Cities have
I
more entertainment and interest than many rural areas. The excitement and bright
lights of the city are a strong pull factor for young people. Families are pulled to
cities for better education and health services for children.

Chain migration is often part of the social pull. Extended families and friends may
want to reunite. The first migrant goes to the city and tells friends and families about
how good it is. They follow. They tell more friends and family. The chain of migration
has started. Chain migration often results in new communities whose members all
come from the same area.

Chains of international Chinese migrants to

Australia have brought their customs and
families to settle long-term. This photo shows
Chinatown in Sydney.

3 Environmental pull. In some cases people are attracted to an environment that

is cleaner than where they live. Sometimes this is called reverse migration, where
people leave the city to live in the countryside because of its cleaner environment. It
is a very small part of the migration process.

~\

~))
Forced migration
Some people decide to join migration. Different people react to push and pull factors in
different ways. People may have a combination of reasons to stay or to migrate.
Sometimes people have no choice. They must migrate to survive. This is called forced
migration. Violence can force people to migrate in some cases. The environment can
destroy a place and force people to move. Slavery and exile was a common form of
forced migration in the past.

Germans forced out of Silesia after the Second

World War. They had less living space, but still
prospered.

Palestinians are forced from their homes by the
emerging state of Israel in 1948.The problems
of Palestinians continue to this day. They have.
been called victims of victims, as so many Jewish
people had been murdered and forced from their
homes in Europe.
Over a million people have fled Iraq since the US started a war
Many have gone to nearby countries where life can be difficult.
children are often victims of forced migration. It is difficult for
a violent place and defend themselves.
 Peoplefleeing a country Some countries already
usually leave everything have large and growing
behind. They have to start populations. Many
over no matter what age people may be poor in
or situation they are in. these countries. How can
refugees be accommodated
in this type of country?
Who will help them?

Sometimes when people are forced to flee their country against their will they are
Key term
called refugees. A refugee is someone who seeks refuge (help and protection) because
refugee a person they are in trouble. Under the United Nations' Refugee Convention, people have a right
who seeks
asylum (help to seek refuge if they have "a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of
and protection) race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion".
in another This is the present basis' for countries accepting refugees.
country to
escapeviolence,
misfortune or
East Timor refugees
persecution
Timor is the last large island in the Sunda chain. Early Portugueseexplorers and
traders started a settlement on the island about 400 years ago. The eastern half of
Timor was a Portuguesecolony until 1975. There was fighting for freedom in 1975
followed by an Indonesian invasion. Refugeesfled Timor to save their lives. About
I) 100 000 Timorese died in the early years of Indonesian occupation.
Some refugeesfled to Australia and others went to Portugal. Families had to
leave everything they owned behind.
A case of one family going to Australia is typical.
The Timorese father was just about to retire after
30 years in the colonial public service. He had
been very lucky to have a job. He fled with his
wife and six children. They had to abandon their
small settlement house and garden land. He
learned his government pension was lost because
it was part of the EastTimor colonial government.
Portugal would not or could not pay it. His wife
and older ch iIdren had to start work as cleaners.
They were lucky that the Australian government
gave them some financial help. They had to
completely rebuild their lives. They lost their
house, their property and their money. This is
typical for many refugees.
During the Second World War in some parts of Papua New Guinea people were forced to migrate f
The Bougainville crisis caused some forced migration. In local histories, you may find examples of forded
migration. You may be able to find a refugee from West Papua for a case study.

Big win for West Papuan refugees

by Hamish Heard day sea voyage sparked a diplomatic row
It's nearly four years since 43 refugees made between the governments of their adopted
world headlines after paddling an outrigger nation and Indonesia, which annexed West
canoe from their West Papuan homelands to Papua in 1969.
Australia.
Now living in public housing estates
in North Melbourne, Collingwood and
Richmond, the group reunited last week to
celebrate West Papuan Independence Day
by thrashing local police officers in a soccer
match.
One of the boat people, 26-year-old
Adolf Mora, said they also marked the
occasion by raising the West Papuan flag
and singing their national anthem. "If we did
that in West Papua then we get killed straight
away because the [Indonesian1 army will go
looking for us," Mr Mora said.
As well as earning the group political
asylum in Australia, their courageous five-

~ Do, think and decide

Make a case study of forced migration.

1 Over a period of time, collect newspaper articles about forced migration:

a from an area in PNG (either through tribal fights, discrimination

or lack of land) HELP
b from other countries (there is often news about people being Remember, be objective whe
forced to migrate between countries in Africa, the Middle East reading newspaper articles. D0 't be
or elsewhere) swayed by unfounded inforrnati n.

2 After reviewing all articles, complete a table like this:

Who is being forced The reason Possible negative Possiblepositive

to migrate- outcomes outcomes

3 Write a summary of one particular case of forced migration.

 LOCAL POPULATION PATTERNS AND
Key term
PROCESSES: YOUR STUDY
fieldwork In this section you will do fieldwork to learn about the population in your own area. You
working outside will survey some part of the area. Instructions about how to do this are given below.
of the office
You can work in pairs or groups. This is for your teacher to decide. He or she will know
or classroom;
investigating what is practical and safe.
an area "on the
ground" Steps in fieldwork
Here are the steps you will need to do. Each one is explained in Table 2.7.
1 Plan your study.

2 Collect the information.

3 Process the information.

4 Analyse the information.

5 Write up the results.

Table 2.7: Steps in conducting your fieldwork
1 Planyour study • Think about what you will collect. Decide on the question or
questions you will follow up (See box A on page 149.)
• Collect any information already available from books, census
reports or other sources.
• Consider the resources you will need (see box B on page 149).
• Decide on your survey strategy (see box C on page 150).
• Write the survey questions (see box D on page 150)
2 Collect the • Make sure you have an easy and efficient way to record
information people's answers on the spot.
• Be realistic! Remember that 10 x 10 x 10 = 1000, so if 10
students ask 10 people 10 questions you will have 1000
answers to process.
3 Process the • Take all the information and put it together. Much of it should
information go into tables and graphs.
• Produce the tables and graphs. This can be done as a class or
team exercise.
• You may be able to map information also. Your map could
show density and locations of populations.
4 Analyse the • Study the information using the graphs and tables, and other
information information you have collected.
• Compare it to the base information from other sources you
collected in step one (if you have any).
5 Write up the • Write one or two pages that explain what the graphs, tables
results and other information show.
 A Information to collect
Discuss and decide what your fieldwork survey
is going to cover. The topic is population and
migration, but you will need to choose just
certain aspects of that broad topic. The whole
class could do the same aspect or different c ass
groups could do different aspects. Examplesof
topics you can follow up are in box E.

Remember You won't be able

that it is easy to finish your work
to collect a lot if you collect too
of information. much.You must
It is harder to think carefully
process and about what is
analyse it. most important to
discover.

~ B Resources
You are one resource. Determine how many
students can participate. This will start to tell
you what size area you can cover.
• You will need paper, pencils or pens to record
results. If paper is limited, you will need a way
to record results as they come in. This could
be on the blackboard or large sheetsof paper
if they are available.
Time is a resource. Determine what time is
available for this section and how to use it.
You will need time to get to the fieldwork
area. (You must also plan to go to the area
when people there have time to see you.
You will waste resources if you go to a pace
where everyone is away or has no time for
you.)
• Transportation must be considered for
fieldwork. In many cases,you may need to
walk. Be sure to allow time for safely getting
to and from the fieldwork site.

Set the boundaries for Make sure

the survey. Look at your your resources
resources. Can you cover can cover the
a squatter settlement, a local area
township, a village, a part of you decide to
a city or something smaller? study.
fC Survey strategies
Pi There are many types of survey approach that
~ you can use.This will depend on what you want
~ to find out. You also need to think about who you
will get information from.
• You can use a few knowledgeable people for
some information. This type of person is called
a key informant.
• For other information, you will need to ask
either all the people in the local area or a
sample.
A census is when you ask everyone in an area.
A sample is when you ask only some people. You
cannot survey all homes if the place is too big.
You must ask a smaller group. That is a sample.
The simplest way to sample is to take every
second or third home (or fourth or fifth).

A sample might go to
If a village has one
hundred households, a every fourth house and
census will go to every count the people. It will not
household to count the be as accurate as a census,
number of people who but it may give the same
live there. basic information.

~ D Choose your questions carefully

1:1 Keep these points in mind when designing
~ questions to ask people:
Avoid asking sensitive questions.
Be sure the questions are clear.
~ Avoid bias in your questions. For example, do not
ask "Why do you have a big family?" or "Why do
you like this place?" These are leading questions.
Instead, you could ask, "What is the family size?
Why do you have this size?" And, "What do you
think about this place? What do you find good
and what do you find bad about it?"

If they say I
II

Do not tell people don't know'; that

what the answer to your is their answer.
question is.You must Record it.
listen to their answer. Analyse it later.
 Examples of questions you may follow
What is the size and shape of the population
in the survey area? If it is a small area,
you may be able to collect the information
to make a population pyramid. If it is a
larger area, you may be able to find census
information on it.
2 Push and pull: what is the migration
situation? Why are people living where they
are?Where did they come from? Why did
they come to this place? Would they like to
leave?Why? (This can help you understand
some of the push and pull factors in the local
area. Is it a place of in-migrants, out-migrants
or of little migration? And what are the
reasonsfor this?)You can follow up with other
push and pull questions below.
Push and pull: what is available in the local
area? Evaluate services that may be keeping
people in the area. If services are missing,
they may then be push factors. For example:
What services are available to the local area
you are studying? How well are they working?
What access do people have to them?
4 Push and pull: what is the economic
situation? What ways do people have to earn
money? How important is money? Are people
growing their own food? How valuable is
that as an economic activity? You might ask
questions about how satisfied people are with
HELP
The Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook may help with some information on larger a eas.
(Many schools have a copy.) You could use it as a base for an area to see what changes have taken pace.
The Handbook has information on services, income and other push/pull factors for all the districts of PNG.
You can compare this with the much smaller area you study in your local district.
up
the economic situation. This will vary a r
rural PNG. Some people will be growi
crops like coffee, cacao and copra. at
will be looking for paid employment. Vi u may
try to discover if people are leaving the rea
to find paid employment or coming to i fur
the same.
5 Push and pull: what is the social situaf
What are the relationships between pe p e?
Is the local area peaceful? Are some gr ups
subject to violence or discrimination? I t eir
claim to land and resources safe?Are p ople
being pushed to out-migrate?
6 How is the population changing over t
You may be able to find four or five pe
with special knowledge to answer the
questions. You need to look for people
have been in the area a long time and now
the community. Be sure to speak to bot
and women to get the different views t e
have. This can include:
• community leaders
• long-term members of women's and
groups
• service providers (examples are heal
education and law and order)
• other people with long-term knowl
the area.
THE PULL OF THE CITY

Shanghai is the major trading city of China, with many people going to it
for shopping, entertainment and employment opportunities. You can see
construction in the foreground as the city continues to expand and grow.
Growth provides even more pull factors for migrants.
Even the smallest urban centres pull people to
them. These are government offices forTuvalu
located on the main island of Funafuti. They
provide employment and opportunities for small
businesses to serve the employees. People from
the outer islands are pulled to these economic
opportunities.

Defining cities
A city is a complex and densely populated, permanent human settlement. A simple definition is that a city is
a large town. But that tells us little about cities. When does a large town become a city? This all depends on
the definition.
Each country has its own definition of what makes a city. Often it is worked out by population. In India, a
large village can have a population of 5000 people. There are towns in Papua New Guinea with much smaller
populations than that. Generally, countries with big populations have big cities and smaller countries have
smaller cities, or even one big city.
Cities are urban. The opposite of urban is rural. Urbanisation means turning a place into a city. When we say
there is growing urbanisation, it means that cities are growing faster than rural areas.

The rise of the city

Cities began after the discovery of agriculture. But agriculture alone was not enough to start a city. We can see
this from the Highlands. They had agriculture but no cities. Cities can also start from trading or manufacturing
locations. But again, there was trade in the Highlands and there were locations that may have been centres for
manufacturing stone axes and adzes. Trade and manufacturing alone were also not enough to start a city.
It seems cities in the past also needed social differences to get started. Early cities developed where
opportunity was not equal in society. There were different classes or castes. Agriculture provided the surplus
food to support them.
In the Highlands, every man had the opportunity to become a big man. Each generation had new big men.
Social differences did not build up. Could this be a reason for cities not developing in the Highlands of PNG? Or
is this a result of having no cities?
Early cities could be trading centres,
religious centres and administrative
centres. Often they were all three. This
continues to the present day. Health and
education services are concentrated in
cities. Rural people generally must come
to the city for specialist services. This has
helped the rise of the city.
Urbanisation is a growing world trend. In
many parts of the world, city populations
are growing faster than rural populations.
China is the most populous country in the
world. Its population is now changing from
a rural majority to an urban majority. This
means that China is rapidly urbanising. It
is at the point where more than 50% of its
population is urban.
This kind of growth is following in the
footsteps of developed countries. Look
at the process in the United States of
America (Table 2.8).

Babylon was one of the first cities. It existed about

5000 years ago. Here are two pictures of the
remaining ruins.

Table 2.8: Urban and rural populations, USA

Year Total Urban Rural Urban Rural
population population population % of total % of total
1900 76 million 30 million 46 million 40% 60%

1990 249 million 187 million 62 million 75% 25%

2000 281 million 233 million 49 million 83% 17%

2009 307 million 257 million 50 million 84% 16%

\ \

~~~)
(I Discover
1 Make a graph of the data in Table 2.8 to
show what has happened in the USA
since 1900. Be sure to use equal intervals
of 10years.You will need ten of these
between 1900 and 2000.

2 Figure 2.6 is a satellite photo. Orange

shows urban growth for a 10-yearperiod.

a Where is growth (urbanisation)taking

place?

b What patterns can you see and why?

Figure 2.6:The city of Sichuan, China. Yellow shows the older city. Orange is
newer growth.
Rural-urban migration
Population in urban areas is growing much faster than in rural areas. The trend is movement of people from
rural to urban areas in much of the world. There have been very strong push and pull factors for this.

Economic push and pull to urban places

The growing size of farms has been a big push factor in Western countries like Canada, the USA and Australia.
Small farmers have been caught in what is called a cost-price squeeze. Fertiliser, seed, farm machines, farm
labour and other costs have risen. But the prices received for products have not risen, or not risen as fast. Only
very big farms are able to compete well in this situation. Others become poorer or close down.
Fewer farms can result in fewer small towns and businesses. This is a continuing effect that further
depopulates some rural areas in developed countries.

A single piece of farm machinery

can cost several hundred thousand
kina in rural America. It does the
work of many people. Only large
operators can afford them. This is
one reason for bigger farms and
lessemployment in rural areas.
 J

Cities are places with many ways to earn money.

Cities have concentrated wealth. This is an attraction. The strongest pull of the city is economic. Peo
to the city because the wages are higher and they hope to find work. People look for wage work in
developed and less economically developed countries. The economic pull to the city is both for high
(or income) and the hope of getting a job.
People may also find other opportunities for making money without a formal job. Many people in the
developing world use informal markets and arrangements to earn an income in the city. Informal ma
an important source of income for many migrants. There are also
informal labour markets in many cities where people are hired by
the day. In some cases, people are hired for much shorter times
to carry merchandise.
The most basic carrier has only a body to work with. Often they
will have a two-wheeled cart to carry loads. Others use carts
attached to bicycles or animals. Motor-powered vehicles can also
be part of a semi-formal transport section. In many Asian cities
there are very simple three-wheeled passenger vehicles. Driving
these provides another economic opportunity for newcomers to
the city and for poor people who have been there for longer.
There are often limited opportunities for unskilled newcomers to
cities. They may have to search hard to find any sort of income.
They may have to take the least attractive activities. In both
Western and developing cities there is a section of people who
may beg for income. In places like Bangkok (Thailand) and Delhi
(India), begging is a major criminal activity. Gangs have groups
of beggars they control. They may mutilate or deform children
to have them attract more money from begging. In many other
places, begging is not organised by criminals.
@J
Scavenging

I Scavenging in rubbish tips is common in many cities. The conditions vary. Some people think that
scavenging is degrading. Other people see it as an opportunity.

Collecting cartloads of cans, cardboard, plastic and Children and adults scavenge in Manila, Philippines.
glass for recycling can earn scavengers in Phnom Penh,
Cambodia, more money than many rural households can
make farming.

C Discuss and respond

1 In groups of four, discuss the following questions:

a Do you think scavenging is an opportunity to earn an income or a degrading activity

that should be discouraged? Give reasons.

b Can rubbish dumps be considered pull factors to the city?

2 Make notes of your discussion and feedback to the class.

Debate
Conduct a debate with two teams putting these different points of view:
• Team 1: Rubbish dumps demonstrate the wealth of cities. They should be used
as a resource.
• Team 2: Rubbish dumps demonstrate the shame and waste of cities. They should
be hidden away.

Key term
Scavenging is at the bottom of legal economic activities that might attract some people
labour migration
to the city, Very high wages are a pull for both in-migrants and immigrants, The big
moving to
another areaor cities of the world can pay much higher wages than other places. Internationally, this
country to find contributes to what is called the "brain drain", The brain drain is where the best people
better work
are attracted away from their countries to the great cities of the world, It is part of
labour migration.
Cities also attract skilled and unskilled workers. This is particularly true in the construction industry.
construction workers in Asian cities are in-migrants or international labour immigrants on restricted
They must work and then go back to their country of origin. Construction jobs can be dangerous, but
factors make them attractive.

Social pull of the cities Many people move

to another country
The bigger the city the more services it where wages are
has. Education and health are city services better so they can
that are often better than those in rural earn money to send
home to their family
areas. It is easier for cities to attract and relatives.
education and health professionals. For
example, it is easy to find a doctor in
Sydney or Melbourne, Australia. It is much
harder to find doctors in the more remote
rural areas of Australia.
Cities provide restaurants, entertainment
sports and many other activities at
professional levels that are rarely found
in rural areas. This is the reason doctors,
teachers and others are pulled to the city.
It explains how cities can become more and more complex. The successful city builds on itself.

II Discover
The tables on the next page give information about the rural and urban populations of the USA.

• Table 2.9 shows per capita income. Per capita means "for each person': This is the average income for every
man, woman and child.

HELP
"Per capita income" doesn't mean how much each person actually earns. Many
people (for example, children and old people) don't earn any money. Per capita
income is the total income of an area divided by the total population. It is one way
to compare places.

• Table 2.10 shows the poverty rate. The poverty rate is different in every country because costs are di rent
in every country. In the USA about 39 million people are considered to be below the poverty line. This s
determined by family income. A family of four that earns less than US$22 000 a year, or a family of t
less than US$10-11 000 a year, is considered poor.
• Tables2.11 and 2.12 shows education statistics in two categories: those who did not finish high sch
those who did finish university.
 Table 2.9: Per capita income (2008 dollars)

Year Rural Urban National

average
2007 $29,867 $41,284 $39,392

2008 $31,108 $41,953 $40,166

Table 2.10: Poverty rate (percent)

Year Rural Urban National
average
1979 15.9 11.6 12.4

1989 173 12.2 13.1

1999 14.8 11.9 12.4

2008 15.1 12.9 13.2

Table 2.11: Percentage not completing high school*

Year Rural Urban National
ra average
1980 41.8 31.6 33.5

1990 31.4 23.3 24.8

2000 23.5 18.8 19.6

'Persons 25 and older

Table 2.12: Percentage completing university*

Year Rural Urban National
average
-
1980 10.6 176 16.2

1990 12.4 22.1 20.3

2000 15.1 26.4 24.4

'Persons25 andolder
2 Make a graph for each of these tables comparing rural and urban indicators.

3 a What do your graphs tell you about the differences between rural and urban America?

b What do the graphs tell you about possible pull factors to the cities of America?

Comparing urbanisation in the developed and

developing world
People have built cities for thousands of years, but the rise of modern cities probably
started about 500 years ago. They were based on trade. They grew bigger based on the
wealth of new trading opportunities. This was part of European expansion around the
world and the start of a new colonial period. Cities expanded and become economically
stronger in the developed countries.

I
Today at least 70% of the developed countries' population is in cities. It is a lower, but
growing, percentage in developing countries.
There are many reasons that cities became economically stronger. The result is that
the stronger the economy, the greater the pull for migration. We discuss two very
important ways cities have become economically stronger below. You will see the
differences between developed and developing countries.

Amsterdam was a growing trading city and financial centre in 1650.

New finances and financial centres

New forms of finance started to be developed in these European trading cities. People
learned to use money in new ways. This happened, for example, in Amsterdam (the
Netherlands), in the Italian city states like Venice and in London.
Traders wanted ways to insure against the risks of trading. This started the futures
market and the stock market. Both of these financial instruments are very important in
todav's world. They have helped to concentrate wealth in cities.
The developed countries' cities have built on financial systems for hundreds of years.
Developing countries are following and copying this. New stock markets and futures
markets are opening in the major cities of developing countries. People are learning
to trust them. This is a way that international money can be invested in developing
countries.
Finance is the business of money. It has risks. It attracts some people who want
to gamble or steal other people's money. So it requires good laws, openness and
transparency. Did you know?
There are problems when this does not happen. The world economy and financial
centre cities suffer. In 2007 and 2008 the major financial cities of the world, London and
New York, lost hundreds of billions of dollars. The laws were poor and people gambled
huge amounts of investors' money in bad deals.
The result was a world recession for developed countries. This caused problems for
trade with developing countries. Because of this, both urban and rural people suffered
economic loss around the world. The financial city centres of the West had failed them.
 The people you see protesting in
this picture are actually facing two
problems. The first is the failure of
finance markets, which lost people's
savings and removed some jobs. The
second is the fact that many urban
manufacturing jobs are going from
places like New York to Bangkok
(Thailand) and Shanghai (China).

Americansprotesting the loss of jobs in

NewYorkCity,a centre of the Global
FinancialCrisis.

Manufacturing World manufacturing output share: 2007

24
Science and technology brought great
improvement to manufacturing processes.
20
People in Europe and the United States
first started using steam-powered and 16
then petroleum-powered machines. This %
began the Industrial Revolution about 12

250 years ago. Cities like New York

8
became great manufacturing centres.
Manufacturing started to provide many 4
new jobs and people came to the cities
for them. Services increased for the o
India Brazil Russia China USA BRIC
staff and labourers of the manufacturing (Brazil, Russia,
enterprises. This made cities larger and India, China)

created more employment.

Developing countries were mostly
colonies. There was often a deliberate
policy not to let them get strong. They
had to wait for independence. They are
now catching up. They are able to attract
manufacturing industries because their
labour is cheaper. We now see a shift of
manufacturing and jobs from the cities of
the developed world to the developing
world. The USA remains the world's
largest manufacturer, but for how long?
Advantages and problems of cities
All cities have advantages and disadvantages. These can be called benefits and costs. Or they can be cailled
pull factors and problems.

Benefits of cities
The pull factors of cities we have already looked at show many of their benefits. These benefits all reval e
around the idea of concentration. To concentrate (in this context) means to bring things together in on
Cities bring people, employment opportunities, services and many other things together.
Here is a review and outline of the benefits of cities for you to add to.

What cities Why this is a benefit

concentrate
Cities concentrate This provideslabourand allows complex economicsystemsto grow.
people
Peoplecan link up with others more easilyand exchangeinformationfrom manydiffere
sources.This helps inventionand builds economicopportunity.It stimulatesthe arts.

Cities concentrate This makesthe servicesmore availableand less expensive.It is an efficient use of reso It
services allows accessto specialistresources.
Cities concentrate Largebuildingsthat house manypeopleare efficient.They may providewater, sanitatio
housing power at a much lower unit cost than in ruralareas.Properlyplannedlargehousingbuild Iilgscan
create communities. (Poorplanningcan leadto slums.)

Citiesconcentrate Theycan support specialistmedicalservicesthat might only be neededby a small per ce It of

medicalservices the total population Rememberthat 1% of a city of 10million is 100000 people.

Cities concentrate IAddyour ldeas]

educationservices
Cities concentrate IAdd your ideasl
entertainment services

Cities havemany other The largerthe city, the more servicesthey have.What important ones shouldbe adde
services outline?

The problems of developing and developed cities

Cities in developing countries today face problems that the developed cities faced a hundred years a91. The
developed cities solved some of these problems. Other problems are still being worked on in all citie

Cities change the environment

The larger a city is, the more it changes the environment. Developed and developing cities have simi a
environmental impacts. Here are five ways this happens:
1 Building. Cities cover the land with buildings, roads and other built features. Often cities started a
agricultural centres or near agricultural centres. They were established to ensure a good food su p y close
by. But they may expand over the good soils. The result is buildings instead of gardens or farms.
 Chicago rests on top of the best soil in the USA. It is nearly 24 m
deep. Sydney in Australia is spreading (or sprawling) over more and
more good agricultural land. Cities are eating good soil. Soils may
be needed to grow food in the future. You remember the estimated
population for 2050 is three billion more people than today. Total
estimate is nine billion.

Cities or farms: which is the best use of land?

2 Heat sinks. City buildings and roads become heat sinks. This means they absorb and hold heat. Big city
temperatures vary and can be an average 10°C higher than in surrounding rural areas. This can change local
weather and require more resources to keep people cool.

3 Air pollution. Air quality is a major

problem in many cities. The automobile,
manufacturing and high energy use
are all concentrated in the city. The
result is air pollution. Weak regulations
and weak enforcement of regulations
make this a big problem in many large
Asian cities. It is also still a problem in
American and European cities. In them,
stronger regulations and enforcement
reduce it, but it exists in all big cities
to some degree. It impacts on human Los Angeles, California, is a city that suffers air pollution. A major cause is
health. city traffic and a culture that values cars over public transport.

4 Light pollution. Light pollution is an

environmental impact of large cities.
Humans, animals and many plants need
both light and darkness to function
best. Large cities remove the dark.
Some city people have never seen the
stars or Milky Way

More importantly, light pollution

disrupts natural rhythms. This can make
people sick. It also causes problems
for migrating birds and sea turtles.
Light pollution is also often evidence of
wasting energy resources. Light pollution is a guide to urbanisation in North America.
5 Competition for resources. Cities require many resources. Water is a vital one. Cities can take
rural areas. The greatest need for water is in manufacturing. Waste water from manufacturing,
and sanitation needs expensive treatment. This is neglected in many places. Cities pollute water,
particularly in the developing world.

Is urban growth accelerating the planet's

biodiversity crisis?
By Rebecca Sato Indeed, biocide is occurring at an alarming rate.
Experts project that at least half of the world's
A new study outlines the uncomfortable question of
animal species will be completely gone by the end
what happens to the planet's biodiversity when cities
the century. Wild plant-life is also disappearing.
take over the world. Cities are growing, and they're
growing fast. It is projected that urban growth will Daily Galaxy, 3 April 2009
create an additional 350 000 square miles of cities
roads, buildings and parking lots by 2030. What will
this staggering growth mean for both nature and people?
According to the study, co-authored by Conservancy
scientists Robert McDonald and Peter Kareiva
McDonald, it means significant species loss and a
further decline of natural resources like fresh water.
They say we need to prepare-now.
According to the United Nations, humans officially
became an urban species in 2007 when a milestone was
reached. Over half of the world's population now live
in cities. By 2030,60 percent of the world's citizens,
including nearly 2 billion from rural migration, will be
living in cities.
"As a species we have lived in wild nature for
hundreds of thousands of years, and now suddenly most
of us live in cities-the ultimate escape from nature,"
says Kareiva. "If we do not learn to build, expand and
design our cities with a respect for nature, we will have
no nature left anywhere."

C Discuss and respond

Readthe article above then discuss these questions:

What does it mean for the world and the Pacific region?

2 What urban environmental problems can you identify in your area?

3 What solutions are there?

Cities may concentrate social and economic problems
Almost all social and economic problems of cities can be found in rural areas also. But some problems are
concentrated in cities. That makes them more visible. Some problems have much higher rates in cities.
Sometimes there is a real difference between the city and the country. Sometimes reporting is weaker in rural
areas, so the true rate there is not known.
Here are six common social and economic problems that people see about cities.
1 Crime. Crime is a problem in cities. The focus is
usually on poor people who commit crimes, but
the financial problems of cities show that rich
people also commit crimes. This is called "white
collar crime". It includes corruption and fraud. The
city is a target for this type of crime because of its
wealth.

2 Unemployment. Unemployment is a problem

in cities. One reason for this is that there is less
employment in rural areas so more people move to urban areas to find work. Urban wages are often higher
than rural ones, but competition for jobs can be very high.

3 Disease. Infectious disease can spread more quickly in cities. The risk grows the more concentrated
people are. Diseases like bird flu and swine flu have threatened cities. Fast action has reduced the threat.
Good city planning can reduce disease from contaminated water and poor sanitation.

4 Social relationships. In cities, social bonds are broken. Community spirit is weak. People don't feel
connected to other people. Suicide rates can rise.

5 Unplanned settlement. Unplanned or spontaneous city settlement can lead to more problems. This
results from many people coming to the city in a short time. In 1900, many immigrants went to New York
City. They settled in very poor housing. It was called Hell's Kitchen because of all the problems people
faced there.

6 Poor housing. Housing for poor people is still a problem in Western cities. There are areas called slums
where poor education, unemployment, drugs, crime, disease and poverty are all problems. These problems
are connected.

The simplest solution is to have more employment opportunities. But as you have seen, many jobs in
Western countries are being exported to developing countries. This is helping them develop and allowing
them to catch up with the West. It adds to the pull of developing cities. But it also helps create slums or
squatter settlements.

[J Discuss and respond

1 Work in groups of three to discuss and answer these questions.

a How different are the social problems of urban and rural areas?

b Do you have any of the problems listed above in your area?

 2 Make a table like the one below to compare rural and urban pr.oblemsin PNG.

Problem How it is seen in rural areas

3 Discuss what the table tells you and what solutions there are for problems.

Squatter settlements
Squatter settlements are one of the first places of opportunity for rural in-migrants to cities. They provi
base to start their life in the city at very little cost. But the risks and problems are high. Squatter settle
are where people with nowhere else to go settle on land that is usually not theirs. It is often on land
one else has settled because of dangers. It may be very steep. It may be subject to flooding or other
hazards.
Squatter settlements usually have little or no planning. People build homes with whatever they can fi
are high fire dangers and health dangers in this type of living. People often do not have clean water or good
sanitation in squatter settlements. Still, their health is often better than poor people in rural areas.
The population in squatter settlements may be very dense. One reason is large families. People from
areas bring their rural families to the city. Rural families are big to help work the land. Having more pe
pressure in an urban environment. It leads to child labour in urban economic activities. Some of these activities
can be very dangerous for children.
In the settlements, people usually do not have title or rights to the land. Their situation is insecure. The
land can be sold and they can be forced to move. Sometimes a government may think a settlement is n
embarrassment and destroy it.
Crime and unemployment are often high in squatter settlements. Drug trafficking is a major economic
activity in squatter settlements in a number of developing countries including Brazil, Colombia, the C ri
countries and parts of Asia and Africa.

A squatter settlement in the Philippines destroyed by police. Squatters live

with uncertain land rights.

I
 Urbanisation in Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea is largely a rural country. The development of towns and cities is
Key term
recent history. PNG's towns and cities all started as administrative centres. They had
enclave a small
little economic production. They produced little opportunity for employment. Traditional
area of land with
clear boundaries land holdings have limited town and city growth in some parts of the nation.
inside a larger PNG is not rapidly urbanising. The best paid wages are in mining. This is a rural enclave
area
activity. Mining has caused rural-to-rural migration and urban-to-rural migration. But the
wealth from mining has gone more to urban areas than to rural areas.

e1 Discover
Carefully look at the data in Table 2.13.

Table 2.13: Urban PNG-town and city populations

Name Province 7980 1990 2000

Alotau MBY 4300 6386 10025
Arawa (Buka) BOU 12623 36443

Bulolo (incl. Wau) MOR 6730 7470 12912

Daru WES 7127 8501 12879

Goroka EHP 18511 17768 18618

lalibu SHP 5478

Kainantu EHP 3800 3793 6723

Kavieng NIR 4600 6776 11 560

Kerema GUL 3389 3952 5116

Kimbe WNB 4700 8627 14656

Kiunga WES 1 407 4006 8265

Kokopo /Vunamami ENB 2200 3152 20262

Kundiawa SIM 4299 5791 8147

Lae MOR 61 617 88172 78038

Lorengau MAN 3800 4563 5 B29

Madang MAD· 21 335 27181 27394

Mendi SHP 4130 6207 17119

Mount Hagen WHP 13446 17858 27782

Popondetta ORO 6429 7255 19556
..

Port Moresby NCD 123624 195570 254158

Rabaul ENB 14954 17044 3885

Tari (Kari) SHP 600 ... 8186

Vanimo SAN 3071 7861 9809

Wabag ENG 1 500 4305 4072

Wewak ESP 19890 22837 19724

Total: 348082 475075 646636

1 Take the five largest urban places and the five smallest urban places. Graph their population growth fro

I
to 2000. Bar graphs are an easy way to do this. Each city will have three bars for the three years 1980, 19 0 and
2000 (unless data is missing).

2 Explain the differences between the different places and their population growth.

3 Why might data be missing for some places?

4 Can you find any data to update this information? Are the trends continuing or changing?

IIInvestigate
1 Choose the city or town closest to you from Table 2.13. Do a study of the city or town and put vour ans rs into
a table like this:

Name of city or town:

~ Past Pfesefilt Future

=Changeeach ouestion Change each qu ion to
to the past ("What are" the future. t" are"
becomes "what was ") becomes "what ." be")
What are the economic, social
and political roles or purposes
of this place?

What is the population?

What are the important

features of the population?

What are the advantages of

living in this place?

What is the migration to this

place: who is coming and
why?

What are the advantages to

living in the surrounding rural
area?

What are the disadvantages

to living in this place-what
problems does it have?

What are the disadvantages

to living in the surrounding
rural area-what problems
does it have?

You choose the tenth item to

investigate
 The future of the city
The world is urbanising. City populations are growing faster than rural populations. The
rural part of the world has a decreasing share of total population. In 1950 only 29% of
the world's population was urban. This grew to 39% by 1980. It reached 51 % in 2010.
Some people predict it will be at 60% by 2030.
The growth trend seems clear. Cities in many countries have more advantages than
problems Urban pull is strong in many parts of the world. What will happen if it
continues?

In the future, city planning

will become more and more
important in developing
countries. It will need to help
with problems like squatter t
settlements. The need for more
gOOd.urban and rural plann~rs J
will grow in places like PN~

Here are a few ideas. You can add your own to them:
• Concentrated populations will depend more on rural areas for food and other
resources.
• City planning will need to fight the urban developers who are covering up good
agricultural land with sprawling city housing.
• Agricultural land will become more valuable. This could benefit a place like PNG.
• Some cities will increase the difference between rich and poor. There will be more
enclaves to protect the rich. This kind of city will have higher crime rates and more
violence.
Key term • Other cities will share wealth better. Resources will help reduce the difference
globalisation the between rich and poor. These cities will have lower crime rates and less violence.
spread of ideas,
• Globalisation will make cities look similar. Housing, hotels, fast food restaurants,
products and
technologies automobiles, energy suppliers and other international brands will spread across
acrossthe world cities. This will make them seem the same in many parts of the world.
so that everyone
• Cities that are different and rural places that are different will become more attractive
shares in them
to international tourists. Wealthy cities will produce more tourists, especially in Asia.
Will urbanisation slow down?
Will anything stop growing urbanisation? Modern technology may slow or even stop
the trend of urban growth. This is an idea first suggested in the-1970s and 1980s. It is
based on communication using computers. The idea is that people can live at home and
work for a city business. Their home might be in a rural area.
This has not happened as a real trend so far. Computers have allowed people in other
countries to work for businesses in big Western cities. India provides many services to
companies in America, Europe and Australia. But all the people doing this live in Indian
cities.
The pull of the city continues to be stronger than any rural pull. Will it change in the
future? You decide.

Future visions of cities

• Challenge
Many people have ideas about future cities. The pictures above are just two concepts.
Draw your own plan and vision for what a future city might be like.

2 Think carefully about the roles of the rich and the poor in cities. Many plans forget the
poor.
Assessment

ASSESSMENT
Assessment task one: interpreting population
statistics
For assessment task one you will be assessed on the extent to which you can:
• interpret graphs, tables and maps
• clearly define demographic terms, with examples.
(40 marks)
How can I do well on this assessment?
Here are some questions to help you prepare for your test. Study the graphs below
about Singapore and its resident population. Next, answer the sample questions. You
can use the graphs to make up other questions to test each other for practice.

Resident population (in thousands) Population age pyramid (in hundred thousands)
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 15
Resident population. 10
5
o
Old age support ratio (number of residents aged 15-64 years
per elderly' resident) 200 100 o a 100 200

Population age pyramid.

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Old age support ratio (number of residents aged 15-64 years per
elderly' resident).

• Elderly refers to person aged 65 years and over.

170 Social Science Grade 9: Outcomes Edition

1 How many more people were residents of Singapore in 2010 than in 1970?

2 What age group shows the biggest difference between 2000 and 201O?

3 How many people were there to support one elderly person in 19707

4 How many people were there to support one elderly person in 2010?

5 What would Singapore have to do to get back to the 1970 figure of old age support?

a Explain how to do it quickly.

b Explain how to do it slowly.
6 What type of population pyramid does Singapore have7 (Choose one from A to E.)

A youthful
B aging
C aged
0 classic
E all of the above.
7 Explain by gender who is living the longest in Singapore 7

8 By sex and age, name the categories where there were more people in 2000 than
in 2010.

9 In 2010, about how many children were aged between 5-9 years old?

10 Define the following terms:

a crude birth rate

b crude death rate
c immigration
d emigration.

Answers to these questions are on page 173.

Unit 2: Population change. resources and migration : -: ~I

Assessment

Assessment task two: oral presentation

For assessment task two you must make an oral presentation. Your teacher will decide
on how this is to be done. The topics are about population change or migration. You can
use a local case study. Or you can use the world if you have information about some
part of it
Here are some hints of questions to consider as you prepare for your talk. You will need
your own ideas and questions too.

(60 marks)
Migration

1 What are the reasons for migration in your local community or the world situation
you have chosen?

2 Are people in-migrating or out-migrating? (Or emigrating or immigrating

internationally?)

3 What case study can you find? Can you compare it with an example you have
studied in this unit?

4 How are population and migration related in your local community or in a global
situation?

5 What push or pull factors can you find?

6 What cultural, economic, social and environmental factors can you identify about the
migration case you have chosen?

7 What are the benefits of migration? (Think about both the place that loses people
and the one that gains people.)

8 What are the problems with migration?

Population
These questions apply for either a local study or the global situation (or some part of it).
1 What is the population situation (growing, steady or declining)?

2 What are the reasons for the present population situation? (Economic, cultural,
social and environmental reasons should be considered.)

3 What is the history of the population?

4 How can you compare this history with the graphs in the textbook?

5 What do you think the future of the population will be? Give reasons for your
answer.

6 How likely is it that there will be change in the future?

7 What are the impacts of the population?

8 Are there enough resources, both natural and human-made, for the population?

172 Social Science Grade 9: Outcomes Edition

Answers

1 1 758100 or 1758 x 1 thousand. (You subtract 2013.6 from 3771.7 and multiply by
1000.)

2 55-59: it has grown by about 120000, split equally between males and females.

3 17.

4 8.2.

5 a Rapidly increase migration. This would not guarantee everyone had a job so it
might not really help support the elderly unless the economy grows too.

b Start raising the birth rate, but this would take more than 15 years before any
results would show.
6 B.

7 The population pyramid shows that females in the 70+ groups outnumber males.
This means they are the longest living unless the males are emigrating, but that is
not happening.

S 2000 is shown by the dark purple bars in the population pyramid. These bars
are larger for the 0-9 cohorts for both males and females. This is a reason the
population is aging. There were also more males in the 35-44 age cohorts in 2000
than in 2010. They may have emigrated to another country to make this group
smaller in 2010 than 2000.

9 Around 210000 to 220 000.

10 Look through this unit to review what these terms mean.

Unit 2: Population change. resources and migration 173

 For students For teachers
In this unit students will have the opportunity to:
Unit summary
.I examine ways the past can be investigated
Everyone has a history. Everyone can be a historian
about something. In this unit there is a big question .I understand how different people can interpret
for you to answer. What can you find out about history in different ways
history in your area? .I understand how historical interpretation can
Before you go looking influence people and future actions
1 First, you will need to think about history. .I develop pride in local history
2 Second, you will need to know the ways to get .I grasp how they are part of world history and how
information this can be interpreted
3 Third, you will need to know if the information is
.I undertake practical fieldwork and analysis to
true (or if some is missing).
uncover some part of local history.
4 Finally, you will need a subject. Find something
that really interests you.
Assessment for this unit is described at the end of
You will do all this while looking at the
the unit.
history of Papua New Guinea.
You should start to see how the .I Assessment task one-short answer testing
history of Papua New Guinea .I Assessment task two-a historical investigations
is connected to the world. portfolio

PNG history covers so many things. This bullroarer is part of the

history of music. It is over 100 years old. Friction drums are a unique part of Oceania's history. They are
only madein NewIreland.
Links with other units and strands
./ This unit can link directly to parts of Unit 4, "Civics and citizenshipt This includes the history of id
organisation that led to the introduction of democracy in Papua New Guinea .

./ This unit can link to any other unit where history is discussed. The first part of the unit provides
analyse any history or historical idea.

Syllabus references
Students can:
9.3.1 investigate aspects of Papua New Guinea's past from a range of historical sources and commun
findings from investigations in oral and written forms
9.3.2 identify the social forces that have shaped and continue to shape Papua New Guinea and its neig
9.3.3 explain relations between people and events through time
Unit 3 Investigating Papua New Guinea history will take 10 weeks to complete, including assessme
suggested timetable is shown below.
Modify materials, assignments and times as needed. The curriculum calls for fieldwork with teache
according to their local conditions. Lesson material can be incorporated.
,-------,----------------------+~----~
Week 1 Introduction to studying history Week 6 The distant past and Melan
What is history? development in PNG (continue
Social and other forces in history topics)
How do we study history?
Week 7 The world comes to PNG (1
History and sources
The first Europeans
Week 2 Introduction to studying history Forming the national borders
(continue Week 1 topics) Early relations with outsiders
Contacts before colonisation
Week 3 Tingim Bek-your major assignments Colonisation
and portfolio advice
Week 8 The world comes to PNG (1~r'n..._,
The distant past and Melanesian
development in PNG (continue Week 7 topics)
The first arrivals
Week 9 The world wars in PNG
Populating and settling PNG
The First World War
Settling the Highlands and the development
From 1920 to the Second World
of agriculture .
The Second World War
Trading and exchange networks
War in the Pacific
The role of malaria in PNG history
PNG becomes part of the batt I
The Lapita people
Papuan New Guineans in the
Week 4 The distant past and Melanesian War
development in PNG (continue Week 3 Week 10 The world wars in PNG (conti
topics) topics)
WeekS The distant past and Melanesian
development in PNG (continue Week 3
topics)
 INTRODUCTION TO STUDYING HISTORY
Key terms What is history?
oral history History studies the past. Oral history is spoken. It is passed down from one person to
spoken history in another. Or it can be recorded. Then the recorded voices can be listened to again and
song, storiesand
again. History started with the first story about the past.
spoken events of
the past
written history
history recorded
in writing, from
clay tabletsto
books
prehistory
history before
written history
started

Here is a group of students listening to a gramophone. The gramophone was mainly used for music, but
it could also capture sounds to preserve oral histories and other parts of culture.

Written history is often simply called "history" in the West. People don't have to
remember as well with written history. Some people think that before written history,
people had much better memories of the past. They had to remember or it was lost.
The time before written records is often called prehistory.

~ Explore
1 Arrange for someone from the community to talk to the class about why history is
important. It might be a teacher or lecturer from the university, a traditional storyteller or
a village elder.

2 Talkabout the following questions and then fill out a table with your answers:

• What is the purpose of history?

• What is important about the past?

• Why should we care about history?
-
Question I Answer
What is the purposeof history? I
I
What is important about the past?
I
IWhy shouldwe care about history? J
3 What does history mean to you, to your family, to the clan, to the language group, to the
citizens, to the nation?
 I

,/

r:::::J Discuss
Pre means before, so prehistory means" before history': How is this possible?

History studies
the past. It can beI
long ago. It can be t
recent. Or it can I
be somewhere in i
between:y

Different histories
Everyone and everything has a history. In fact, everyone has many different histories.
This seems strange. Think a minute about the different histories you could write about
yourself. Here are a few of them:

1 The physicalhistory of the developmentT-The growth of your organs,bonesandflesh

and growth of your body I.
The different foods you ate andwhat they did
The history of your educationand I. Formalschooling,the curriculumandteachers
employment i. Work opportunities,how well you did, how
I many pigs or kinayou made
3 Yourhistory as a me-m-b-e-r-o-f-
ac-Ia-n-a-n-d-+-!.- Yourfamily history
family __j_. T_h_e_c._la_n_h_is_t_o_ry ---1
4 The history of your ideas I· When did you start thinking?
I • How haveyour ideaschanged?
L_ . ~
1

You see a very different history in each of these cases. Think about who might write
them. Different writers would make different histories. Look at example 4 in the list.
Your mother, your teacher or you would write a different history for example 4. Your narrativ? arrative
family and clan would write a different history for number three compared with an is astor. istory
enemy clan. tells our ttDry.
19l Explore
1 These are just some examples of a history about you. Now as a whole class think of the
different ways to write the histories of PapuaNew Guinea. How many can you list?

2 What problems can you see in writing them? Discuss them and possible solutions.

C Discuss and respond

In a small group discuss the questions below. Chose a speaker from your group who will
summarise your answers.

a Everything has a history. How do we know what is important?

b Why might people leave things out of history?

c Why might people want to change history?

d How much of history can we know?

e How much of history can we trust?

The beginning of history

History probably started with language. People probably started telling stories about the
past as soon as they could speak. Legends and myths are a type of history.

Remember
A legend or myth may not be
true or completely true. But there
is truth in them about the past.
Legends and myths tell us about
the values and beliefs of people •
in the past. They tell us what
people thought was important.
They tell us about relations
between different people (men
and women, for example).

Written history is more recent. The first writing about the past was very biased. The
writers were not interested in accuracy. Many of the early accounts are about kings
or heroes. The writers saw them as glorious and often super human. They had a story
and a point of view to tell. The idea of a balanced investigation or inquiry into the past
started in ancient Greece.
\

Early ideas about writing history

Herodotus is often called "the father of
history". He was born about 2500 years
ago in ancient Greece. He travelled widely
and wrote a set of nine books called
Historia. In ancient Greek historia meant
"inquiry" (the knowledge you get from
investigation).
Herodotus' main interest was in ancient
Greece and Persia and the conflict Key r e-rn
between them. He is called the father of
bias preju i e or
history for two reasons:
opinion th t is not
1 He wanted to be accurate. He wanted open to fu
facts
to record the facts. Good history tries
to avoid bias.

2 He found lessons in history He drew

Herodotus.
conclusions, about people's behaviour.
He used history to teach people.

The Greek and Roman empires had historians. They followed the ideas of Herodotus for
nearly 1000 years. Much of that history focused on "great men". One theory of history
is that it is made by great men. That theory is not widely believed today.

Have your parents or

friends told you a story
of the past that has a
lesson in it?This is a
lesson from history.
Share it with your class.

/ ~.-~
I \ \/ \ \
\ \ <, ~j I
 /

C Discuss and respond

1 Divide the class into groups. Eachgroup should discuss one of the topics below. Chose
two speakers from each group to summarise its answers.

Think about fairness and truth in history. Think about lessons to be

• Why do you think inquiry and investigation are learned from history.
important for history? • What lessonscan you think
• What do you think a fact in history is? of from history?
• What is accuracy? Why is it important in history? • How important are the
• Can you think of examples of bias in history? lessonsof history?
• Are girl's stories and boy's
stories different? Are there
Great men and great leaders often appear in
different lessonsfor men
written histories.
and women from the past?
• Do you think great men make history?
• What do your answers start
• How important do you think they are? to tell you about the history
• Are they the reason for changes in the past? of men and women in your
• What other things might act to change or area?
make history?

Modern written history

The word history means what was done
Key term in the past. It also means the studv oi the
eyewitness past. Professional historians today use
someonewho saw
something similar to the scientific method
an event or was
part of it to study the past.
Professional history took hundreds of
years to develop. Modern European ideas
of history only started around 1500.
Some people call Leopold van Ranke "the
father of modern written history". He lived
in Germany from 1795 to 1886. He was
very concerned about accuracy. He said
you must study history very carefully. For
example, he liked eyewitness accounts of
the past. He believed you could "tell it like
it was".

Leopold von Ranke.

~ Do, think and decide
1 Readthe following account of an event on the Fly River in 1877

I
@LUigiOfAlbertiswasanltalianwhoeXPloredtheFIYRiVer in the 18705. He had a
boat and crew. He hit one of his Chinese crewmen five times with a cane. The man
died after four hours.
The rest of the Chinese crew ran away and were never seen again. They
u probably died near the Fly.

Islanders ran away at the mouth of the Fly.They arrived at Thursday Island and
accused Luigi of murdering the Chinese crewman.
The police did not believe the two eyewitnesses. Instead, they believed the

I
~
2
one European eyewitness. They locked up the two Pacific Islanders for deserting
the boat.
~-----~
How many different ways could you look at the facts of this case? Imagine you were one
of the people in this story. Write a paragraphgiving your version of events from your point
of view. You could be:

a one of the Chinese crewmen who ran away

b one of the Pacific Islanders who ran away

c the European eyewitness

d Luigi D'Albertis.
3 As a class, discuss this question: When there are different viewpoints, how can you know
the truth?

Social and other forces in history

An early mission house in New Zealand. Religion
is an important social force that helps shape
history.
For a long time, professional history
looked mostly at politics and great
men. There was little study of ordinary
people. The sciences of sociology and
anthropology changed this. They studied
common people and everyday life.
Historians started looking at new ways
history could be studied.
One new way was to study social forces.
Social forces are parts of society and the
way it works. Examples of social forces
are religion, relationships between people,
education and democracy.
 Historians ask, "What drives history? What makes it happen?" They now understand
that social and other forces are important. These forces bring changes and historians
can record these.

The spread of ideas Science and technology

Different parts of society spread
ideas:
• the press
• missionaries and religion
• movies, television, video and
computer games
• people from different places
(tourists, overseas workers,
aid agencies, colonisers,
different ethnic groups) .
These include:
• business and new ways of
doing business
• trade and the opening up of trad
• economic organisation
• the creation of wealth at all
levels, from the individual to
the government
These include:
• transportation methods
• communication methods
• innovations in agriculture
• medical discoveries

Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 shows some important social forces. Different types of history study other
forces that bring change:
• Social history looks at the nature of past societies and social change.
• Cultural history includes art and other cultural expressions of the past.
• Political economic history looks at the combination of political and economic forces
in history.
• Gender history studies the relations between men and women in the past.

Consider how aircraft have changed history.

/
a .

l
~
it
Other forces in history
There.are other forces in history. Here are a few to consider:
1 Disease. How have diseaseschanged history? This often happens during war or
conquest, when disease kills more people than anything else.

l
2 Climate. How has climate been a force in history and the ways nations live?
3 Natural hazards. How have events such as earthquakes, floods, tsunamis and
volcanic eruptions shaped history?
~

An illustration of the Black Death from theToggenburg Bible, 1411.

Plaster casts of two people who died when the

eruption of MountVesuvius destroyed Pompeii
in AD 79.

DB Explore
Talk to a family member or someone in your community about social forces that have
shaped history where you live. Write a paragraphabout the most important social forces
in your area.

2 Next. consider other forces in your local history, for example:

a How has malaria or some other disease affected the history of your area or families in
your area?

b Have there been natural hazardsor disasters in your area?What effect on people did
they have?

c In what ways has the climate in your area affected the way people live7

3 Write a paragraphabout each of these summarising what you found out.

 How do we study history?
Key term We have seen that there are many ways to study history. Each of these is a
specialisation specialisation. Here are three examples of specialist topics:
a focus on one • Melanesian history
particular body of
knowledge and • The history of PMVs and public transportation in Lae
skills • The history of the buai industry.
"Big History" is the opposite of specialisation. The idea of Big History is to find
universal patterns and trends. For example, take the history of all nations and empires.
Is there a pattern to their birth, growth, maturity, decay and death? The same approach
can be taken for migration or economic activity. Are there patterns that the historian can
find that appear over and over?

r:::J Discuss
1 Do you agree with the idea of Big History? Do you think there are patterns that apply to
the whole world?

2 How would PapuaNew Guinea fit into Big History?

I) Investigate
Do a specialist historical study of your school.Youcan work alone, in pairs or in groups, as
your teacher decides. There are many aspects of your school's history you could explore,
for example:

• how your school started

• sport in your school
• community programs your school has been involved in
• leaders who were students in your school.
2 Select one of these aspects, or another one that you think of, and consider how you can
research it. You might use written records, a surveyor an interview with someone who
was an eyewitness (e.g., a long-serving teacher or a parent who has been involved with
the school).

3 Present your findings in a short written report.

Why study history?

We should really ask, "Why do people write history?" and "Why do people read
history?" Both the writers and the readers are studying history. There are many
different reasons to write and read history.
 /\"-J
T'
L__)

II Discover
1 The task here is to complete a table about the writers and readers of history. Do not
write in the book. Use paper or the blackboard as a class exercise. Where the table says
[Your idea} you fill in the blanks.

Time Why write a history Why read a history

Past To make a king happy and to make him To keep the king happy and for people to
look good to all his people feel good about being in the kingdom
Past To learn about the leaders. To learn [Your ideal
lessons where they made good
decisions and bad ones.
Past I To learn from the past to apply it to the I [Your ideal
I future
[Your ideal ! [Your ideal [Your ideal

[Your ideal [Your ideal I [Your ideal

Present To investigate some part of the past that The reader may be interested, for
holds special interest for the writer example, in missionaries and how they
, changed the history of the Pacific

Present To make a nation look good and make its [Your ideal
citizens proud
Present To show that social forces can be very [Your ideal
important
Present To show that physical forces can be very [Your ideal
important
[Your ideal [Your ideal [Your ideal

[Your ideal [Your ideal Because the reader is curious and wants
to know more. This is called intellectual
curiosity.
[Your ideal [Your ideal The reader thinks the theory is very
important and wants more proof for it in
the past.
[Your ideal [Your ideal [Your ideal

[Your ideal [Your ideal The reader wants to understand enemy

tactics and how to win wars.
[Your ideal [Your ideal [Your ideal

[Your ideal [Your ideal [Your ideal

2 Discuss your results when you finish the table. You may be able to add many more cells.
 • Challenge
1 As a whole class, make a similar table ~y. Use the blackboardor butcher's
paper.The table headings change to "Why tell history?" and "Why listen to history?"

2 Consider the different ways history is spoken. What types of stories, legends and
histories are there? Fill in your two columns. Then compare the differences between the
two tables.
Key terms
dynasty a line of Using time in studying history
rulers from the
Historical time periods are one way to study history. The period may be short-for
samefamily
age a time period example, a historian might study the Second World War from 1939 to 1945. Or the
that defines some period may be much longer. Traditional Chinese history follows the time period for
part of history each dynasty. The Ming dynasty, for example, went from 1368 to 1644, a period of
276 years
A time period may be called an age. For
example, you could study the Age of
Women's Rights (1850 to the present).
Here are a few examples of ages in
European history:
• Ancient Greece and Rome, 550 BC-476
AD (the cradles of European civilisation)
• The Middle Ages, 477-1299 (once
called the Dark Ages, a time of small
states, princes and kings)
• The Renaissance, 1300-1600 (the
revival of culture and rediscovery of
cultural roots in Greece and Rome)
• The Age of Enlightenment 1700-1800
(the application of science and reason
to living).
The Middle Ages in Europe were a unique
historical age.

C Discuss and respond

1 In small groups, discuss the idea of time periods or ages. What time periods or ages can
you think of for studying the history of:
a PapuaNew Guinea?

b your local region?

2 Explain how you classify the ideas to define each age. Give dates for the time covered by
each age.
 3 As a class, discuss these questions:

a Does breaking history into periods or ages make it easier?

b Is there any limit to the number of ages you could have?

c If a time period is very long, what do you think that does to the history?
d And the opposite: what does a short time period do to history?

Using place in studying history

Looking at a particular place is another common way to study history. "Papua New Guinea history"
a good example. Papua New Guinea is a political place. "The history of New Guinea Island" or "A
Bougainville" are other examples of historical studies based on location.

1m Explore
1 Why would you study the history of a place? Discuss this with a partner and make a written list of rea

History and sources Newspapers CIIre Letters and diaries

another direct source. are good examples of
A source is the written or oral record of direct sources. They
They often have
what happened in the past. The historian tell what people were
thinking and doinq at
starts with sources. There are two types
the time.
of sources: primary and secondary.
1 Primary sources, Primary sources
are direct records of what happened.
For example, they may be:

• interviews with people who were

there
• company or government records
• a stone or clay tablet that shows a
letter that is 3000 years old.

sources on the past in PNG.

Sometimes you alone are the source. This is the way eyewitness
accounts are made. Often people write down their experiences
in life. These are called autobiographies or memoirs. They are a
rich source for historians. Two examples are Sir Michael Somare's
autobiography Sana and Sir Percy Chatterton's autobiography Day
That I Have Loved. Sir Michael is a politician and Sir Percy was a
missionary.
Artefacts are also a type of primary source. Any original object tells
you something about the past. But no object or document tells you
everything. What can you tell from the artefact in Figure 3.2?

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2 Secondary sources. Secondary means something that comes second. A secondary source is one that
uses information presented elsewhere. A secondary source may use primary sources, other secondary
sources, or both primary and other secondary sources.

A secondary source is like a filter. It is telling you what the writer thinks about the primary sources. Most
history books are secondary sources. The authors should have a list of sources in the book so you can see
where they got their information from. A secondary source writer was not at the past event.

~ Do, think and decide

Copy the following table into your notebook and complete it.

Source Primary or secondary source?

photograph
history book
speech
elder's story of long ago
recordedinterview with an eyewitness
stone arrowhead

2 Write a paragraph explaining the difference between a primary and secondary source.

3 Which kind of source would be more accurate? Give reasons for your answer.

,. Challenge
Is the Bible a primary or secondary source of history?

2 Is a map a primary or a secondary source?

Trusting sources
People experience events in different ways. Their explanations of what happened may not always be the
same. How do you know if a written or spoken source can be trusted? The challenge for historians is to know
what is true and what is false. They must check all sources carefully.
Most historians agree that there are many false histories. Some people do not want the truth. Remember your
past social science studies on bias. Everyone has some bias.
Sometimes people have a reason not to tell the truth about history.

An early source on travel to Papua

New Guinea was a book called
Wanderings in the Interior of New
Guinea by Captain J.A. Lawson.
Published in 1875, it spoke of
friendly people along the coast and
fabulous wonders in the interior.
Later people realised that Captain
Lawson wanted to start a colony
in Papua New Guinea. His book
was really an advertisement. It is
unlikely he did any travel there at
all. But at first, many people did not
know about his bias.

Figure 3.3:The mountain that Captain Lawson claimed to have fo

Papua New Guinea.

~ Do, think and decide

Look at the picture from Lawson's book (Figure 3.3). Where is this place in New Guinea?

2 What does this tell you about what people knew about New Guinea in 1875?

3 Why do you think Captain Lawson would make up stories?

 J Skills box
~ How to judge historical sources

I·
Readersand writers of history must evaluate or judge the sources, Here are some ways to judge a source:
I 1 Who wrote it or said it? How trustworthy is the person?What is their reputation?
What reasons does the source have to be truthful?

I
I
•
•
What reasons does the source have for not telling the truth, or only part of the truth?
What reasons does the source have for telling something false?

1
I
2
3
4
What is the date? When was it written or spoken?
What is the place? Does the place tell us about the source?
If it is a secondary source, what primary sources did it use?

1
I,
5 Why was it written? What is its purpose? Remember, there may be a stated purpose and an unstated
purpose,

1
6 What is the evidence that it is true? Can you find errors in it? Are the errors important? How complete
I 7 is the source?
Do other sources agree or disagree?

I
m
R
8 What other evidence is there (direct and indirect)?

Explore
1 Readthe eight points in the skills box "How to judge historical sources" above,

2 Choose a source on history, It can be a book, a newspaper article on something that happened in the past or a
spoken source, Judge the source using the eight points,

3 When you finish, discuss in class:

a How reliable is the source?

b Are there other questions we should ask about the source?

C Discuss
Here are some important questions to consider about the eight points for judging historical sources,

1 Can a very trustworthy person still be wrong about a past event?

2 Why should we care when something is written? (Remember your earlier work on attitudes and values.)

3 Why is it important to know where a source is located?Will there be a difference if a PapuaNew Guinea history
is produced in PNG,Australia or China?

4 How important is it to list sources in writing about history?

5 What is the difference between a stated and an unstated purpose?

6 When many sources agree, does that mean something is true?

 History wars
Historians often disagree. A good example are the History Wars in Australia. This debate is about ho
Australians look at their past.
There are two extreme views. One view is that Australia has a proud past over 200 years. The opposit
view is that the last 200 years have been shameful.

Many Aboriginal
Australia started with convicts but people have been killed
quickly changed. Farming, business in Australia. Their land has been

I
and mining created a nation that can
be proud of its past.There have been
problems with Aboriginal people, but few
were actually killed. They can now benefit
taken away.They were nearly
exterminated inTasmania.The
history of Australia is one of
exploitation. Australians should

I
from a modern Australia. be ashamed of the past.

There are many arguments over sources and evidence. The History Wars are a good example of ho
history is used in different ways. People can study the different investigations and make up their ow
minds.

fII Challenge
Can you give examples where different sources gave different stories about what happened in the past?
(Youmay collect some examples from newspapers.)
 Other evidence to learn about the past
History studies can be supported by other types of evidence. This evidence can be
either direct or indirect.

1 Direct evidence. Direct evidence is physical proof that something happened Police
often search for direct evidence. Direct evidence helps historians, including the work
of archaeologists, prehistorians and physical scientists.

Archaeologists and prehistorians study the physical evidence left behind by people.
The more distant the past, the less evidence there is. Stone, earthworks and bone
tend to last the longest. Some of these artefacts are very large, such as buildings or
earthen terraces. Others are very small, such as pieces of pottery, bits of shell and
obsidian flakes.

Other scientists such as geologists,

botanists, biologists and geographers can
add evidence about the past. They can
give information on climate, vegetation,
animals, volcanic activity and other
impacts. This can help the historical
record.

Piecesof prehistoric pottery found in Sierra Leone,Africa.

Visual evidence
Visual evidence can help
historians. This includes pictures,

I photographs, drawings and other

visual depictions. Aboriginal rock
paintings show prehistoric birds.
This is direct visual evidence that
!l ~ early Aborigines shared Australia
~ with megafauna (giant animals
~ that are now extinct). There is no
@ direct evidence yet that the early
~ Aboriginal people killed them off.

!
2 Indirect evidence. Direct evidence tells you that something has happened. For
example, a picture of a king being crowned with many nobles is direct evidence that
it happened. Indirect evidence supports an idea, but it is not as strong. For example,
who is not in the picture of the king being crowned? That is indirect evidence that
they were not as important. Say the queen was not there. Maybe she was not
as important. On the other hand, maybe the custom was that she should not be
painted, or she did not like the painter. You may not be sure.

U Explore
1 Discuss the types of evidence for when pigs first came to PapuaNew Guinea.
Prehistorians have found pig bones starting at about 5000 years ago in New Guinea.

a What is the direct evidence of when they came?

b What is the indirect evidence?

2 There is evidence for sweet potato in PapuaNew Guinea that dates back to around 500
years ago. Botanists know that sweet potato was used in South America for thousands
of years before that.

a What is the direct evidence that sweet potato came from Portuguese or Spanish
explorers?

b What is the evidence it came from Indonesian traders?

c What is the evidence it came from South America?

3 How important are sweet potatoes and pigs to the history of New Guinea?What are the
sources and evidence for your answer?

~
TINGIM BEK-YOUR MAJOR ASSIGNMENT AND
PORTFOLIO ADVICE
There are two major assessment tasks for this unit:
• Assessment task one: short answer testing
• Assessment task two: a historical investigations portfolio
You will find more details about assessment task one, including some practice questions, on page 243. You
will find a description of assessment task two on page 245 and further advice below.

Conducting historical investigations

During the rest of this unit, everyone will do historical investigations. This means that you will have to ask
questions about history. Then you will investigate to answer them. To do this:
1 You will need to make a plan. This plan will tell you how you are going to do the investigation.

• How will you find sources?

• How will you evaluate them?

• What time will you need to write up the history?

2 You will collect the information.

3 You will analyse it.

4 You will write it up. (This may include drawings, diagrams, timelines and tables.)

Your main investigation will be your portfolio. In part 1 of this unit ("Introduction to studying history") you have
already learned the basics for historical investigation. Your portfolio will show that you can use these skills and
ideas to make investigations. This means you will dci practical work. You will do it in your community and local
area. You will be looking for evidence about past history.

What will you do in your historical investigations?You may:

• interview people
• collect artefacts
• read written material
• listen to recordings, talks or stories
• look at photographs and drawings
• consult maps and graphs.
You will be able to work on your portfolio as you move through the rest of this unit. It is in three parts:
• The distant past and Melanesian development in PNG
• The world comes to PNG (1600s-1900s)
• The world wars in PNG.
You will be able to do investigations in each of these sections.
You will find many ideas for investigations in each part. Some of these are given in boxes headed" Po,t olio
possibility". These list some possibilities for you to investigate. Or you may have your own ideas. Ski
through the three sections if you are hunting for ideas.
Different students will be interested in different approaches. You and your teacher will have to decide ho will
do what.
Remember, every history has important parts to it. You must find these. But not every history is impo t· nt
to everybody. That does not matter-whatever topic you choose is important to someone. What is ve
important is for you to investigate histories that are important to you. Be sure you are interested in do ng the
investigation.
 THE DISTANT PAST AND MELANESIAN
DEVELOPMENT IN PNG
Melanesian development in Papua New Guinea started in the distant past. It continues
to this day. It covers time periods or ages. Consider the question, "What are the time
periods or ages of Melanesian development?" There is not a single right answer. The
history of Melanesian development covers tens of thousands of years. It is one of the
oldest histories on Earth.

The first arrivals

The" distant past" means a long time ago. Modern human beings first appeared in
It appears that Africa about 200 000 years ago. Modern humans started leaving Africa about 70 000
modern human years ago. The first arrivals in Australia and New Guinea came between 50 000 and
beings arrived 60 000 years ago. This is based on present evidence. Information about the distant past
in New Guinea
will continue to change. Scientists are looking for new evidence.
before they arrived
in Europe. The One problem for evidence about the distant past is that much of it is underwater. The
earliest evidence
sea level has changed over the years. It has gone up and down with climate change.
for modern humans
there is between
The history of sea level change is important. Look at the graph in Figure 3.4.
40 000 and 45 000
Late Pleistocene and Holocene Sea-level Curve
years ago.

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years before present

Figure 3.4: Sea-level curve for the last 400000 years.

Sea levels are presently near their highest point for the last 120 000 years. That is a
long time for human beings. It is not a long time for the Earth. You should know that
sea levels have been much higher for millions and millions of years in the past.
rI Discover
1 Answer these questions by reading the graph:

a When was the sea level highest in the last 350 000 years?
b About how much lower was the sea when people first came to New Guinea and Australia?

c With people in New Guinea, how much lower did the sea get? About how many years ago was this?
2 Answer these questions by thinking about the graph:

a Would there be more land when the sea was lower?

b What do you think happened to the people who lived on that land?

c What can the rise and fall of sea levels tell us about the early history of PNG?
d What type of evidence is this?

The rise and fall of sea levels happens with a rise and fall in average temperatures. When the sea level slow,
there is more ice in the world and less water. The world is a colder place.
The different sea levels show different climates. This means differences in vegetation. Humans and c i ate
change have made differences to PNG's vegetation. In many places you can see grassland where fore ts used
to be.

C Discuss
How would the environment in PapuaNew Guinea have changed when the first people started to live

2 What technologies would the first people have had to change the environment?

3 Which technologies would have been the most important in changing the landscape?

4 How many of these technologies are still used today?

Populating Papua New Guinea

Crossing from Sunda to Sahul
Sunda and Sahul are the two continental plates that divide South-East Asia from New Guinea and AU$~alia.
The first settlers or colonisers of PNG had to cross from the islands of Sunda to the continent of Sah I (see
map on next page).
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The first settlements happened when New Guinea and Australia were still joined by
land. The sea level was lower. But Sunda and Sahul were separated by at least 70
kilometres of water. Check Figure 3.4 (page 196) and you will see that sea levels were
lower 50 000 years ago; but the map shows that people still had to make a major sea
crossing from Sunda to Sahul.

is this how the first people arrived in Papua New Guinea?

How did they do it? There are two theories:

1 They built bamboo rafts and explored parts of the sea beyond the line of sight.

2 They had rafts for close coastal use, and sometimes these accidentally drifted away.
Some of these landed at Sahul.

The earliest date for evidence of modern humans in Sahul is 55 000 years ago. This
is in what is now northern Australia. Presently, there is no direct evidence for the first
landings of modern humans at Sahul. Scientists have named two likely places where
the first people may have landed. They have done this by looking at tides, currents and
winds. Here are the two possibilities:
1 The first people landed on the north-west coast of New Guinea, the part closest to
the islands of Sunda.

2 The first people landed on the west of Sahul, on the plains that once connected
Australia to New Guinea (now completely underwater).

rI Discover
1 Locate the two places on the map where people may have first come to Sahul. (Youcan
use the maps in Unit 1.)

2 About how much lower was the sea level then? (Use Figure 3.4 to find the answer.)

3 Where would you have to look for evidence of the first landings?
 40 thousand Human societies evolved in stages over
years ago
thousands of years. The first stage was
hunting and gathering. The second stage

on high mountains
was hunting, gathering and agriculture. In
the third stage, people learned to make
gardens, plant crops, and breed and raise
animals.

People living In the Highlands

Workers dig at an archaeological site in the Ivane

Valley.

Settling Papua New Guinea

~ MainJand PNG

The outer islands of Papua New Guinea have settlement evidence going back to
well over 30 000 years. Here are the dates discovered so far:
~. New Ireland-35 000 to 33 000 years ago
• . Buka-29 000 years ago
• Manus-20 000 years ago
• New Britain-ll 400 years ago.
(I Discover
1 From the box on the previous page, make a table of the earliest dates for direct
settlement in PapuaNew Guinea, from the Huon Peninsulato New Britain. Put the
approximate sea level at the time of each date.

2 a Is there any pattern?

b Does this table give you any evidence about what was happening?

Site of early settlement Date Approximate sea level

(yearsago)
Huon Peninsula 40 000
-

IIInvestigate
New studies keep adding information about the early settlement of PapuaNew Guinea. See
if you can find more recent evidence about settlement in the distant past How is it changing
the early history of PapuaNew GUinea?

C Discuss
1 What should we call the first peoples who explored and settled PapuaNew Guinea?
Should we call them:

• settlers, because they settled the land

• exploiters, because they found many uses for the resources of PNG and developed
ways to exploit them
• colonisers, because they colonised the new lands that today make up PNG
• conquerors, because they conquered the new lands and then started conquering
each other?

Who were the first arrivals?

We have some evidence about when the first people came and where they might have
landed. But who were these first peoples?
The first arrivals to Papua New Guinea were part of the first great migration out of
Africa. These people were modern human beings. They created Melanesian culture
after they arrived. They physically adapted to their environment. Melanesians are
physically different from African, Asian and European peoples. But all of them are
modern human beings with few real differences.
 The first people in Papua New Guinea started development. They began as hunter
gatherers They had fire-making and tool-making skills. They had some way to travel
across water. We have no evidence of their early social organisation. They developed
complex systems from this simple base.

The achievements of the Melanesians

World class art and many'

distinctive types of music

Agricultural systems to
sustain over a million people I

Complex trading systems Hundreds of languages

Adapted to new ideas, Provided people/resources

technologies and physical to further explore and settle
items from overseas parts of the Pacific

Produced many new ideas,

technologies and physical items

Figure 3.5:Achievements of Melanesian culture in PNG.

C Discuss
1 Look at Figure 3.5. What other achievements of Melanesian history can you think of?

Portfolio possibility
The achievements of Melanesian history are all around you. You can find evidence for this in many way
You can collect the evidence to produce a history for your portfolio.
Choose one item from the achievements in Figure 3.5 (you can choose more than one if you like).
• Investigate its history in your area.
• Write a one- to two-page report.
• Attach drawings, diagrams and tables to help explain the history.

Planning your investigation

There are a number of things to think about in your investigation. The following table will help you.
Copy it and fill it out.
Name of mv investigation:

What type of evidencecan I use to analyse

the history of this achievement?
What are the sourcesfor this history?

What placesare associatedwith it?

Havethese changedover time?
What oral informationcan I find from trusted
adults in my family or from relatives,friends
or authorities?
What written informationis there?What other
physicalevidenceis there?
(Besure to look for picturesor photographs
to show changeif this applies.)
Finally,considerwhat the future of the
achievementmay be.What may happennext?
I
Conducting your investigation
Different achievements may need different kinds of investigation. You may want to look at the history
of Melanesian settlement in your area.You may only find evidence for the last few hundred years.
That is fine. Make your time period 150 years.You set the limits to the investigations.

Important note
Archaeological evidence is precious. If you find an ancient site, look at what is there but do not distur] i .
Leave it for professionals.
On the other hand, your family or friends may have ancient artefacts or more recent traditional object
You could do a history of these-how they have been used in the past and what has happened to the now.
 Settling the Highlands and the development of
agriculture
The present evidence is that people started using the Highlands about 35 000 years
ago. They may have started settling lower parts of the Highlands 30 000 years ago.
These people were hunters and gatherers. They depended on the forest. They used fire
for hunting, cooking and keeping warm.
About 18 000 years ago there were glaciers at high altitudes in the Highlands. Go back
to the sea level graph (Figure 3.4) and you can see that at that time the sea was at its
lowest since human occupation in PNG.

A cooler climate
The early Highlands hunters would have seen many different animals for hunting. For
example, one of the biggest was a family of mammals called Hulitherium tomasettii.
That is the scientific name. These were forest swamp animals. They are now extinct.
They were big animals. They weighed between 75 and 200 kilograms.
The Highlands would have been a cooler place for early humans than it is today. The
last glacial period lasted from about 110 000 years ago to 12 000 years ago. The large
amount of ice removed water from the sea. Glaciers peaked about 18 000 years ago.
The world has been warming since that time. The last 12 000 years have been mild.
The temperatures have been relatively stable.

The Holocene and agriculture

Key term
This last 12 000 years is a period of time called the Holocene. We live in the Holocene.
Holocene the
Many scientists think that the Holocene provided the stable type of climate needed to
geological epoch
in which we live, start agriculture. Before that time, the climate was cold and could change quickly.
beginning about Agriculture was a revolutionary invention. It allowed people to settle permanently. It
12 000 yearsago
changed social organisation. It was invented independently by at least three different
groups of people in:
• the Middle East
• China
• New Guinea.
 Kuk Station
river plantation D
drainage
ditch highway D
watershed secondary
for southern road
catchment
airport

The location of Kuk agricultural research station in the upperWahgi valley.

Agriculture and Papua New Guinea

Agriculture and land are at the heart of traditional Papua New Guinean society. The history starts at least
10000 years ago. It may have been much earlier.
The earliest known agricultural site is at Kuk in Western Highlands Province (above). This has a large a ea of
drainage ditches. They were worked and reworked for thousands of years. There are layers of volca
across the drains. This is evidence of volcanic activity that stopped agriculture for a while. This sam
force probably interrupted trade in the Vitiaz Strait at different times.

Archaeological excavations at Kuk reveal prehistoric drains. They were filled in once they were
abandoned .

I
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 1 One theory of how agriculture started
in PNG is that people saw how a
whole plant could grow from a piece of
sugar cane, yam or taro. The principle
is similar with banana suckers. People
started to control the process and this
is how they started agriculture.

2 Another.theory is that it began with

forest management. Stone tools that
Did you know? are around 38 000 years old have been
found in the Sialum terraces on the
PapuaNew Guinea
is a world leader Huon Peninsula. They may have been used like hoes or to ringbark unwanted trees
in sweetpotato for forest management. There is evidence that people were collecting pandanus
production,growing
nuts 25 000 to 30 000 years ago. They may have started protecting the trees. They
550 kg per person
per year. may have cleared around them to let more trees grow. From this practice they
started agriculture

There is clear evidence that people took wild bandicoots and introduced galip nuts
to island locations 10 000 to 12 000 years ago. This is indirect evidence that ideas
about agriculture were also being developed on the coast.

Yonki is another ancient agricultural site. It covers about 100 square kilometres in
Eastern Highlands Province. Like Kuk, no one is sure what was grown there. It could
have been taro, yams, sugar cane, bananas and probably many other greens and
forgotten traditional medicinal plants The terracing at Yonki may be partly natural. But it
has certainly been worked by humans to hold in moisture during dry times.

Sweet potato changes society

Portfolio possibility
Sago, taro, bananaand yams are all traditional staple
foods. But people had nearly 200 other traditional plants
that were used before colonial times.
Choose some part of Melanesian agriculture. Researchits
history in your area.
• What are the local traditions about it?
• What stories can you find about it?
• What does this tell you about its history?
• What other information can you find on its history?
Both Kuk and Yonki point to large-scale
social organisation to create these
agricultural systems. Many people had to
be organised. It was hard work. This type
of work seems to have stopped with the
arrival of sweet potatoes. They are easier to
grow and can be grown in a greater range of
climates. Sweet potatoes may have allowed
populations to grow even more and expand
to new areas.

You may also have migrants in your area from elsewhere

in PNG who practise a different type of agriculture.You IIInvestigation
could research their history and how well their agriculture
What type of historical force are sweet
is adapted to their new home.
potatoes?
 '\ /'"
/1 /~.L-__ ~

Pigs
"Domestic" means something about the family or home. Domestic animals are the
ones that humans have changed to serve the family or home. Domesticating animals
was a major change in history.
Dogs were probably the first animal to be domesticated. Pigs came much later. Pigs
were domesticated about 10000 years ago in China. They were also domesticated in
parts of Indonesia and the Philippines from wild pigs.

The Chinese domesticated pigs about 10 000 years ago.

The evidence is not clear about when pigs arrived in New Guinea. It seems possible
that they were brought before the Lapita people, perhaps up to 5000 years ago.
Certainly, the Lapita people did have pigs 2000 to 3000 years ago, and these were ones Lapita
Austron
that started in China. settlers,
The history of Papua New Guinea started from Tai
Portfolio possibility to change when pigs arrived. Probably it
Researchthe history of how people changed even more with sweet potato,
have used animals or a type of animal but that came thousands of years later.
in your area. Some of the questions
Pigs provided a good way to keep extra
you may try to answer:
food. Bananas, yams, taro and other
• What is the impact of the animals vegetable foods did not keep very long.
on social organisation?
The pigs became the banks. They could
• How has the animal helped or hurt eat excess food and things that people
health and nutrition? might not want to eat. They represented
• What stories and legends can you an important way of keeping wealth.
find about the animal? What do Sweet potato can be eaten raw by pigs.
they tell you about the animal's The introduction of sweet potato into the
history?
Highlands made pig production much
• What language evidence is there easier.
about the animal?
Trading and exchange networks
Papua New Guineans developed extensive trade and exchange networks. These were economic, political and
religious. Traditional feasting and food exchange is still very important today. In the past trade included more
than food. People traded for salt, pottery, stone adzes, dog's teeth, shells, pigs, sago, wooden dishes and
obsidian.

Obsidian-natural glass
Obsidian is produced by volcanos. It is a natural glass. it is
also called volcanic glass.
Obsidian can be used to make very sharp blades.
Obsidian blades can range from small flakes to large knives
and scrapers.
it can also be carved into large bowls. This was done on
Lou island near Manus. Lou Island was an important centre
for the kind of underground mining of obsidian that was
carried as far asVanuatu by l.apita peoples.
Fergussonisland in the D'Entrecasteaux Group is another
source of obsidian for trade. Talasea in New Britain was
another important source for obsidian trade in the past.

Trading hotspots
Traditional trade in Papua New Guinea has been documented from hundreds to thousands of years ago. Every
area of PNG will have some history of trade. Items like bird of paradise feathers or ochre may leave very little
trace of its early history. You may be able to find stories or legends that give you some hint of the past for
these types of things.

Coastal hotspots that traded pottery, wooden items, stone items, shell artefacts, food and other valuables:
• Vitiaz Strait. Trade here extended
around the southern part of New Britain
and along the north mainland coast past
what is now Madang to the west and
Lae to the east.
• Northern arc. This included the
Admiralty Islands (also known as the
Manus Islands), New Ireland and
Bougainville.

Mailu canoes starting a trading journey in the 1920s.

 C E A N

major trade/exchange network

-- (major commodity)

----
commodity site and archaeological sites with
trade route evidence of trade
obsidian • Lapita pottery

stone axe/adze o other pottery

0- salt hunting and gathering

tnumsn-msde commodity
.-
--
cowrie shell e.g. axe, pottery)
international boundary
egg cowrie

[ 0-+ pearl shell

• The Massim region. This included the D'EntreCiilsteaux,

,., Trobriand and Woodlark islands; the Lou I113de
Archipelago; and the far east end of Milne Bay mainland. This was also the area of the kula ring,
exchanged special shell ornaments. (It continues in some forms to the present.)
• The south coast. This area had two large trading networks (and many small ones). The Mailu pe of
Mailu Island at Amazon Bay have traded along the coast for centuries. The Motu people are famo as well
for the hiri trade from Motupore to the Gulf.

Portfolio possibility
Takeany traditional trade item of your area. Researchthe
history of this item. See what written and oral sources you
can find. You may also be able to find some indirect evidence
about trade by comparing different PNG languages. If the
word for the item is the same or similar in different languages,
this is an indicator it may have been traded across these
groups.
See how well you can track changes in the history of the item.
How it was used in the past and what is its present role? Is
there a place for it in the future? Will people continue to value
it as part of PNG heritage?
The Highlands had trade from the Sepik
River and Fly River areas, as well as many
trade networks within the Highlands.
Some of the important trade items were
shells, pigs, pottery, stone axes, adzes,
obsidian and salt. The moka and tee are
important trading and exchange systems
found in many parts of the Highlands.
They have changed and adapted in some
cases, like singsing bisnis.

The role of malaria in PNG history

Disease plays an important role in history. For example, many Native American peoples were totally destroyed
by disease. Their histories ended with the introduction of European diseases in North and South America
starting in 1492.
Malaria is an important disease in the history of Papua New Guinea. It was one reason that kept early
European colonisers away. Malaria killed nearly all of the first Dutch colonists who tried to settle in western
New Guinea. It limited Melanesian population growth in a number of areas. This includes the coast, other low-
lying areas and hill country up to about 2000 m. In valleys below 2000 m it worked to keep populations apart.
Locals developed immunity to the one strain of malaria in their valley, but not to any other strains.
No one is sure exactly when malaria came to Papua New Guinea. It probably came no more than 5000 years
ago. Maybe it was only 2000 to 3000 years ago. The introduction of malaria would have changed settlement
patterns. It made coastal living harder. Malaria continues today to be a major killer.

There are four main types of

malaria. Most places in the
world that have malaria have
only one or two types. The
Sepik River system has all
four types of malaria present.
No one is sure how this
happened in history.
The anopheles mosquito carries the
malaria parasites.
There are other diseases that have had
a major impact in the history of PNG. Portfolio possibility
One example is yaws, a very contagious You may wish to investigate the history of a disease i
disease. If not treated, it attacks the skin New Guinea. Oral sources include health workers an
and then the bones. It was widespread people who may have stories about the disease and
in the Highlands and other parts of Papua on people's lives in the past and present. Written
New Guinea. A cure for it came with may be harder to find. Youcan see how far back you
Europeans. We will investigate that later in information about it.
this unit. • Investigate what has happened to the present.
• Look for information on traditional treatments.
• Make your last paragraphon what might happen i
the future.

The Lapita people-early migrants from

South-East Asia

\
M • Lapita sites found
E L in the Southwest Pacific
• Mussau A
IV
o~: e o 1000
~o ._.~.
s
BISMA;#CKS • ~ . /
. D SOLOMONS
o~~ .q ~ £ S
• 0
•
?~
q ~~
'R
~ -
Santa _ o
\..~
• Wallis
Cruz

c
- ~ Futuna.

~oob FJJICJo ,
-
I

'0 ':
• ~{VANUATU

..
~uku alof a

• •
• ·0
NEW·~ '~.,
CALEDONIA~ II

Figure 3.6: Lapita culture settlements from PNG to the remote Pacific.
--.------------------------~
The Lapita people were the group that started settlement in the remote Pacific. They
were the ancestors of the Polynesians and other Austronesian-speaking people.
The Lapita people first appeared in Taiwan about 6000 years ago. From there they
started migrating southward. Around 3500 years ago they arrived in the Admiralty
Islands of PNG and had soon spread to other island and coastal parts in small groups.
From this base they colonised the remote Pacific.
The map in Figure 3.6 shows places where archaeologists have found evidence of
Lapita settlement. There are two theories about the Lapita people:
One idea is that they started from Taiwan and moved like a very fast PMV. They
came through Indonesia and the Philippines to northern PNG. They quickly spread
 out to the far Pacific islands. They had a package of goods that included farming, domesticated animals and
canoe skills.

2 The other idea is that they had some skills but did not move through PNG so quickly. They were slower and
learned many of their skills from the original non-Austronesian people.

The Lapita culture had pottery that is distinctive and has become famous. They had excellent canoe-making
skills and were master navigators They had farming technologies that included growing taro, coconut, yams,
breadfruit and bananas, and they had domesticated chickens, dogs and pigs. Clearly some of this they got
from the Papuans (non-Austronesians), who had many domesticated plants and some animals from much
earlier times. Obsidian flakes from PNG have been found at Lapita sites in Fiji and Vanuatu.

Portfolio possibility
• You may search for the latest
written information on the past
Lapita culture. New discoveries
are being made all the time.
You will find that dates change
as new evidence appears.
• If you speak an Austronesian
language, can you find any hints
in it to Lapita culture or the
spread of Austronesian peoples?
Are there stories of voyaging by
the ancestors? Are there stories
A distinctive Lapita decoration.
of trade or exploration?
• If you live near an Austronesian
group, you may explore the
stories that your people have of
how they came to live near you.

An example of Lapita pottery.

THE WORLD COME5TO PAPUA NEW
GUINEA (16005-19005)
Introduction
This section covers the European and Asian influences that came to Papua New
Guinea. It starts in 1500 and closes at the start of the Second World War. This includes
the European Age of Exploration or Age of Discovery. That period in European history
was from about 1400 to 1600. But for Europeans in PNG, the Age of Exploration
continued until the 1930s.
The influence of Europeans and Asians on the history of PNG was very different from
place to place. Some places changed completely. Many did not. Often, in many things,
there was little change for Papua New Guineans. They continued making their own
histories for much of this time. The big difference is that Melanesian or local history
was not written down but European history was. This gives us many written sources.
The viewpoint is almost always, European.

IIDiscover
Below is a timeline. Above the line are selected events in the world's contact with PNG.
Complete the bottom line of the timeline for selected events in your local history.

• What information can you find?

• How far back do stories, memories and other sources go?

Timeline:The world comes to Papua New Guinea

Dutch try first settlement

Traders, whalers, bird of

Early Spanish and paradise hunters increase
Portuguese explorers

!
Torres crosses the
strait named for him

(You fill in this side. with any local history you can find.)

Timeline: Your local history

.r='>:
,: //~ '\
\\ \"J/) I
 The first Europeans
New Guinea was accidentally found in the
rush for spices in what is now Indonesia.
Spices such as pepper, ginger, cardamom,
cinnamon and vanilla were scarce and
valuable in Europe. In 1500 Europeans did
not have a gold rush. They had a spice
rush to the Moluccas, Halmahera, Tidore
and Ternate. These are all islands of
Indonesia and you should locate them on
a map.
European navigators were looking for the
Did !::IOU know? shortest route between Indonesia and
The Moluccas were Europe. It took at least a year in those
once known as days to get to either Indonesia or New
the Spice Islands
Guinea, and another year to get back
because they
were the source
home. The first Europeans to reach New
The Europeans came to Papua New Guinea.
of valuable spices Guinea were Portuguese and Spanish
such as nutmeg and navigators. They knew about spices and hoped to find other riches.
cloves.
The Portuguese started a powerful trading empire around 1500. They were leaders in
exploration from Europe to Asia. For 100 years they traded and explored near western
New Guinea. The other major European nation that quickly followed was Spain. In
1526, Don Jorge de Meneses, a Spaniard, sighted the New Guinea mainland. He called
it Papua after the Malay word for frizzy hair. In 1545, another Spaniard, Inigo Ortiz de
Retes, passed by and called the place New Guinea. He thought it was like Guinea in
Africa.
From 1580 to 1640 Spain and Portugal were united under one king. Both nations had
expeditions that passed the coasts of what is now Papua New Guinea. They found
nothing that interested them.

The resources of colonies provided

European nations with great wealth. This
started when the Spanish colonised much
of North and South America. Gold, silver
and sugar were among the first resources
to be exploited. The Portuguese followed
with Brazil. The success and wealth of
Spain excited other countries.

Here is part of Guinea, Africa. Does it remind you of PNG?

Many European countries tried to follow the Spanish example. From 1600 onwards, different Euro
began looking for colonies. This included the Dutch, British and French. They all took colonies to i
protect their wealth. They claimed more and more land around the world.
Papua New Guinea was one of the last places to be claimed. For more than 300 years there was Ii
contact.
A series of Europeans outlined the geographic borders of New Guinea during this time.
Torres of Spain. He sailed through the Torres Strait in 1606 but Spain kept the information on that i
secret for about 200 years. Dutch, English and French navigators continued through the 1700s and i
1800s to map the various islands of Papua New Guinea. Direct contact was still limited.

Impacts from indirect contact

The Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch and others did have an impact on Papua New Guinea through agric
They brought plant material to the islands of Indonesia. Malay traders probably introduced these
New Guinea. Or planting materials may have been traded from village to village and arrived that
The two earliest introductions were sweet potato and tobacco. Sweet potato is from th.e Americas. I
one of the first products brought back to Europe from the Americas. From there it was taken to preserjt-o
Indonesia. It probably reached the PNG Highlands in the late 1600s. Sweet potato changed agri
Highlands.
Tobacco was similar. It came from the
Americas to Europe to the Moluccas in
Indonesia. From there it spread to parts
of PNG in the 1700s. It did not reach as
far as Milne Bay or Central Province until
Australian colonial times.
Finally, cassava was another new staple
food that arrived in PNG in the early
1800s. It too is from the Americas and had
been taken to Africa, where it is still very
important today. Tobacco became an important product in Europe from the 16th
was produced by slaves on plantations in the Americas. Its hi
was different. But everyone now knows tobacco causes lung ca
deadly diseases.

Disease was another indirect impact of European contact. Some Polynesian islands lost great num
population from diseases such as smallpox and sexually transmitted diseases. The peoples of
Guinea had large enough and strong enough populations to withstand disease.

Reasons for change in the history of PNG

~ The world first came to Papua New Guinea at least 50 000 years ago. The first
people brought changes. These grew over time. The world came to PNG again
with the Austronesian peoples. They had some new ideas that mixed with existing
 C Discuss
Think about the possible reasons for early change in PapuaNew Guinea.Then discuss:
The name 1 How many different groups might have first come to New Guinea?
"Irian" wasthe
abbreviationof 2 What do you think are the biggest changes they made to the area we call Papua
the phraseIkut New Guinea today?
Republik Indonesia
Anti Nederland, 3 Why did people go to the Highlands? Was this push or pull migration? Or was
which means"With it both?
the Republicof
Indonesiaagainst 4 Why did people invent agriculture in New Guinea?
the Netherlands".
laya means"west". Forming the national borders
The Dutch claim West New Guinea
The history of Papua New Guinea's borders starts with European colonial land claims.
Key term
The first were the Dutch, the people of the Netherlands. They claimed the western half
buffer a country
or territory that of New Guinea in 1828. This extended and protected their colonies in Indonesia.
lies between two The Dutch had little interest in the land or people of West New Guinea. The land was a
major statesor
buffer. The division between east and west New Guinea was the first border. This split
powers
the island into two parts.
The Dutch lost all their Indonesian colonies shortly after the Second World War.
Indonesian Independence Day is 17 August 1945. By 1949 the Dutch had lost all of
Indonesia except West Papua. They lost this in 1966 to Indonesia, which named it Irian
Jaya. That name has now changed, but the border remains.

German claims
The Germans were one of the last nations in Europe to start colonising. This is because
they were one of the last nations to form
in Europe. Germany claimed the north
coast of mainland Papua New Guinea
in 1884. They called their new territory
Kaiser-Wilhelmsland. The colony started
as a German business. They did not make
enough money and soon the colony was
taken over by the German government.

A 1911German map of Kaiser-Wilhelmsland (red), with British New Guinea

in orange and the edge of Dutch New Guinea in yellow. The Bismarck
Archipelago still has its German name today.
 British and Australian claims
Queensland quickly claimed the south-east coast of New Guinea. But Queensland
was a colony of Great Britain, so Great Britain took the Queensland claim. It called the
colony British New Guinea. This colony began in 1885.
The six colonies of Australia became the federated Commonwealth of Australia in 1901
with a signed constitution. Great Britain gave its New Guinea colony to Australia in
1906. The name changed to become the Territory of Papua.

Early relations with outsiders

The first Europeans to visit Papua New Guinea did not stay. For three centuries there
was very little contact. New Guinea remained a mysterious place to outsiders. Papuans
had a reputation of being hostile. Malaria was a serious problem all along the coast. This
acted to keep many people away.
Treatment of New Guineans by the outsiders varied. You can find this from the
expedition of Torres in the 1600s onward. Captain Torres tried to protect the local
people from his crew. Generally he had good relations with the different villagers he
met. Still, he did not punish a sailor who shot and killed a Melanesian man who would
not come down from a coconut tree.

Contact increases
Contact started to increase in the 1800s. Europe was changing. The biggest change
came from the Industrial Revolution. This started around 1750 and continued to
1900. The Industrial Revolution used steam power and mass production. This created a
demand for more products. This is sometimes called the Industrial Age.
It also led to steam boats that made international transportation quicker and cheaper,
starting around 1815. Fast sailing ships called clipper ships were still common around
1900. But steam made all the difference. It brought Papua New Guinea much closer to
the rest of the world.

Malay traders hunt birds of paradise

More people had more money to spend in Europe. One of the Portfolio
.first impacts was fashion. European women (and some men) possibility
used feathers in their hats. Bird of paradise feathers became a Researchthe history of bird
source of pride from around 1850 to 1910. The demand for bird paradise feathers in your a
of paradise feathers brought Indonesian traders (called Malay • Is there any information
traders because there was no Indonesia then). They came to about trade?
New Guinea for feathers. They may have introduced plants
• Look at the illegal trade
like lima beans and bixa (a plant with a hard red seed for making in these feathers and
red dye). birds today, especially in
The bird of paradise feather trade slowed after 1910. Finally Indonesia. Compare this
people started to realise that all those feathers were destroying with the past.
the birds.
 /
I

Bird of Paradise. Whalers brought disease to some small islands that nearly destroyed
populations.
Establishment of Missions - a timeline
1871 London Missionary
Other contacts before colonisation
Society IProtestant) In the period from 1800 to 1875, we can list at least four more
on Papuan Coast
groups or types of people arriving on the coasts of Papua New
1875 Methodist mission
in New Ireland- ·Guinea besides bird of paradise hunters:
New Britain
1 Early adventurers, scientists and explorers.
1882 Sacred Heart Catholic
Mission in Rabaul
2 Whalers, who were collecting whale oil for lighting homes
and oiling the machinery of the Industrial Revolution; their
1885 Sacred Heart Catholic business ended with the discovery and use of petroleum and
Mission on Yule Island petroleum products.

Lutheran mission
3 Labour recruiters, called black birders, who signed people
1886
around Finschhafen up to work on plantations.

4 Missionaries. The earliest missionaries came to Woodlark

1887 Lutheran mission
in Madang Island in 1847. These Catholic missions failed and were gone
by 1852. Mission activity did little until after 1875 and the
1891 Anglican mission start of colonialism.
in Milne Bay

Missionaries
1896 Society of the Divine
Word Catholic Colonisation and missionary activity started close together.
mission in Madang The missionaries were all Christian. The very first Papua New
1908 Seventh Day Adventist Guineans to become Christians were 14 children that Captain
mission in Port Moresby
Torres took to the Philippines from Mailu Island. These children
were baptised as Catholics in Manila. Some may have gone to
1914 Evangelical Alliance
in Manus Spain. None of them ever returned home.

1932 Evangelical Alliance

in the Fly River
 " } "
V(j I '
r-,
!......_)

Portfolio possibility
Researchthe history of a mission in your
Missions are social forces. Write about the
changes that the mission has brought to yp r
area. Remember that many missions hav
become PapuaNew Guinean churches an
names have changed.You will need writte or
oral sources to find the history and chang a

German Lutheran missionaries arrived in 1896.

Colonisation
There were successful and unsuccessful attempts to colonise New Guinea. The Dutch had made the i st
formal land claims. They tried to follow this with settlement. The first attempt was Fort du Bus in 1828 at
Triton Bay. It failed and was abandoned in 1835. The Dutch had no permanent settlement until the 18 Os on
the Dutch side of New Guinea.
There were various colonial schemes and plans from groups in Queensland and New South Wales in
Most of these also failed. In 1880 a French nobleman, the Marquis de Rays, tried to start a colony in
Ireland. He called the place New France. He convinced over 300 Italians to start the settlement.
third of them died. They had little food and malaria was a big problem.
surviving colonists eventually reached Australia.

German New Guinea

German traders became active in the
Pacific from about 1850 on. The demand
for copra was growing in Europe and this
drove trading in the Pacific Islands. The
Germans established a colony on the
north side of New Guinea in 1884. This
was a business and it was established by
businessmen. They hoped to profit from
copra, tobacco and other tropical products.
The business did not work well. Twice
the German government had to take over.
The last time was in 1898. It stayed in
Colonists were promised 20 hectares of good land in New France.
German government hands until the picture shows "virgin forest" on New Ireland ready for colonisati
First World War.
The German colonial headquarters were at Habaul. From here they administered German New Gui
Caroline Islands, the Mariana Islands and the Marshall Islands.
 The German government had to provide a lot of extra money to help the German New
Guinea colony. One reason was that the local people did not want to work for the
German New Guinea Company. They had no reason or incentive. Relations were often
poor between the Germans and the Papua New Guineans.
This happened in other colonies around the world too. A common solution was to
import labour. For example, in Fiji the British imported Indian labour. In German New
Guinea, the Germans imported Chinese labour. They were copying the Dutch, who did
the same in Indonesia.

Key term The German New Guinea Company brought indentured labour to New Guinea. They
indentured labour used Chinese workers on their copra and tobacco plantations. Later, when the colony
where workers was run by the German government, it allowed free migration of labour from China.
are bound by a Chinese originally settled around Rabaul and on the north coast of the mainland.
contract to work
for a certain time
period (from two
years to life);
similar to slave
labour

Hundreds of Chinese were indentured to work in British stamp issued in 1901.(How much does it
copra production in German New Guinea. tell of PNG history?)

Australian claims
The Dutch in the east and the Germans to the north worried Australia. Two of its
colonies tried to get what was left of Papua. In Australia, the Colony of Victoria wrote a
petition in 1878 asking to have New Guinea. They wanted to expand their landholdings.
The petition was denied. In 1883 the Colony of Queensland claimed the south part of
Papua that was not German or Dutch. Britain denied the claim at first.
The Australian colonies pushed Britain to act. Britain claimed the colony of British New
Guinea in 1884 with a base at Port Moresby. The British and Germans settled the
boundaries in 1886. Britain gave the administration of the colony to Australia in 1905. It
was renamed the Territory of Papua.
The early colonial Australians were concerned to do a better job with Papua than they
had with the Aboriginal peoples of Australia. The colonial government made laws to
protect traditional land ownership for most of the colony. They made it illegal to sell
alcohol to Papua New Guineans. They thought this would be good for people. At the
same time, the colonists used alcohol freely for themselves. It was often illegally traded
with locals and was used in the sex trade.
 /

Boundary
changes
territory

D British

D German

~ Dutch

D Papua

D UN Trust
i
i
boundary • I i
territorial
district
t\ L._._._._._._._._.~.~._.~~.~.f:J
the scale of these four maps is 'l: 20 000 000
l,
province
international

Territorial changes in PNG.

The early Australian colony had copra and rubber plantations functioning by 1900. Earlier, gold was
Port Moresby, and gold mining in some of the rivers was an important activity. There were gold finds i
islands around Milne Bay also. Despite this, like the German colony to the north, the Australian colon
little money.

Gold mining and production of copra (dried coconut meat) were important activities in colonial New Guinea.

[I Discover
Just before the First World War started (1914), New Guinea was divided into three European colonies.

a What was the situation at that time 7

b What changes had started?

2 What were the social forces doing (for example, missionaries and colonial government)?

3 What were the economic forces doing (for example, plantations, loss of some land, introduction of t ms to
replace locally made items)?

4 What other forces started to change PNG history? What about new agricultural plants and animals7
 THE WORLD WARS IN PAPUA NEW
GUINEA
The First World War
Did you know?
The First World War began in 1914 and
The FirstWorld War ended in 1918. Most of the fighting and
can alsobe called
destruction was in Europe. Many of the
or written asWorld
War I, WWI, or military forces were European. It was
World War One. called a world war because there were
military forces also from other continents,
including from:
• the USA
• Canada
• Australia
• New Zealand
• Japan

• Turkey.
Memorial to Niueans who fought in the First World
There were also recruits from colonial
War.
areas in Africa, Asia and the Pacific.
War has existed for a long time. Humans and ants are the two species best known
for war. Both species use organised violence. People (not ants) have learned how to
increase that violence. They have used technology and human organisation to expand
the impacts of war. The First World War involved many new deadly technologies. Most
were products of the Industrial Revolution. These included:
• aircraft for bombing cities
• machine guns
• tanks
• barbed wire defences
• submarines
• poison gas used on an industrial scale.
Two of the main enemies were the British
and the Germans. Each side could lose
thousands of men in every battle. In
the worst case, the British had 70 000
casualities on a single day of battle.

FirstWorldWardestruction.
The First World War was supposed to be a short war. The military, politicians and planners thought it
over in months. It lasted for years. Around 20 million people were killed. It created many changes to
It destroyed the Ottoman Empire based in Turkey. It changed the colonial powers in parts of the
showed colonial people how to organise and led to some early independence movements.

The First World War and t

Guinea colonies
Great Britain asked for help from
the First World War. The Japan
attacked the German navy in the
Japan captured some small Pacifi
colonies from Germany. This
Japanese expand in the Pacific.
would have liked to take German

that this territory became an

responsibility.
At the start of the First World
Australian troops leave Sydney in August 1914to fight in German New
Guinea. Guinea. The Australian troops
captured and occupied German New Guinea. There was very little fighting. The only shooting took
outside of Rabaul. About 30 Papua New Guineans died fighting for the Germans. One German offi
Australians died. This happened on 11 September 1914.
Shortly after this, an Australian submarine disappeared near the Duke of York Islands. No one knows
happened. The 35-man Australian crew were the next war casualities.

Germans evaded capture

One German survey group was on the mainland when the war
started. The leader was Hermann Detzner, a surveyor and officer
in the German colonial security force. He refused to surrender..
He evaded capture for the whole war with a small group of
Germans and locals.
He did surrender at the end of the war. He returned to
Germany as a hero. The Germans had lost the war, but they were
proud of Detzner and his small group. Detzner wrote a history
of his adventures during the war. Later much of the information
proved to be false and he had to admit his work was mainly
fiction.

Colonial business continued as normal until the end of the war. German civilians were allowed to K"""'JII\Nr:

on their plantations throughout the war. Then the businesses were all taken away from them. The I
made to suffer many losses at the end of the war.
 First World War-a timeline
August The First World War begins.
1914 Japan joins Britain against the Germans.

September Japanese troops take German territories in China.

1914 Australian troops capture German colonial headquarters and radio
transmitter at Rabaul (this is the only fighting in Papua New Guinea).
October Japan's navy takes German Pacific Island territories north of
1914 the equator.

1914
German colonists keep working and owning businesses as before.
to 1918

November The First World War ends with Britain, France, Italy and the USA
1918 winning against Germany and others.

June The Treaty of Versailles aims for permanent peace; Australia is given a
1919 League of Nations Mandate over German New Guinea; Japan is given
a Mandate over the German island territories that today are called the
Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Northern Mariana
Islands and Palau.

Key terms
From 1920 to the Second World War
mandate an Australia was granted a mandate by the League of Nations to run what had been
official command German New Guinea after the First World War. This was part of the Treaty of Versailles
or instruction from at the end of the war. The League of Nations was created after the war to bring peace
an authority
League of Nations
to the world. Australia had to report regularly to the League of Nations on how it was
international developing what was called "the Territory of New Guinea".
organisation
The Germans had often forced the local people to work for them and used a harsh
formed after the
-First World War system. This changed somewhat. The Australians took away all the German plantations
to promote peace and other businesses in the Mandated Territory. Papua and New Guinea were governed
between countries separately. This arrangement continued until after the Second World War.

TheTreatyof Versailleswas signedon 28 June 1919.

I
\

People continued to explore the interior

of the mainland. German missionaries
were probably the first to know about the
large Highlands populations. Government
patrols and gold prospectors further
established contact with the Highlands
peoples in the 1920s and 1930s. Soon
people from the Highlands were migrating
to plantations to work, and then to urban
centres. One of the first Highlands
resources to be exploited was labour.

r:J Discuss
1 Do you know a first contact story? Share
any stories you know with your class.

Opening the Highlands was a major

landmark in Papua New Guinea history.
The first outsiders walked in. Very soon
they were using aircraft to explore the
landscapes.
The other major event that took place in
the inter-war years was gold mining in
the Wau Bulolo area of what is Morobe
today. Again aircraft played a vital role. By
1929-1930, New Guinea had some of the
busiest air traffic in the world. Aeroplanes First contact events became common in the Highlands during the
Many were peaceful but some were not.
transported miners and mining equipment
to the goldfields and took the gold and miners out. There is very little today left to show for this busy

Portfolio
possibility
Researchwhat happened in
area between the First World
the Second World War.You ca
for:
• objects
• ruins
• people and their stories
• secondary sources
A gold dredge once served by busy airlines in Bulolo. • other information.
 The Second World War
The end of the First World War planted the seeds for the Second World War. The
winners of the First World War had different ideas about peace.
The major players were the USA, Britain and France. The President of the USA wanted
a system to stop future wars. The idea was to create a League of Nations. This
was something like the United Nations today. Britain and France wanted to weaken
Germany. They insisted that Germany pay for all the damage done by the war. This
debt made life very difficult for the Germans.
There were good economic times in the 1920s, but this ended in 1929. Economic
Key terms markets crashed in the USA and Europe. This period is called the Great Depression
Great Depression and it lasted for 10 years.
a period of
severeeconomic The Great Depression resulted in
hardship for much Germany being crushed by debt. A lot of
of the world from
the population became open to extreme
1929 until the late
1930s ideas. The National Socialist Party (also
dictatorship a called Nazis) gained strength because
government under of the difficult economic situation. They
the control of a
never had an absolute majority. Thev
single leader or
political party gained power with about 45% of the
population's backing. Adolf Hitler led the
Nazis. His aims included:
• rebuild Germany and German pride
• start a dictatorship
• rebuild the German military Adolf Hitler represented extreme views that led to
war and destruction.
• conquer land for Germany
• enslave and exterminate what he thought were lesser people in Europe: Jews,
Slavs, Seventh Day Adventists, gypsies and people with mental disabilities.
The German government declared Hitler the Dictator of Germany in 1933. He started
the Second World War in 1939.

C Discuss and respond

In small groups, discuss the following questions:
a How did the punishment given to Germany for starting the First World War lead to the
Second World War?

b Did a cycle of violence make war inevitable in Europe?

2 Franceand Germany had a war in 1870.The Germans won and took some Frenchlands.
The Frenchfelt very bad about losing.They had the chance for vengeance at the end of
the First World War in 1918. How similar is this to paybackin PapuaNew Guinea?
! )\
I

/ /~1\

3 Exterminate means "to kill all" Planningto exterminate different peoples is extreme. How could a bad e
situation (such as that in Germany after the First World War) lead people to accept this?

11Investigate
1 Use a survey to investigate what people in your area think about the idea of payback. Is it a good way 0
disputes or does it just create more trouble? With your teacher, decide how to approachthis exercise a
how many people to survey and how you will gather the information. (See page 321 for help with creati
survey.)

2 Find out about histories of payback in your region What happened, and what were the consequences?
3 Collate your results and write a short report on local attitudes to payback.

4 In class, discuss and compare the histories of paybackin your local area and world examples.

5 What conclusions do you come to? What ways do you see to stop cycles of violence?

The First World War winners expand their colonies

After the First World War, Britain, the USA and Japan took over
German colonies in the Pacific. Japan gained a number of small
Pacific islands. This added to the territory it already had in Korea
and China. But Japan had been stopped by the USA and Europe
from taking more of China while fighting was going on in the
First World War. Japan felt very unhappy about this.
It continued to build military strength and occupied Manchuria
in north-east China in 1931. The Japanese leaders wanted to
become a colonial empire like Britain and France. Japan's military
government pledged allegiance to the Emperor of Japan. They
also believed in racial superiority and a harsh military approach.
What hurt the Japanese was that they were not considered
equals with Europeans (including Americans and Australians).
The British, Americans and Australians had stopped the right of
racial equality being written into the constitution of the League
of Nations in 1919.

The Great Depression that started in 1929 caused many people to have no work. This made it easi
them to accept extreme ideas. Both Japan and Germany looked for military solutions to their prob
That is, both wanted to conquer more land and peoples to build their nation's wealth.
Industrialists are the people who owned the factories. Many industrialists combined with the mil'
and government leaders in Japan and Germany to reduce people's rights, destroy democracy and
the countries' leaders to take their nations to war.
War in the Pacific
You need to understand some of Japan's history to understand how it came to invade Papua New Guinea in
the Second World War.
Japan had a long line of emperors and a tradition of independence for about 1700 years. It built a culture and
civilisation based on rice. China tried to invade Japan several times long ago, but it never succeeded.
Like Papua New Guinea, Japan was first visited by Europeans from Portugal. Starting in the 1500s, the
Portuguese had trading stations with Japan for about 100 years. The Portuguese acted as middlemen in trade
between China and Japan. This was because the two states had been fighting. At the same time, Portuguese
missionaries converted some Japanese people to Christianity.
Japanese authorities began to fear
European influence in the early 1600s. The
authorities saw Christianity as a threat to
their traditional politics and way of life.
To them it was a dangerous social force,
along with other European ideas and trade.
They thought that the next step after
the missionaries and traders would be a
military invasion. The Japanese attacked
the Portuguese and closed the country's
ports to almost all European trade. They
crucified about 300 Christian converts and
stopped missionary activity. They isolated
themselves for over 250 years. Memorial to 26 Christians crucified in Nagasaki, Japan, in 1597.

~ Do, think and decide

1 In groups, compare Japan's first contact with Europeanswith PapuaNew Guinea's first contact with Europeans.
Hecord similarities and differences between the two experiences in a table.

2 What different forces brought Japanese and Europeanstogether and what forces kept them apart?

3 a Were the Japanese correct to kick out the Portuguese?

b How might history be different if they had not?

Debate
Form two teams in class and debate these statements: "Christianity and European trade would not have
hurt the Japaneseif they had let the Portuguesestay after 1600" vs "The Japanesesaved their
independence by cutting ties with the West."

Japan modernises
In 1854 the US navy, under Commodore Matthew Perry, forced Japan to open up its ports to trade. European
ideas started to influence Japanese thinking. The result was the Meiji Restoration in 1868. Different parts
of Japanese society fought each other. At the end, the Emperor was much stronger
and supported by a strong military. Over time, the military became the real power in
government.
The government of Japan promoted Japanese nationalism. You might call this the
Japanese Way. Japan saw European colonisation around Asia and felt threatened. It
wanted to protect itself and to expand The idea was to build a ring of defences outside
Japan. This meant taking other people's territories.
It did this first by winning a war with China (1894-95). This Chinese-Japanese war
gave Japan the possession of Taiwan and some other small Chinese territories. Then it
defeated Russia in a war from 1904-1905. This secured its influence over Korea. It also
entered into an alliance with Britain. This is the reason it fought with Britain in the First
World War. This alliance ended in 1923 when the British would not recognise Japan as
a racial equal in the League of Nations.
Japan continued to take more and more
of China. They invaded Manchuria in
1931, then bombed Shanghai in 1937 and
attacked the city, killing many civilians.
This started all-out war between China
and Japan. Both sides claimed that the
other was doing terrible things. Certainly
the Japanese military treated the Chinese
very badly. Many Chinese were brutally
killed, including civilians. Japanese soldiers fighting in Japan's 1894 war with China.

Germany, Italy and Japan combine

Germany and Italy both saw Japan as a military success. They entered into alliances
with Japan in the 1930s. In the Pacific, the USA had worked to limit Japanese military
strength from the 1920s on. Again, the Japanese saw this as trying to keep them weak.
Japan resented the USA limiting their expansion into China and the Pacific.

Why didn't other nations stop Japan, Germany

and Italy when they started invading other
countries?
The First World War was a terrible conflict. Millions of people died. It was supposed
to be the "war to end all wars". Many Americans and Europeansdid not want another
war. In the 1920s groups went to all US public schools to talk against war and the
waste of lives in the First World War. Public opinion in the USA and Britain was
against war.
This is the reason that the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy and Japan)were allowed to
expand in the 1930s. But both Britain and the USA had limits.
 Germany invaded Belgium and France in 1939. Britain went to war to stop the invasion.
Key terms
Very quickly most of Europe was at war. The two groups fighting were called the Allies
Allies the countries
and the Axis. The major powers of the Allies in 1939 were Britain and France. There
that fought against
German, Italian _. were manv other minor Allied powers such as the Netherlands, Poland, New Zealand
and Japanese' . and Australia. The Axis started with Germany, Italy and Japan, and other minor powers,
expansion in'the such as Austria. The Soviet Union fought with Germany to start with. Germany and the
SecondWorld War
Soviet Union attacked and divided Poland between them.
Axis the'countries
that supported, Two years later, alliances changed. Germany attacked the Soviet Union. So the Soviet
German, Italian Union joined the Allies. Japan attacked the USA, so the USA formally joined the Allies.
ami Japanese
expansion in the. Up till then the USA had been supporting them with war materials.
SecondWorld War
J~pan attacks the USA
'" -
Japan' attacked the United States at Pearl
Harbour, Hawaii, on 7 December 1941.
Why? '.
The military was in charge of the
Japanese government. Military success
made some Japanese very confident. The
US government had stopped different
kinds of trade with Japan as it invaded
more and more of China. Eventually it
insisted that Japan stop invading China or A US battleship burning during the attack on Pearl
Harbour.
it would block oil purchases. In 1941 the
USA produced much of the world's oil.

@ "Give New Guinea to Japa'n"

III One idea came fro~ a US official to stop war and the invasion of China by Japan.
f This 'was to give japan the island of New Guinea. The Dutch and Australian colonial
- p powers did not think
!J .
it was a very good idea. '
What do you think would have happened if New Guinea had been given to Japan?
What would have happened to the Melanesian peoples? Would Japan have stopped
fighting, or would there still have been war? And who would have been fighting?

The most important item for Japan was oil, but the USA stopped the Japanese
purchasing it. The oil in Japan started to run out. Indonesia also produced oil, but it was
a Dutch colony. '
Japan decided it must have the oilfields in Indonesia. It thought the USA would block
this, so it decided to attack .the USA first.
The Japanese military thought that a "slap in the face" would subdue the USA. The
man who led the attack was Admiral Yamamoto. He had spent time in the USA. He
was against war with the USA. But Japan's Prime Minister Tojo and other militarists
I thought the USA would not be a big problem. They also thought that Germany and Italy

I
\\

would win in Europe. And they had signed an agreement with the Soviet Union not to fight each
,
Over 350 Japanese aircraft attacked Pearl Harbour. They bombed the American navy and army bases
island. They sank or damaged most of the ships in the harbour. Four battleships were sunk and four
They also destroyed 188 American aircraft.
Panic and fury followed in the United States. American citizens who were ethnic Japanese were ta
their homes and businesses to camps. They were kept in these camps throughout the war. The USA
the war on the side of the Allies.
The Japanese military moved to capture
more colonies. They had already taken New York--~-Telegram
........._. __ _- ..
part of Vietnam from the French. 1.o<N'_' !..iIII'_"""I&II~_"'IJoltlnIr ....,..,.1<aoII_il>.JUtI>I.:_<IOoIIIJWl<!_"'<Ioou!q._~,_,.

Japanese forces also moved against the

American military in the Philippines (a
US colony), Guam, Wake and what is
now Kiribati. They captured the British
colonies of Malaya (present-day Malaysia)
and Hong Kong. They also came to an
agreement with Thailand to have troops
there.
- The Japanese then moved to attack
Singapore and easily captured it by 15
February 1942. They had destroyed British
power in South-East Asia.

;::::::J! d)
Kavieng
MANUS
Murik
Lakes 0'

I
MADANG
i-
I
-. ~Telefomin
-._ Mount Madang <;0
Hagen
-,
• ,~oroka. BOUGAINVILL~'· ._
Iorokina .
I , '" ,,-"
-, Salamaua
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I
I
PAPUA
".,~au •
.>:

• Daru
Torres Strait

Areas under Japaneseinfluence

at some stage during 1942-45
CORAL SEA

The Japanese controlled a lot of Papua New Guinea during the Second World War.
 Papua New Guinea becomes part of the
battleground
In January 1942, Papua New Guinea was
brought directly into the war. Japanese
forces captured Rabaul in New Britain on
23 January 1942. They wanted the big
harbour as a base Tor their navy. They
quickly turned Rabaul into a major military
base. This base was to protect their newly
captured oilfields in Indonesia.
From here they moved to take more land
in the Solomon Islands and mainland PNG.
From the sea, they started bombing raids
Japanese troops in Rabaul.
on Darwin.
The Japanese forces arrived on the mainland on 6 March 1942 at Lae. This was a
small force to start with. More Japanese followed, landing at Aitape and Wewak. The
Australian officials had fled. New Guinea and the Solomon Islands provided the outward
defence for the Japanese. They saw the islands like a wall to protect the oil and other
resources in South-East Asia.

C Discuss
1 How can land and communities be considered" a wall for protection"?

Key term The Japanese on the mainland of PNG started as small holding forces. The Japanese
holding force a plan was to capture Port Moresby by sea. This meant sending Japanese ships from
military unit that is Rabaul and Truk (now called Chuuk) to attack Port Moresby. The Japanese planned
strong enough to
to use Port Moresbv as a base from which fCJbomb north Queensland. With Port
hold on to a piece.
of territory Moresby in Japanese hands, Australia and New Zealand would be cut off from America.
Then Australia (and New Zealand) would have to ask for peace or Japan could invade
Australia.

The Battle of the Coral Sea

The Japanese invasion of the Pacific had been very quick, from December 1941 to May
1942. Their navy and army forces had moved thousands of kilometres. The Japanese
seemed unstoppable. They had won battle after battle. This all changed with the Battle
of the Coral Sea.
The Battle of the Coral Sea was the first battle in naval history where the enemy ships
Key term
never saw each other. The battle was really between aeroplanes based on aircraft
aircraft carrier a
ship that carries carriers. The American naval forces lost one aircraft carrier and two other ships in the
fighter aircraft battle. These were sunk by Japanese aeroplanes. The Japanese lost one smaller aircraft
carrier and had one of their aircraft carriers damaged.

~)
A US aircraft carrier after being attacked by Japanese aircraft.

The Japanese losses were enough to make them turn back to Rabaul. The invasion by sea had been "'TC)nrIOfl

This left the Japanese with only four aircraft carriers for its next attack in the Pacific. That was at M
Island, far from PNG. The Japanese lost there. The links between the Allies had not been broken.

II Discover
Here are coordinates for where some of the Coral Sea air attacks on ships took place. Locate them on
(Refer back to page 12 in Unit 1 to remind yourself how to do this.)
a 8 S 155°E
0

b 15°S 156°E

2 How far apart would these coordinates be?

Kokoda
Defeat in the Coral Sea led directly to
Kokoda. The Japanese planners decided
to attack Port Moresby from the land.
They would need to cross the Owen
Stanley Range to do this. There were
several trails or tracks they could have
used. The simplest seemed to be the N
Kokoda track. Neither the Japanese nor
the Americans understood how difficult
this mountain trail is.
o
t 50

The KokodaTrack
In July 1942, Japanese troops started from Buna on the north coast. They were ambushed by soldiers of the
Papuan Infantry Battalion on 23 July 1942, This was the start of the Kokoda conflict. Japanese troops pushed
forward along the track from late July until 17 September, They faced Australian troops supported by Papua
New Guineans.
The problem with the Kokoda Track was supplies. The Japanese were good jungle fighters. They kept pushing the
Australians back toward Port Moresby. At first the Australians had very limited supplies. It was too hard to carry
much on the track. The Japanese had more supplies. But their supplies ran low as they got close to Port Moresby.
The Australians stopped at Imita Ridge with the Japanese on Mount loribaiwa. On the map it was only two
kilometres to Imita and six from there to the road to Port Moresby. But on the ground it was too hard. The
Japanese had to retreat.

PNG battles against the

Japanese-a timeline
January 1942 Rabaul

May 1942 Coral Sea

July to
Kokoda Track
November 1942
August-
Milne Bay
September 1942

November 1942 Gona

December 1942 Buna

January 1943 Wau

March 1943 Bismarck Sea

Salamaua One history lesson of the Kokoda Track is about supplies, transport and
September 1943 geography.
Lae
September- Sattleberg
October 1943 Finschhafen

December 1943 Arawe

January-April
Finisterre
1944
Los Negros
February 1944
(near Manus)
Hollandia (now
April 1944
called Jayapura)

May 1944 Biak

Aitape
September 1944
Sepik

March 1944-
Bougainville Japanese tanks destroyed at the Battle of Milne Bay.
August 1945
 The Battle of Milne Bay I
. Fighting continued at Kokoda during the battle of Milne Bay. The Americans and Australians had bro
the Japanese secret code. They knew the Japanese would attack. The Allies built an airstrip and sen
troops to Milne Bay. They had about 9000 troops, mostly Australians supported by American engine
Japanese landed a smaller force that came close to capturing the airfield, but failed.
Fighting took place from 25 to 31 August 1942. The beaten Japanese then started to retreat. Only h
Japanese force survived. The Battle of Milne Bay was the first Allied land victory against the Japanes
the war began. I
I
Slow defeat for Japan
The battles that followed all ended in defeat for the Japanese. Many people would still die before th
fighting stopped. The Japanese had six months of victories. Then they had four years of defeats. Th finally.
surrendered in September 1945.
After Kokoda, they continued to defend positions on the north coast of PNG.
By 1943 the Allies understood that fighting in New Guinea was like fighting on the sea. Roads and t ~(l:kscould
not be counted on. Air power was very important. It allowed the attacker to move over the rainfores ~st
like the sea. Like battles at sea, islands could be left for later. The Allies did not bother with a major ttack on
Rabaul. They simply worked to cut it off.
Both sides bombed each other. Japanese attacks included Allied airfields at Hagen, Bena Bena, Wa nd
Salamaua in 1943. The American and Australian forces got stronger and stronger. The Japanese air 0 ces got
weaker and weaker.
Fighting did not stop in Papua New Guinea until the war ended. In 1944 and 1945 much of the fighti was left
to the Australians. Many people asked why they had to fight. The Japanese could have been left ala .. They
were trapped and had few supplies.

Portfolio possibility
Follow up on any of the battles in the timeline or others near your
local area to write the PNGversion of the Second World War.

Papua New Guineans in the Second World War

The fighters
You remember that before the Second World War, Australia
administered the mandated Territory of New Guinea as well as
the Territory of Papua. It was illegal to raise troops in New Guinea
under the League of Nations' rules. It was not illegal in Papua. Portfolio
Australia could see war drawing close. It created the Papuan possibility
Infantry Battalion in 1940. These were the first to engage the
Japanese on the mainland. Soon, the battalion was divided into or crashed military aircraft
much smaller units. These units were attached to Australian and local area.
American forces. They worked as guides, scouts and snipers.
 Labourers and carriers
Key term Most Papua New Guineans who worked for the Allies were carriers and labourers.
colonials They had to work very hard and got very little pay. Most of them came under ANGAU
Austral ians
working in the (the Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit). It was in charge of land and labour for
colon ies/territories the military. It used colonials, who could be very hard on PNG carriers and workers.
of Papua and New Whipping was a common punishment. There appear to have been summary executions
Guinea
and other grave violations of human rights. Many carriers ran away. Some were caught
and others spent the war hiding in the bush.
The Japanese used Papua New Guineans as carriers and labourers too. Sometimes
they had them as scouts but gave them no formal military training. Like the Australian
ANGAU, the Japanese military police had Papua New Guinean helpers. These police
and helpers have also been accused of war crimes, including murder.

Members of the' Papuan Infantry Battalion being drilled in Port What can you tell about these Papua New Guinean carriers and
Moresby, January 1941. their wounded Second World War soldier?

Police
Both New Guinea and Papua had police forces before the Second World War. Papua
New Guineans in these forces helped the Australians. Some of them were involved in
the fighting.
Papua New Guinea police and others helped the coastwatchers. This was a very
dangerous job. They were behind enemy lines spying on troop and ship movements.
Many Papua New Guinea police also served in ANGAU. At times, like their colonial
masters, they treated other Papua New Guineans very badly.

Ordinary people
For many Papua New Guineans, the war added danger and hardship. Village people
could be caught in fighting they had nothing to do with. Some were bombed and
strafed (shot at) by aircraft. Sometimes it was by mistake. Sometimes it was for
punishment for helping the enemy. Traditional skills allowed many to survive when food
and medicine became scarce.
Around Rabaul, violence increased between the pro-Japanese and pro-Australian
Papua New Guineans. The fighting was along the lines of old traditional enemies. (This
happened in many other places, for example, Timor.)
War brought many new experiences. People saw American troops and Australian
troops who often treated them much better than ANGAU. Some Papua New Guineans
travelled much more than ever before. They began to understand more about the
world. These can be seen as benefits that some people received from the war.

II Investigate
1 What do the older members of your
family or community remember about Portfolio \
the Second World War? Arrange to possibility
interview one person about what they
Search out the history of Papua
experienced.
New Guineans during the Second
2 If no one you know went through the war World War in your area.
themselves, they may still have stories
about what the war was like for their
parents. Find out whatever you can.

3 Give an oral report to the class about what you discover.

~-'t"a;~.ir~)lilfr.

Debate
Form two teams in class and debate these statements: "The Second World War
had 40 million casualties and nothing can justify this as a benefit" vs "The Second
World War had costs in lives and treasure just like all human activities as well
as having benefits."

The end of the Second World War

The Second World War ended in Europe in May 1945. Europe had always been the first
priority. The Allies provided more men and material to fight in Europe. The war in the
Pacific continued until September 1945.
The Japanese knew they were losing. They kept on fighting to save face. The leaders
would not stop. The Americans planned to invade Japan. They estimated the invasion
would cost around 160000 Allied casualities and a minimum of one million Japanese
lives.
Instead, the invention of the atomic bomb stopped the war. The USA was already
firebombing Japanese cities and had killed an estimated 450 000 civilians. America
dropped two atomic bombs on Japan in August 1945. The first was on Hiroshima and
the second was on Nagasaki Both cities were destroyed. Some 150 000 people died
and many more were injured. Others died later.
 This forced the Japanese military and the Emperor to surrender. The official ceremony
took place on an American battleship on 2 September 1945. Australians received the
Japanese surrender of Rabaul on 12 September 1945.

Nuclear weapons unleash the forces ofthe sun. Nagasaki after the second atomic bomb.

Debate
Form two teams in class and debate these statements: "The atomic bomb caused
terrible civilian casualties and never should have been used" vs "The atomic bomb
was the best way to quickly end the pain and suffering of war."

Changes for PNG from the Second World War

Papua New Guinea experienced major changes because of the Second World War.
Below are five important ones.
1 The nuclear age. The world changed forever at the close of the Second World War.
The nuclear age had started. The first atomic bombs were very small compared with
the nuclear weapons that followed. There have been many wars since the Second
World War, but there has been no Third World War. This is because a total war with
nuclear weapons would destroy the world.

Key term The introduction of nuclear weapons changed the strategic value of Papua New
strategic value the Guinea. During the Second World War, Papua New Guinea was strategically
value of something important. Japan saw it as a wall to protect the valuable resources of South-East
for advancing a Asia from the Allies. PNG remains important strategically, but it is not as important
strategyor plan
in the nuclear age.
2 The end of the colonial age. The second major change of both the First World
War and the Second World War was to end the colonial age. The Japanese invasion
strengthened freedom movements in Asia. The colonial powers were soon swept
away. The wave of independence and anti-colonialism continued into the Pacific.
PNG was one of a number of Pacific island states given independence without a
fight.

3 Overseas assistance. The third major change for PNG directly from the Second
World War is the idea of overseas assistance. World leaders had learned the
lesson from the First World War. Payback only leads to more war and violence. The
winners of the Second World War helped the losers to become strong again.

The USA occupied Japan and helped introduce a new constitution and democracy.
It provided food-aid to stop people from starving and loans to begin rebuilding the
country. It did not put the Emperor on trial for war crimes and kept the royal family in
a symbolic role. Japan gave up militarism. It has been a peaceful nation ever-since.

When the war ended in Europe, many people were starving. They soon faced a
terrible winter. The Marshall Plan provided assistance to Europe after the Second
World War. It was carried out by the USA. It helped all the countries that had
not become communist satellites of the Soviet Union. It helped both the losers
and some of the winners. Just like aid today, it helped with food, fuel, materials,
machinery, loans and advisers.

The success of the Marshall Plan and the development of Japan led directly to ideas
about overseas assistance. This is the foundation that development assistance
started from.

The Marshall Plan helped rebuild Europe after the Second World War.
It helped former enemies and friends, but not the communist countries.
The "hot" war was over, but a "cold" war without fighting was starting.
4 One country. The Second World War had authorities finally combine Papua and New Guinea into one
administration. This created the base for the independent nation.

5 The United Nations. The League of Nations failed after the First World War. A new organisation to help
world peace was set up after the Second World War. This is the United Nations. It works for decolonisation
and the development of countries. It has had some successes and some failures. It has not stopped wars.
But it continues as the international body where countries can bring international problems and try to solve
them. Papua New Guinea joined the United Nations once it became independent.

C Discuss Portfolio possibility

1 What other changes can you think of that took place Researchand document changes that came after
in PNG as a result of the Second World War? the Second World War in your local area.
How were these changes connected with the war?
Peace
War is interesting and did bring changes to Papua New Guinea, but peace is most important. The end of the
Second World War saw people longing for peace. Creating the United Nations was one expression of the
world wanting peace
Peace, however, did not happen. Many small wars
continue to this day. Rifles and pistols kill as many
people as HIV/AIDS and other diseases. There is
conflict over land, religion, politics and economic
opportunity.
Germans and Japanese now enjoy a peaceful life.
They lost the war. This forced their societies to
change. They have found peace.

Portfolio possibility
The study of peace and conflict is the basis Germany today.
for a number of institutions around the
world. Peopleare still looking for answers:
• How do we stop war and armed
conflict?
• How do we make peace and keep
\.
peace?
. These are two vital questions for the
future. There are no simple answers. You
might start by answering them for Papua
New Guinea. How will you create a safe
and peaceful society? Think of what you
can do, working alone or in groups.
• Japan today.
ASSESSMENT
Assessment task one: short-answer testing
Assessment task one is short answer testing. There are four parts to this unit. Your
teacher may decide to give you a ten-mark test on each part. The teacher may divide
the unit and test in other ways.
(40 marks)
How can I do well on this assessment?
Material to help you write short answers is in the text and in anything else the teacher
gives you. Study it carefully.
Here are eleven practice questions. There are some ideas about answers after the
questions. Cover these up and write your own answers. Then compare your answers
with the answers in the book. Discuss with your friends for more complete answers
and make up your own questions to practise with each other.
1 How many different forces can you find in Papua New Guinea's history? List them.
Write a sentence about each.

2 What role did pigs play in the history of Papua New Guinea?

3 Explain a social force in the history of Papua New Guinea before European contact.

4 Explain a social force in the history of Papua New Guinea after European contact.

5 Explain how you judge a source when you study history. You can use examples
from your own local work if you want to.

6 Explain the difference between a primary and a secondary source.

7 Write a paragraph on the impacts of the Second World War on the people of Papua
New Guinea.

8 Compare early agriculture in Papua New Guinea with agriculture in colonial times.

9 Divide the history of Papua New Guinea into ages and explain what each age covers.
Do this to the present.

10 Outline the history of mining in Papua New Guinea.

11 How can history itself be a social force?

COVER UP BELOW WITH YOUR HAND.

First, try to answer the questions above by yourself. Then consider these ideas in
answering the questions.
1 • Social forces. This is where parts of society help make history and change the way
people live.
• Economic forces. These are how people use and trade resources.
 • Environmental forces Climate and weather, for example, can change the way people
live; drought can weaken a society; people must adapt to climate (so, for example, the
Highlands and the Sepik have different histories of settlement and land clearing).
• Any other forces you think of.
2 Pigs started a new type of wealth. (Read the section on page 207 and use your own
knowledge.)

3 Think of the many Melanesian societies and how they work. All the parts of society
are social forces. Consider, for example, the role of women and what they did as a
group in Melanesian history; the role of a big man; the concept of payback.

4 Missionaries, whalers, miners and the colonial administration are all examples of
social forces after European contact.

5 Review the section on sources (pages 187-191) and the different ways to judge
them. Give examples from your experiences in making a portfolio.

6 A primary source is an eyewitness or document written at the time by an

eyewitness (a person who experienced the event). A secondary source comes
from someone who was not an eyewitness. For example, in Papua New Guinea a
storyteller may be a primary source if he or she was there to see the history happen.
Or he or she could be a secondary source, just repeating a story from someone
else, like the Time of Darkness stories from the Highlands.

7 Read the section on the Second World War (pages 226-240) and use your local
knowledge.

8 Early agriculture was invented by Papua New Guineans. The first evidence we
have is from the Highlands. All of Papua New Guinea practised agriculture before
Europeans. It developed into complex social systems. This continues until today in
many parts of the country and continues to develop and change. Europeans added
new plants and animals. They introduced plantations. This changed parts of PNG
societies.

9 No hints-you have to do it yourself, with your own reasons. So long as your

reasons are good, you should be able to answer this.

10 The first mines are thousands of years old. Obsidian was a mining product and it
was shipped to other places far from PNG. Colonial mining focused on gold. Much
of the wealth from colonial gold mining left PNG, but it did cause social changes
in PNG.

11 The way people see their history can impact present behaviour. Who owns land
is the best PNG example: how far back in history should ownership go? There are
many other examples you could find about how a view of history influences people.
This makes history a social force.
Assessment task two: historical investigations
portfolio
For assessment task two you will make a historical investigations portfolio. A portfolio
is a collection of papers, drawings or studies. It may have one or more studies in it. You
will need to make an agreed number of studies for your historical portfolio. Decide this
with your teacher. It may be one large connected study or several smaller studies.
(60 marks)
For students
Unit summary
Civics and citizenship is about you, your community
and your government. You will have the chance to
analyse topics on how government works and how
government should work. You will also come to see
the long history that you are part of in developing
democracy and citizens' rights. You will look at citizen
responsibilities too.
You will be introduced to how the law works and
how laws are made. This will give you an introduction
into how parliament and the courts of Papua New
Guinea work. Finally, you will explore the concept
of ethics in government. (If you are not sure what
"ethics" means, go to that section and you will soon
understand.)
For teachers
In this unit students will have the opportunity to:
./ understand the impact and consequences of
Papua New Guinea's Independence, starting in
1975 with a written Constitution for a law-based
society
,/ analyse the importance of democratic citizenship
and its long history that they inherit
./ better appreciate their rights and duties as citizens
of Papua New Guinea
./ analyse the election process at the national level
of government
,/ determine requirements for good leadership and
grapple with the difficulty of leaders making good
decisions
./ gain an introduction to the way the Papua New
Guinea Parliament and government work

./ gain an introductory grasp of the complexity of

law and order in Papua New Guinea

./ consider their own ethics and ethics in

government

./ revise to see how all these themes are connected.

Assessment for this unit is described at the end of

the unit .
./ Assessment task one-conduct a mock election
or hold a mock parliament

./ Assessment task two-develop a set of rules for

an organisation
Tradition is still very important in PNG civics and citizenship.
(Hiri Moale Festival, Central Province.)

244 Social Science Grade 9: Outcomes Edition

Links with other units and strands
The ideas of civics and citizenship have a link with many units as government is vital to much of s
and personal development.

Syllabus references
Students can:

9.4.1 apply social science skills to make sound or informed decisions

9.4.2 demonstrate an understanding of political systems in Papua New Guinea
Unit 4 Civics and citizenship will take 10 weeks to complete, including assessments. A suggested ti e is
shown below.

Modify materials, assignments and times as needed.

Week 1 Independence Week 6 Government

The Constitution The basic parts of government:
judiciarv, executive
Week 2 The citizen The three tiers of government: nati
A citizen's roles and responsibilities provincial, local
Getting citizenship The National Parliament
A brief history of citizenship Making laws in parliament
Ge-tting and spending money for
Week 3 Citizens' rights and.duties
The rights-of a PNG citizen Week 7 Assessment task one
Freedom in PNG Law and order
The full protection of the law Formal and informal laws
Your responsibilities as a citizen Types of law: customary law,
common law, constitutional law
Applying the law
Week 4 Elections: the roles of citizens and
Social contracts (modern and tradi
leaders
The right to vote and stand for public office
WeekS Law and order
Electoral processes: the Electoral Roll,
(continue Week 7 topics)
voting, adrninistration
Forming government: party coalitions,
Week 9 Ethics for government
Prime Minister and Cabinet
What are ethics?
Keeping government ethical
WeekS Being a leader
Improving ethics and fighting
Good leadership
Political leaders
Week 10 Revision
Decision-making and leadership ~
Assessment task two
-- >'0' ~.. .""1'1
INDEPENDENCE
Birth of a nation
Papua New Guinea became an independent state on 16
September 1975. That ended the colonial period for all people in
the new state. The people of PNG became citizens of a free and
independent state.

Lowering the Australian flag for the last time at Papua New Guinea Independence Day celebrations are held on 16
Independence Day ceremonies, 16 September 1975. September each year.

C Discuss and respond

1 In a small group discuss the questions below. Present a summary of your ideas in dot points. Be prepared to
justify these points to the whole class.

a What does the idea of independence mean to you?

b How much independence do you think you have at home, within your community and at school?

2 Write a paragraphon what Independence Day means to you. Consider:

• Is it just a holiday?
• What type of celebration is it?
• Is it an important enough event for the government to make it a public holiday?

IIInvestigate
1 After class, collect information from family and trusted friends who remember the first Independence Day.
You can do this as a small survey and put your answers in a table. Possiblequestions:

• What was that day like for them?

• What do they remember and how have things changed since?
• What do they think the biggest changes between 1975 and today are?
2 Report your findings back to the class.
The Constitution
Papua New Guinea's freedom and
independence are based on democratic
government. This type of government
works by the rule of law. At
Independence, the rule of law changed.
Some new rules started to apply. This
gave all Papua New Guineans new
freedoms and rights.
The Constitution is the written
foundation for governing Papua New
Guinea. The Constitution came into effect
beginning on Independence Day in 1975.
It is an essential document. It would be
impossible to have a modern democracy
without it. The Constitution is the basis
for:
The mosaic on the front of Parliament House in
• the rights and duties of Papua New Port Moresby quotes from the Constitution.
Guinea citizens and their representative
leaders
• the development of courts in Papua New Guinea (the judicial branch of government
that interprets law)
• the rights, duties and responsibilities of parliament (the law-making branch of
government)
• the executive branch of government (how the Prime Minister and Cabinet work)
• the electoral system
• the development of law in Papua New Guinea
• other special areas of government.

Debate
Form two teams in class and debate these statements: "It is not important for a nation
to have a written Constitution" vs "It is very important for a nation to have a written
Constitution ."
 The goals of Independence and modern democracy
for Papua New Guinea
The Constitution is a long document. Parts of the Constitution are complex. The start of the Constitution is
called the" Preamble". This sets out the goals for the nation. Here is the first part of the Preamble:

Adoption of the Constitution

WE, THE PEOPLEOF PAPUA NEW GUINEA
• united in one nation
• pay homage to the memory of our ancestors-the source of our strength and origin of our combined
heritage
• acknowledge the worthy customs and traditional wisdoms of our people-which have come down to us
from generation to generation
• pledge ourselves to guard and passon to those who come after us our noble traditions and the Christian
principles that are ours now.

By authority of our inherent right as ancient, free and independent peoples

I
WE, THE PEOPLE,do now establish this sovereign nation and declare ourselves, under the guiding hand of
God, to be the Independent State of Papua New Guinea.

AND WE ASSERT,by virtue of that authority

• that all power belongs to the people-acting through their duly elected representatives
• that respect for the dignity of the individual and community interdependence are basic principles of
our society
• that we guard with our lives our national identity, integrity and self respect
• that we reject violence and seek consensus as a means of solving our common problems
• that our national wealth, won by honest, hard work be equitably shared by all.

WE DO NOW THEREFOREDECLARE
that we, having resolved to enact a Constitution for the Independent State of PapuaNew Guinea
AND ACTING through our Constituent Assembly on 15 August 1975
HEREBYESTABLISH,ADOPT and GIVE TO OURSELVESthis Constitution to come into effect on
Independence Day, that is 16 September 1975.

(
lm Explore
Examine each dot point in this part of the Preamble. Start with the point "united in one nation" and fini on the
point "that our national wealth, won by honest, hard work be equitably shared by ail." Discuss in class:

a How close is the nation to achieving each dot point?

b What events in recent history strengthen or weaken each dot point?

c What is the future for each dot point?

d How does each dot point apply to women?

e How does each dot point apply to men?

01 Discover (Independence)
Select one of the following two topics
and research it:

a Who were the leaders and important

people who helped PNG to become
an independent nation state?

b Choose one important leader who

helped PNG become an independent
state.

• List his or her achievements.

• Write a short paragraphon why you

chose that person.

2 Bring your findings to class for discussion

or presentation.
Chief Minister Michael Somare with Australian Prime Minster Go
on Independence Day 1975.
01 Discover (democracy)
Choose two PapuaNew Guineans who helped to develop PNG democracy. Make one a man and the
woman. Researchwhat that person did. Write a paragraphfor each of the two people you have chose
your findings to class for discussion or presentation.

2 Discuss after the presentations: "Has democracy helped men more or has it helped women more?"
 THE CITIZEN
Key term A citizen is a member of a nation state. Citizens provide the base or foundation for
citizen a member modern democracies. The purpose of government is to serve the citizen.
of a country
(with citizenship
gained by birth
C Discuss
or by law) 1 In class discuss:

a What does citizenship mean to you?

b How did you get citizenship?

c When did the people of PapuaNew Guinea get citizenship?

Democracy is at the heart of citizenship. As democracy grows, so do ideas of

citizenship and what it involves. These concepts have changed over time. Here are
some ideas about good citizenship:
1 Public-mindedness: thinking
about everyone (often at the national
level). (A related idea is community-
mindedness: thinking about
everyone in the community)

2 Public good: considering what will

benefit everyone (national level or
lower)

3 Civic spirit: supporting the public

good, from IlOtiQ_g
to direct action

4 Civic duty: acting as a responsible

PNG citizens demonstrate for good governance. citizen by voting, obeying laws and
supporting the public good.

JI Discover
1 Look for newspaper articles or people acting in your community.

a What examples can you find of good citizens?

b How do they fit the four terms above?

2 Write a paragraphon your findings.

A citizen's roles, rights and responsibilities

Here are five basic concepts (or aims) of whata citizen is:
1 A citizen is a loyal member of a nation state.

2 Citizens are all equal before the law of the nation state.
3 Citizens have a right to participate in
government. They can run for election,
vote, and make comments and
complaints about government.

4 Citizens have the right to their

government's services.

5 Citizens have responsibilities to

support the nation state. They pay their
fair share of fees and taxes.

Citizens have rights to public services such as health.

rI Discover
Make a table to show how each of the five citizen concepts apply to you and your family.

Concept How it applies to me and mv iemiiv'

A citizen is a loyal member of a nation

state.

2 Citizens are all equal before the law of the

nation state.

3 Citizens have a right to participate in

government.

4 Citizens have the right to their

government's services.

5 Citizens have responsibilities to support

the nation state.

Getting citizenship
Many people in Papua New Guinea automatically became citizens at Independence. The biggest exc n
was the Australian colonists and other citizens of foreign lands. Some people had to decide if they
citizens of Australia or Papua New Guinea.
The PNG Constitution gives the rules for becoming a citizen. Citizenship can be acquired in two birth
or by naturalisation.
1 By birth. Most Papua New Guineans are born as citizens. The rules for this type of citizenship a

• you need to be born in PNG on or after Independence Day 1975; and

• you need to have one parent who is a citizen (this is true even if the parent died before you were
This is also known as "citizenship by descent".
 What happens
if your parents
are not in Papua
New Guinea?

It is almost the same if you

are born outside the country on
or after Independence Day. One
parent must be a Papua New
Guinea citizen. The difference
is that your birth must be
registered. Your parents need to
register your birth with a PNG
consulate, embassy or high
commission.

2 By naturalisation. This is for people who are not born as PNG citizens and who
Key terms want to become a citizen. They need to ask for it. A number of rules apply. You
naturalisation must have lived in PNG for eight years straight and you must:
citizenship
a be of good character e be unlikely to be or become a charge
gained by law
Declaration of b intend to reside permanently in the on public funds
Loyalty an oath country f have a reasonable knowledge
or affirmation
c speak and understand Pisin or Hiri and understanding of the rights,
that one is loyal
to one's nation Motu, or a vernacular of the country, .privileges, responsibilities and duties
sufficiently for normal conversational of citizenship
purposes 9 renounce any other citizenship and
d have a respect for the customs and make the Declaration of Loyalty.
cultures of the country

Then the Minister in charge of citizenship decides if you can become a PNG citizen.
Some countries allow people to be citizens of their country and another country at the
same time. This is called dual citizenship. Except for children, Papua New Guinea does
not allow this.
 Yes, until you are an
adult. I'm a dual citizen.
My papa is from PNG.
My mum is European.
Can we have
When I'm 18 I'll decide
dual citizenship
what I want to be.
in Papua New
Adults cannot be
Guinea?
citizens in PNG.

~ Do, think and decide

Invite a government official to come to your class and talk about citizenship.

2 Make a diagram of the processes for getting PNG citizenship.

3 Discuss these questions in class:

a How easy is it to be born a citizen?

b Does everyone in PapuaNew Guinea know they are a citizen of the nation?

c How difficult does it appear to be to become a naturalised citizen of PNG?

d Are naturalised citizens and citizens by descent equal in their rights in Papua
New Guinea?

Form two teams in class and debate these statements: "A naturalised citizen values
their citizenship more than a citizen by birth" vs "A citizen by birth values their
citizenship more than a natural ised citizen."
Did you <now?

A brief history of citizenship

The idea of citizenship has a long link back to ancient Greece. The idea of a citizen came
from the early Greek city-states about 2500 years ago. This was a major change in
systems of government. Citizens formed a larger group with more direct participation
in making decisions about government. They had formal rights and responsibilities to
government.
 The Greek concept continued through
history. It has changed in many ways and
been used in many ways. From Greece it
can be followed to:
• Rome and the Roman Empire (2000
years ago)
• towns in north-west Europe during the
Middle Ages (1200 years ago)
• Italian city-state republics starting
about 800 years ago, leading to the
Key term Renaissance in Europe
Renaissance • the emerging democracies and
a period of
republics starting with the United
Europeanhistory The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384 Be - 322
that promoted States of America in 1776.
BC) believed that citizens should be involved in
science,the A Bill of Rights attached to the US government and the administration of justice.
artsand human
Constitution in 1791 and a similar work in
rights starting
around 1450. France started the spread of ideas about
Renaissance citizenship around the world.
means'rebirth'.
~ Do, think and decide
Copy or trace a map of the world and
highlight the places where the idea
of citizenship started and developed.
Include names and dates.

2 How and when do you think it came to

PapuaNew Guinea?

The idea of who could be a citizen grew

over time. The basic idea of citizenship
is to create more equality between the
rulers and the people being ruled. The
citizens of the ancient city-state gave their
loyalty or allegiance to other citizens. This
formed a new group. It was not based on
family, wantoks or other special interests. The United States Constitution.
This idea of citizenship continues today.

Debate
Form two teams in class and debate these statements: "Citizenship rather than
wantokism is an idea that is growing stronger in PNG now" vs "Wantokism rather
than citizenship is growing stronger in PNG now."

!
CITIZENS' RIGHTS AND DUTIES
Your rights as a citizen of Papua New Guinea
Written laws are strong in some places. The laws are enforced and people benefit from them. In oth
citizens suffer. The laws are not well enforced. Sometimes there are no laws or very weak laws to pro ect
people.
Many nations give citizens a bill of rights to protect them from harsh laws. The Constitution of the
Independent State of Papua New Guinea provides over 14 pages of rights. Each citizen of Papua Ne uinea
has these rights.

J The rights of a citizen in PNG

~ • Right to freedom • Freedom of employment
• Freedom from inhuman treatment • Right to privacy
• Protection of the law • Right to vote and stand for public office
• Liberty of the person • Right to freedom of information
• Freedom from forced labour • Right to freedom of movement
• Freedom from arbitrary search and entry • Protection from unjust deprivation of
• Freedom of conscience, thought and religion property
• Freedom of expression • Special provision in relation to certain I

• Freedom of assembly and association • Equality of citizens

The next sections look at rights in more detail. We explore what these rights mean.

C Discuss and respond

1 In a small group, put these rights in order of importance to your group and present as a small poster.
2 Compare your ordered list with another group's list. Are both lists the same? What are the differences?

Freedom in Papua New Guinea

The first right the Constitution gives us is freedom based on law. This means the law is very importa t It
means that everyone of us "has a legal right to do anything that-
a does not injure or interfere with the rights and freedoms of others; and

b is not prohibited by law."

Freedom based on law also means that:

• no one is obliged to do anything that is not required by law
• no one can be stopped from doing anything that they have a legal right to do.
 C Discuss
1 Felix and Margaret were discussing laws in PNG. Felix said, "Laws take away your
freedom because they stop you doing what you want." Margaret said, "No-a nation
cannot have freedom without laws." Do you agree with Felix? Or do you agree with
Margaret? Why?

The Constitution is based on law. The law provides a framework for your legal rights.

Key terms The Constitution is Also, we can have

only talking about the laws of the other rights and
organic law
Independent State of Papua New freedoms. An organic
a law that is
Guinea. Our rules for social, civic, law or an Act of the
defined in the family or religious obligations are Parliament can give
Constitution and not part of the Constitution. That us other rights and
is difficult for is our private business. Some of it freedoms. They can also
parliamentarians can become private law if private put a limit on rights and
to change individuals agree. They have the freedoms. We can go
Act of the What laws does freedom to do that. to court if we think the
Parliament a law the Constitution limits are too much.
that parliament mean when it
has made gives us legal
freedom? What

Figure 4.1

C Discuss and respond

1 Read the conversation in Figure 4.1. In groups, discuss these questions:

a How are your rights as a citizen different from your rights in the family?

b What about your rights as a vvantok? How do these differ from your constitutional
rights 7

2 Make a table of your different rights and tell how important you think they are.
Fundamental rights
A fundamental right is the most basic right all people should have. The PNG
Constitution provides fundamental rights.

I think the most

I think so too. If
important right that
you aren't alive,
the Constitution
what good is any
gives us is Section
other right to
35, the right to life.
you?

Does that mean

the Constitution Actually, the
says no one can Constitution
be killed? does allow for
killing.

They are not

going to kill you.
Killing is a crime.
Only in special
circumstances
does the
Really! I hope Constitution allow
they are not going for killing.
to kill me!

The Constitution
allows for a death
penalty applied by
court. But first, the
death penalty must
named as one possi
punishment in the I
that the offender
broken.
When is killing .
allowed? ~i
The death penalty has never been given in the Independent State of Papua New Guinea. In colonial times the
death penalty was applied, but not often. Australia and New Zealand had the death penalty until the 1960s. It
was then abolished. Indonesia still has the death penalty.

There are many arguments for and against the death penalty. Here are three:

Arguments for the death penalty
1 It punishesan eye for eye, a deathfor a
death.
2 It preventscrime.
3 Some crimes are so horriblethat the only
answer is the death penalty.
Arguments against the death penalty
1 It makesus kill someone.That is the very crime we are punishing.
It is a contradictionand makesus barbaric.
2 Peoplemake mistakeseven in law, and killingan innocent person
will happenif there is a death penalty.
3 It appliesunevenly.Forexample,take colonialtimes. Lookat the
Aboriginesand PapuaNew Guineanswho receivedthe death
penaltyfor killingwhite people,when no white peoplewere treated
the same when they killed localsin colonialtimes.

Debate
Form two teams in class and debate these statements: "Papua New Guinea citizens should be subject
to the death penalty" vs "Papua New Guinea citizens should not be subject to the death penalty."

The Constitution
The full protection of the law
gives us the full Here are some important rights of the citizen if charged with
protection of the law.
a crime:
Breaking the law is
serious. But there 1 You are presumed innocent until proven guilty by law.
must be a law to
break for something 2 You may have to prove some facts to show you are
to be illegal. If there is innocent.
no law against it, you
can do it. 3 The charge against you must be explained in a
language you understand.

4 You need to be told the details and the nature of

the offence.

5 You need to be given adequate time and facilities

to prepare a defence.

6 You can call witnesses and examine witnesses, or

have a lawyer do this.

These are your basic rights. The Constitution lists many more. It provides detailed protection for the law
to work. If you are ever in trouble, you should read your constitutional rights carefully. Section 37 of the
Constitution is the key part on your rights at law.
; l~~
~ ~
l~fH~i!« r~)~V~
~~~~~ g)
/, B~~~I~
Citizen rights for all Papua New Guineans
Here are more of your rights written
Rights of PNG citizens
Liberty
Freedom from forced labour
Freedom from arbitrary search
and entry
Freedoms of conscience, thought
and religion
Freedom of expression
Freedom of assembly and
association
Freedom of employment
Right to privacy
Right to freedom of information
Right to freedom of movement
Protection from unjust
deprivation of property
( l/ (c(Q)~ y%(@ Y6a~~~~~G\\)~:r -: "'\~~~
A0~
9~ ))U \ (~6J)' 0in_89
I
in the Constitution of Papua New Guinea.
'C?, . ~
You have a right to liberty. The government cannot hold you or stop you exce in
special circumstances:
• You may be arrested and detained if you are disobeying the law.
• You may be kept in quarantine to stop disease.
• You may lose your liberty if you are judged as "being of unsound mind,
addicted to drugs or alcohol, or a vagrant".
1
Forced labour was common during the colonial period. The different colonist iflpplied
it differently. But for the villager, the result was the same. People had to wor]
got nothing for it. The Constitution stops this. ndI
The police or other authorities must give a judge good reason to search som
mne's
home (or other premises). They must state what they are looking for.
You have the freedom to believe what you want so long as it doesn't hurt pe ~file. You
cannot be made to take an oath contrary to your religious belief. You cannot
religion on other people. (Parents can make their children take religious instrl ~ i~n.)
You have a right to free speech. You can speak or publish freely. This include: a
right to freedom of the press and other mass communications media. There
limitations (for example, you have no right to publish lies about people).
3(~
Every person has the right to assemble and associate with others peacefull~ lrd to
form or belong to (or refuse to belong to) political parties, industrial organisa I <DrS or
other associations.
Freedom of employment is a modern right. "Every person has the right to fr e~om
I
of choice of employment in any calling ..." There is no right to have a job, ont, aI .Ight
to the choice of what job you want. That does not mean the work exists for ~I .
I
Privacy means that other people cannot look at your records or inside your hi e
without your permission. You have "the right to reasonable privacy" for your vate
and family life. The right to privacy covers your communications.
Do you want to see a government document or report? "Every citizen has th
right of reasonable access to official documents, subject only to the need fo s~ch
secrecy as is reasonably Justifiable in a democratic societvThis is often calk d "FOI"
YO" hav th' riqht to move around whe" vou want 10 in Papua New Guinea u
can permanently move to another place in the country. And you can leave an pi nter
1I .
Papua New Guinea as a right.
Land is the most important property for most Melanesians. Your land cannot
taken away easily. Issues of land are at the heart of Melanesian society. The fl' is
still developing on land. The Constitution has a very long section on land. The arefJ
special courts for land in PNG and in many other Pacific island countries. II
I"~
.'J .~
DA l~ r§ (~'I I~·tir~j ~
~~ ~
~ Do, think and decide
1 Make a table with three columns.

a In the first column list the PNG Constitutional rights from what you think is the most
important right to the least important right. For example, you might think freedom of
the press is most important. You would put it as one (1) on your table. Below that you
would list the second most important right. and so on.

b In the second column, write your reasons for the way you have listed the rights. In the
example above, you would write the reason for freedom of the press being number
one. Continue until you finish the rights.

2 Now search the newspapers for examples of where these rights are not respected. Put
those examples in the third column.

3 From your answers to columns one and two, discuss in class which are the most
important rights and which are the least important rights.

4 From your results in columns one and three, discuss in class which rights are most
respected in PNG and which rights are least respected.

Your responsibilities as a citizen

It is true, but
some people try
The Constitution to take them away
guarantees us from us.
many rights.

It is very
important to
respect each
other's rights. That
is an important
responsibility for
all citizens.
Responsibilities come with rights, Citizens have duties, A very important duty is to obey
the law, The supreme law of the Constitution says we should respect each other's
rights, We should do no harm to others,
Citizens have other duties, Here are some examples:
• paying taxes and government charges
• obeying the law
• being community minded
• voting,
Voting is a very important responsibility; we will study it in the next section,

Citizens who drive PMVs have a duty to pay fees and taxes to government. They have a duty to obey
traffic laws, What other duties do they have?
 ELECTIONS: THE ROLES OF CITIZENS
AND LEADERS
The right to vote and stand for public office
With few exceptions, everyone at voting age has the right to vote and to stand for
office. These are constitutional rights. All citizens can:
• take part in public affairs (directly or through freely chosen representatives)
• vote for their choice of representatives in "genuine, periodic, free elections"
• run for public office
• if elected, hold public office and exercise public functions.
Key terms
Running for office is part of a political campaign. This is done at election time.
political Different parties will nominate different members to campaign for office.
campaign trying
to get people to The candidate running for office may have party backing or be an independent. If
vote for you you have party backing, you must follow that political party's ideas. That is a rule,
candidate a
though not everyone follows it in Papua New Guinea. It is different for independent
person running
for office in an candidates. People can present all their own ideas if they are running as independents.
election Independents nominate themselves.
The role of a person running for office is
to convince the voters that he or she is
the best person to vote for. People use
speeches, posters, newspaper and radio
advertisements, television and anything
else to get their message across. You will
also see people using gifts.
Winners have successful campaigns.
Losers have unsuccessful campaigns.

Elections can involve many in the community,

even those who cannot vote.
IIInvestigate
Working in pairs, investigate the last political campaign held in your area.Youwill need to
ask or survey people to find answers to these questions:

a Who were the candidates?

b Who was successful in being elected? What were the reasons for their success?

c Who was unsuccessful? What were the reasons that they lost?

2 What has happened in your area since the last political campaign?

a What campaign promises have been kept by the winners?

b What has the winner in your area done for the citizens in their constituency?

Note: later in the course, you may choose to do a mock election or a mock
parliament. If you do the mock election, you will have a mock campaign.

Electoral processes: the Electoral Roll

You must be on the Electoral Roll to vote. There is an organic law that says you must
enrol. But you can only enrol to vote at the age of 18 or older.
Only people on the Electoral Roll can vote. You must get a special form from the
Election Manager in your province to register. All PNG citizens 18 years or older must
register. If a person cannot read or write, they can still register. Other people can help
them. Then the person must make their own mark on the form.
The enrolment form must be witnessed by one of these people:
• Election Manager
• District Coordinator
• Sub-District Manager
• Local Level Government Manager.
You must enrol at the place where you live. If you move to a new place, you must enrol
at the new place. You cannot be enrolled at your old place. This means that people who
leave a village and move to a city must enrol in the city. They cannot still be enrolled at
the village.

@
When you cannot vote
There are a few caseswhere people cannot vote in an election. For example:
• Writs are issued for an election. You must be on the Electoral Roll before the
writs are issued. If you enrol after the writs you will not vote in that election.
• You cannot vote if you are a prisoner who is sentenced to nine or more months
in prison.
You cannot vote if you are of unsound mind.
1. My vote lis special)it is
my right and Freedom
of choice

2. My vote decidesa leader

and helps to form the
government

3.•f my decisionsin
voting is not good,
then the member and
the government will
not be good

4.• f my vote is good and

trust worthy then the
government and
memberwill be good
and trust worthy

5. My vote has the potentia'

to develop PNGor
t
destroy it!
 6_ Say no to bribery!
buying and selling
of votes

If I am involved in bribery
during the elections then I am
destroying the livelihood of
the people and the future
prosperity of my country

My wrong decisions in
voting now will result in no
service delivery in the next
5 years

I must vote only once and use

my 3 choices; to select the
best 3 candidates

1 I promise to use my voting

rights to choose a good
leader for a good
government
ELECTORAL
COMMISSION
:aritas Papua New Guinea
'apua New Guinea rNG EJedoral Support Program 2 is Ponded by
Australian Government
AusAII)
 IIInvestigation
As individuals or in groups, find the following information:
1 a Who is the Election Manager in your province?

b Where is this person located?

2 a How hard is it to get an enrolment form for the Electoral Roll?

b Why do you think you must have an original form only to enrol?

3 a Why must the enrolment form be witnessed?

b In your area, who are the four witnesses that can be used?

4 Is there an adult in your extended family who is not enrolled?

a Could you help this person to enrol?

b If a person cannot read or write, can they still enrol?

r.:J Discuss
1 Discuss in class: "Why might migration to cities change voting patterns?"
Key terms
preferential Electoral processes: voting
voting a type of
The right to vote is the right to choose your leader. You do this at an election. The
voting that lets
the voter Iist voting system in PNG is now preferential. This means you put your preferences on
candidatesfrom the ballot paper. You get to choose who you think the top three people are. The ballot
the one they like paper is what you vote on. It is numbered from one to three. You put your favourite
most to the one
they like least beside box one, your next favourite beside box two, and box three goes to your last
ballot paper the favourite.
piece of paper
You must go to a polling place to vote. These are open during the polling period of an
that each voter
usesto mark election. The Poll Clerk is there to check that your name is on the Electoral Roll.
their vote The Poll Clerk will give you a ballot paper after you are marked off the Electoral Roll.
polling place the
There should also be a candidate poster at the polling place. That will help your memory
location where
people go to vote for choosing the three candidates you like best.
in an election
Poll Clerk a
government
official located in )
a polling place to
direct and assist
voters

/
 000000 TURUMUOPENELECTORATE
You take the ballot paper to a private
111111111111111 place that is sometimes called a polling
000000
2007 GENERAL ELECTIONS booth. The ballot paper will have boxes
NATIONAL PARLIAMENT

BALLOT PAPER numbered from one to three. You put

"I; i.-~ TURUMU OPEN ELECTORATE

Write. the candidate number or name

candidate beside number 1

.. WriteInacandidaten~r
candidate be~ number:2;
of your first choice

be'nemeof yoursecondchoice
'4
the name of the candidates you like
best beside the three boxes in the order
of your preference. You can put the
.. Write the candidate number:or name of your third choice candidate's number if you don't use the
candidate bes~ numb$i 3
candidate's name.
DO NOT PUT ANY OTHER MARK ON THIS BAlLOT PAPER!
You then fold your vote over so no one
can see it. You leave the private voting
IIH ];~~-- place and put your vote in the ballot box.

m[ ].-':':------ 191 Explore

Why is secret voting so important?
[[][ ]----
2 If a person cannot read or write, how
A sample ballot paper for the 2007 national hard is it to have a secret vote?
election.

2007 GENERAL ELECTIONS· NATIONAL PARLlA.MENT

CANDIDATE POSTER
PORT MORESBY OPEN ELECTORATE

.. This is a candidate poster, do not write on it.

__.. .. Write your vote on the BALLOT PAPER.
~ .. Choose three preferred candidates from this poster.
II> Write the code numbers or the names of the three candidates of your choice beside
the numbers 1, 2 and 3 on the Ballot Paper.

11 12
D D
PartyB

15
D
Party 0

DAVID YELLOW

Printed under the a,ulhofity of ttle PNG ElecI:oral Cornml ... ion_ It Is en ol'fW>ce 1o altertmari<lct>ange !hi. poSle<_ 00 not write on it

A sample candidate poster for the 2007 national election. Notice how each
candidate has a number and a space for the name of the party he or she
belongs to.
 11 Investigate
1 Explore voting in your local area. Investigate:

a How many polling places are in your area?

b How hard or easy is it for people to get to them?

c Do people value their votes or are people selling votes?

Electoral processes: administration

A national election starts with the issuing
of writs by the Head of State. A writ is
an order. The election writs are the legal
documents needed for an election. They
provide the timetable and processes
for the election to start. The Governor-
General issues the writ. The process is
shown below.

People queue to vote at a polling booth.

Stages of an election - a timeline

Key terms
Issue of writ Done on a Thursday at 4.00 p.rn. People can now submit nominations.
nomination to
formally choose Nominations Nominations can come from a political party or an independent candidate.
a candidate They are given to the Returning Officer. Each electorate has a Returning
to stand in an Officer appointed by the Electoral Commission. A nomination costs Kl000.
election This is paid to the Electoral Commission. A person can only nominate for
Returning one electorate.
Officer the Close of The Constitution gives seven days only to nominate, so nominations close
person in charge nominations on the nextThursday at 4.00 p.rn.
of all electoral
matters in an Start of polling Saturdays are used.
electorate, End of polling Voting usually ends on a Friday after one to four weeks, depending on how
including both much time is needed to cover the election area (the whole nation for a
polling and national election).
vote counting
operations Return of writ The return of writ is the return of the completed orders for the election
to the Governor-General. It takes place four to six weeks after the end of
polling. The Electoral Commissioner must say who has won. The Governor-
General announces the winners, who work to form a government.
a Do, think and decide
1 In pairs, discuss these questions:

a Why do you think it is a good idea to start polling on a Saturday?

b In some countries polling takes place all in one day.Why is it important to take longer
in PNG?

2 Write a short summary of your discussion in your notebook.

I
years.
Informal voting
Wrongly filled out ballot papers are called informal votes. If you fill out your ballot
paper wrongly, your vote will not be counted.

000001 PORi ~ES8Y OPENELECTORATE 000001

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20(11
GEHERAL
ELECTIONS 2007GENERAL
ELECTIONS 2007 GENERAL ELECTIONS

NATIONAL
PARLIAMENT NATIONAL
PARUAMENT NATIONAL PARUAMENT

BALLOT PAPER BALLOT PAPER BALLOT PAPER

PORTMORESBYOPENELECTORATE PORTMORESBYOPENELECTORATE PORT MORESBY OPEN ELECTORATE

DO NOT PUTANY OTHERMARK O~ THIS SALlOT PAPERI DO NOT PUT ANY OniER MARK DN THIS SALLer PAPERI 00 NOT PUT ANY OTHER MARK ON 'Off$ BALLOT PAPER I

OJ [V]I~~'~.--':____ OJ [ r;, ] DAVIt> Yl>1.LbW

m[ V]I----''------- _ m[ V l,---''R-''~t!::::l-_:_::_R=ED:__
__ m[ 13 ] MARY ORANG<

rTI[>< ]I_M_M'_Y_<!>_RA_NG_E __ m [vl,_S_A_L_LY_B-,-R""'---,N~_

".l~-"
rTI [ 10 ] J._ ~'' ;
Two wrongly marked (informal) votes that will not be counted. A correctly marked ballot paper.

Limited Preferential Voting

The Limited Preferential Voting system allows one candidate to build a larger
majority. It is abbreviated to LPV. Each voter lists their three top preferences. The votes
are then counted. A candidate who gets more than 50% of first preference votes wins.
This means a minimum of 50% + 1 is needed.
This is rare in PNG. There are usually many candidates. This splits the vote into
amounts of less than an absolute majority.
If the candidates all have less than 50% of the vote, the next preferences are counted.
First the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated. Someone with 50% of second
preference votes would win. If no one has 50% of second preferences, then third
preferences are counted.
Table 4.1 gives an example of someone winning an election after first and second preferences are counted.
Table 4.2 is an example of someone not winning until third preferences are counted.
Table 4.1: Winning at the second preference count*

CanBidates Manu Oika :10 .Mar{ Pius Total Notes

" ~
First preference vote 10 20 30 15 25 100 No one has 50% + 1

Elimination of lowest OUT Manu has the least votes and is

(this is the first eliminated.
exclusion)
Second preference 18 22 34 26 100 The third preference is counted here
vote for anyone who had Manu as the
second preference
Total first and second 38 52 49 51 Jo wins with over 50% of the vote
preferences
* Example uSing 100 voters
Table 4.2:Winning at the third preference count*

Candidates Manu Dika Jo 1= Mari ~,'

Pius Total ~Notes
,-
First preference vote 18 16 21 23 22 100 No one has 50% + 1 0

Elimination of lowest OUT Dika has the least votes and is

(this is the first eliminated
exclusion)
Second preference 26 0 23 24 27 100 The third preference is counted here
vote for anyone who had Dika as the
second preference
Total first and second 44 0 44 47 49 No one has 50% + 1
preferences
Elimination of the OUT OUT Manu and Jo tied as lowest. .lo's lot
lowest or second already is drawn. Jo is out.
exclusion. Vote is tied.
Lots are drawn to see
who goes out.
Third preference vote 29 31 28 88 There are only 88 third preferences
because Dika and Jo were listed as
third preferences 12 times but they
have been eliminated
Total first, second and 73 78 77 Mari wins with an absolute majority
third preferences and the most votes
* Example uSing 100 voters

DI Explore
1 In small groups, explore these questions:

a What are the benefits of LPV (Limited Preferential Voting)?

b Why do you think a person can nominate for only one electorate?

2 Each group should summarise its conclusions in a brief oral presentation.

II Investigation
Researchhow Limited PreferentialVoting has worked in your area. Do people think the
winners are better representatives than before 7

Capital Oi trlCt. The

rest are oc upied
by Member f
Parliamen ted for
by the peo

The PNG Parliament Haus Chamber.

Forming government: party coalitions

Forming government is the next step. This happens once the election is over. It can
start with the provisional results of the voting. These start to answer the question,
"Who has won what seat in parliament?"
People need to know who has become a parliamentarian. They need to know how
many seats each party has won.
If one party has more than 50% of the seats (that is 50% + 1) they can form
government. This is common in parliaments where there are only two major parties. In
Papua New Guinea there are usually many parties in the national elections. At the 2007
national elections there were a total of 45 registered political parties in PNG.

Party platforms and compromise

Each party has a platform. The platform is what the party stands for. It includes all
the party promises. The platform tells the voter what the party will do if it is in power.
Sometimes the platform is just for a region. Sometimes a platform may benefit small
groups.
The government platform must change or compromise when there are many small
parties. This is all part of the process to form government. Sometimes it is called
"horse trading". This means agreeing on what the different parties will support in
government.
 191 Explore
1 Arrange a speaker to talk to the class about political parties. Before the speaker comes,
brainstorm questions to ask the speaker, for example:

a Why are political parties important?

b Why does PapuaNew Guinea have so many political parties?

c What is a party platform and what does it cover?

2 After the speaker has gone, write a summary paragraphto show what you have learnt.

Debate
Conduct a debate with two teams putting these different points of view: "PNG party
platforms are all mauswara nau ai gris em tasol" vs "Party platforms and politicians
try to do their best to make PNG better."

Coalition government
A government made of two or more parties is called a coalition. The coalition makes
agreements and promises among its members. The members will be the different
parties and independents.
Key terms
The coalition must agree to pass the government budget. This is called supply. The
coalition a group
of two or more government must have supply. This funds government activities.
political parties
that have joined
together to
govern
supply the
supply of money
budgeted by
government
and passedby
parliament to run
government and
all its services
Speakerthe
personwho
controls
parliament when
it is meeting
(the Speakeris
a Member of
Parliamentwho
is elected by Members of the new Papua New Guinea cabinet pose with Prime Minister Michael Somare (centre in
parliament to this grey laplap) and Governor-General Paulias Matane (centre in brown laplap) at Government House in Port
position) Moresby, Wednesday, 29 August 2007.The new ministers were sworn in as part of Somare's 87-member
coalition in the 109-member parliament.
Forming government: Prime Minister and Cabinet
The first meeting of parliament elects the Speaker. The Speaker enforces the rules of
parliament. The Speaker can suspend a Member of Parliament for breaking the rules.
Government is formed after the Speaker is elected. The parliament votes to elect a
leader. The Governor-General then invites the winner of the vote to form government
as Prime Minister. The Prime Minister then comes to a formal agreement with the
different coalition parties about who will be in the Cabinet. This may take time. The
Cabinet is made up of ministers, each of whom is responsible for a different aspect of
government. The Prime Minister and Cabinet are the heart of the executive branch of
the government. They are also part of the legislature.

The Opposition
The parties and independent parliamentarians who are not in government are called the
Opposition. Their duty is to question and challenge the government. There are special
procedures to do this. We discuss them in later lessons on how the parliament works.

191 Explore
1 Discuss in class:

a How important is the Opposition for government?

b What power does the Opposition have?

c For a small party, is it:

• better to be in opposition?
• better to be in government?
BEING A LEADER
To lead means to go first or to go ahead showing the way to followers. A leader is someone who has
followers. Everyone is a leader at some point. It is a role. You may be the leader of a game or class
exercise, for example. There are local, provincial and national leaders. Some are in government. Some are
in government services. Some leaders are in the community and business.

Good leadership
There are many ideas about good leadership. Here are a few: We were just
discussing
your leadership
potential.

•
""
change deClslons .
caring
influence
committed authority cou rage
control power solution-based·
strength leadership position
success boldfollowers
inteqritv a ct ..IVIS m .
dedicated
respect
ambitious " smart
d riven
 Corporate purpose
to ensure necessary continuity

.1

Well-developed team spirit

to let others perform their duties
1
Active shaping and moulding Ability to leam quickly
to give meaning and direction to take account of new developement

Consistency in delegation Upward management-

to systematically break down goals to influence conditions for success

THE LEADER
of Character and Competence Acts ...

"Do"

to Achieve Excellence
Loyalty Mental Operating
US President Barack Obama and his wife Michelle.
Duty Physical - Plan/Prep
- Executing
Respect Emotional Technical
- Assessing
Honour Tactical
Improving
Integrity
- Developing
- Building
- Learning
Influencing
- Communicating
- Decision making
- Motivating

People get new leader

C Discuss and respond
1 What do the images, diagrams and tables on pages 274-275 tell you about leadership?

2 Make your own diagram or table to show what you think good leadership should be for politicians and other
leaders.

Political leaders
Political leaders have important roles. They represent the people in a democracy. Each leader is responsible for
representing an electorate. Leaders must also think what is best for the nation.
The political leader has many roles:
• There is a formal role as a Member of Parliament. The leader may have other roles in the government or
opposition.
• A very important role is to set an example for all people. People judge leaders by their actions.
• Many leaders are good speakers. Being a good communicator is another important role, but there must also
be results.
• Leaders guide the nation. If leaders do a poor job, the nation will suffer.
Leaders should obey all the rules. This means following the law. It also means following the rules of
parliament. We study some of those rules in later sections.

·
Leadership Code of Papua New Guinea
I Leadersshould:

I
be unselfish and not put themselves in a position where they can make decisions
that will help themselves
• not behave in such a way that people do not respect them as people, the
position they hold or the government of PapuaNew Guinea
• be honest and not try to help themselves because of their position as leaders
• make sure that their families and others who work for them behave in ways that
show that the leader is following the code
• if necessary,make it clear to the public that they have not done anything wrong.
II Discover
Make a table to show what you think the roles and behaviours of a good leader are In a separate cOlul put In
the roles and behaviours of bad leaders. I
2 Collect Information from newspapers and other sources to show examples of good and bad leadership It the
examples to your table. Extend the table If the examples show you other types of good and bad leader p.

Good leadership Bad leadership

Rolesand behaviours Examples Rolesand behaviours Examples

Debate
Form two teams in class and debate these statements: "Traditional leaders can make good leaders in
democracy" vs "Traditional leaders have different values from good democratic leaders, so tradition I
leaders cannot make good leaders in a democracy."

Decision-making and leadership

Every day leaders make decisions. A good leader will face many problems and make decisions about
This involves people's rights and the law. Good decision-making strengthens the nation. Bad decisio
weakens the nation. Every day the news is about leaders' decisions. I
Look at the following issues. They are difficult and need good leadership. Analyse the decisions of th eaders.

Squatters

C Discuss and respond

What do the leaders do?

1 You studied squatters in Unit 2 (page 165) They provide a challenge for leaders. Readthe newspaper art o e on
the next page.Then respond to the questions on page 279.
 Realising and dealing with squatters
Editorial Madang Governor Sir Arnold Amet has
made it his first public move to get rid of
For hundreds of thousands of Papua New the squatter problem once and for all in his
Guineans, urban centres are attractions as a province.
means for improving their quality of life.
Is he kidding? Has he not learnt any
Urban centres promise good jobs, lesson from the actions of his immediate
incomes and all the material trappings of the past predecessor?
modem cash society.
Then Governor James Yali drove
As they dream of all these factors in the
village setting, they little realise the cost
of living in an urban society-in finding
shelter, food, clothing and raising a family.
There is a squatter settlement in every
town and city in Papua New Guinea. It is
squatters from Madang in droves. Homes
were burnt to ashes, often with belongings
in them. He sustained his action for months.
So, what has happened? Has this
scorched earth policy got rid of squatters
from Madang?
l
I
populated, not by criminals, but by ordinary
It has not. Indeed, they have been
and, often, peace-loving Papua New
flocking to Madang in droves and in
Guineans driven there by circumstances
the entire area of Madang town where
and the high cost of living in urban centres
settlements were burnt to the ground, there
today.
now stand new settlements. Others have
Squatter settlements often develop sprung up around the Basamuk area, the site
without legal claims to the land or of the Ramu nickel mine township.
permission from the concerned authorities.
Will the new drive by Amet be
They are, therefore, considered illegal or
successful? Time will tell. It has not worked
have semi-legal status.
in other places where this has been tried
Over time, squatters have gathered in before-Bougainville, Rabaul, Madang and
size and there are second or third generation Lae.
Key term children living there today who know no
Indeed, there is a major one underway
other place they can call home. The squatter
raze burn. in Bulolo which has hit a snag because the
settlement is their home.
"Razed to the authorities have run out of money.
ground" means When these people are driven from the
Getting rid of squatters in this manner
burnt to the squatters by state-sanctioned force, when
is destined for failure because squatters and
ground they are treated as criminals and their homes
squatter settlements are not a provincial
razed to the ground, what are these people
government challenge. They are a national
to do?
government challenge.
It must be understood that for many of
They do not beg heavy-handed police
these squatters, there is no home to return
tactics. They require legal and policy shifts.
to. Relatives remaining in the rural homes of
these squatters would normally have taken They do not require gettmg nd of. TheY_Ji
over their land and homes. require to be accommodated.

The National (condensed)

....
--g'a~~~~~~~~~~,..~~~-~
?
2 Discuss these questions:

a What rights do the squatters have?

b What is the fundamental right that allows them to come to urban areas?

c Which leaders represent the squatters?

d What strategy has been used to address the squatter issue before? Has it been successful? Why/w r not?
3 Make a table with terms that define a good leader in one column. List how each quality applies to the isl e of
squatters in the second column. List how it applies to the general urban population in the third column.

Good leader qualities ... Dealing with ssuetters Dealing with urban
populations
Honest
Caring
etc.

School students

C Discuss and respond

What do the leaders do?

1 Look at the news reports from the Post-Courierand the letter to the National below and on the next pa e
Respond to the questions on page 281.

~~:i~~~!:~~~~
F ~;~~~
f
~~~~~
~~~~~~~~ ~~~l~~
Post-Courier, 23.06.2010

Letter to the National 30.06.2010 ~.'

•.•.
::. The ethnic clash between Jiwaka and
I am sad to see ethnic violence has erupted
I': Western Highlands students resurfaced at
the Fatima Secondary School in the early
for the second time at the Fatima Secondary
hours of yesterday morning-three weeks
School. Many students sustained injuries
after the first clash. The fight left one
and parents are concerned with the safety
student from Western Highlands battling for
of their children ... This is not the time
his life.
to blame anyone. But what is obvious
is the poor leadership of the school's
administration. They saw signs of trouble
yet did not take any action. Education
authority in WHP should remove the
headmaster and his deputies. When an
institution has frequent ethnic fights, the
administration must be held responsible.
-Pi Poro, Mount Hagen
 /

Jiwaka students at Pupils flee Fatima

Fatima want compo
Post-Courier, 26.05.2010
Western Highlands students attending
Fatima Secondary School in Jiwaka have
blamed the school's administration and
Banz police for neglecting their call for
assistance when they were being attacked by
local students and villagers.
amid ethnic clash
Post-Courier, 25.05.2010
Seven female students were allegedly raped,
some are still missing from campus and
around 250 boy students escaped from
invading villagers after a fight broke out
at Fatima Secondary School on Sunday
evening.

School land dispute Fatima school yet to

Post-Courier, 20.03.2009 start classes
The Land Title Commission has been asked
to conduct a public hearing over the land Post-Courier, 13.02.2009
compensation claims for the land on which
Fatima Secondary school is located.

Post-Courier, 30.07.2004
A Grade II student from Fatima Secondary
School was pack raped near Banz in the
Western Highlands Province on Tuesday.
Banz police station commander Inspector
James Gispe confirmed the incident,
saying the girl was walking home with her
boyfriend.
2 Make a time line to show the different events and the time people had for action.

3 Discuss these questions:

a What rights have been abused? (Make a dot point list of the different rights.)

b Who should have been protecting the different rights?

c How many different leaders can you identify in these problems?

d Who is the leader to bring all these leaders together?

4 How can leaders solve this problem? What should citizens and community members
do to support finding solutions for these types of problems? Summarise the issues and
possible solutions in a table or diagram.

Lesson to learn: if you only read the letter in the National, you would only have
a partial idea of the problems the different leaders have faced over the Fatima
School. It is important to search for as much information as possible. A good leader
is well informed.
GOVERNMENT
The three basic parts of government
The national government has three parts:
1 The legislature. This is parliament. This is where the laws are made.

2 The judiciary. This is the court system. This is where the laws are enforced and interpreted.

3 The executive. This provides the leadership and direction to government. It is made up of the Prime
Minister and Cabinet. It oversees public services.

The Public Service and other government bodies support government. They provide services to the public.
They answer to different ministers in the executive.
The Constitution and the organic laws give the basic rules for all three parts of the PNG government.

The three levels or tiers of government

Papua New Guinea has three levels of government: national, provincial and local. The Constitution gives rules
for all three levels of government.
• National government. The National Parliament makes many rules for the whole country. Parliament
decides on what taxes PNG should have. Parliament also decides on spending for the nation. The National
Parliament provides the organic law to allow provincial and local taxes. (We will look further at the national
level of government on page 284.)
• Provincial government. Each province
and the National Capital District has
a government. This is the second
level of government. It helps provide
public services along with the national
government. The provincial Governor
is now both the head of the second
level government and the member for
the regional open seat at the national
level of government in the National
Parliament.
• Provincial governments share service
responsibility with the national
government. For example, they are East New Britain provincial government office.
responsible for parts of the education and
health system. They also provide some
infrastructure such as roads.
 West Sepik Eastern Highlands

New Ireland

Provincial flags.

• Local government. The third level of government is at the district level. Local governments are s osed
to work directly with the community that has elected them. There are some very strong local gove nments.
Many are not strong. Some do very little work.
• Local government can make laws that are enforced by Village Courts. These laws deal with local c munity
problems like gossiping, fighting, marriage problems, land use and drunkenness.

II Discover
Divide the class into three groups. Eachgroup takes one level of government. Eachgroup lists as many e amples
as they can.You will make different lists to show:

a the different parts of this level of government

b how this level of government works in your daily life-what services are they providing

c how important this level of government is to you

d The strengths and weaknesses of this level of government.

2 Eachgroup presents its examples to the class. See if class members can add new examples. Then dis show
important each level of government is.

a What are the most important services?

b How well are they working?

c Do you need more levels of government? Or the same levels? Or do you need fewer levels of gove ent?
 Ii Challenge
1 On a poster, draw a diagram of the different parts of government. Show how they are
connected.

2 Now think how you could show the Constitution and other laws applying to government.
Is there a simple way to show this?

Debate
Form two teams in class and debate these statements: "Three levels of government
is too many and too expensive. We need lessgovernment that is more effective" vs
"Three levels of government is about right to be effective and the cost is worth it."
Did you know?

Theformal work of The National Parliament

parliamentis done
We now move to look at the top level of government: the National Parliament. The
in "the,House".
ThismeansOQ the customs and rules for parliament started in England.
floor of parliament
wheredebateand
deliberationtakes
place.

The PNG National Parliament British Parliament

Parliament follows procedures. This includes rules and customs. The procedures are
designed to be fair. All parliamentarians have the opportunity to give their ideas in
parliament. The minority and majority have a chance to speak on any issue before
parliament. This is very important in making laws and spending money. It gives
everyone time to think and consider an issue. Decisions can then be made by voting.
Key term
Making laws
statute law a
law written by The National Parliament makes statute law. This is a very important part of its duties.
parliament in the The process takes time. Parliament must follow rules. The rules are made to help
form of bills parliament make good laws.
Standing Orders
The rules for operating parliament are called the Standing Orders. Parliamentarians
must know how the Standing Orders work. These rules have been made by
parliamentarians themselves to make fair procedure possible. They protect parliamentarians. They re
standards of them. For example:
• A parliamentarian needs to state any conflict of interest when debating in parliament. If the debate
rules for gold mines, for example, any parliamentarian with a gold mine, or any interest in a gold
must state that. Any interest would include wantoks and family. Legally, a parliamentarian must de
interest. The parliamentarian can then join in the debate or stay out of it.
• A parliamentarian has privileges that other citizens do not have. A parliamentarian can speak freely
House. A parliamentarian can make statements about people or situations on the floor of parliame
Parliamentarians cannot be taken to court for any statement. However, they cannot speak about
before a court, or use bad language against the Queen, the Governor-General, other parliamentaria
judges.

C Discuss
1 Why does parliament need rules?

2 Why has it taken a long time to develop the rules?

3 Why are privileges important for parliamentarians?

II Explore
1 Everyone has many interests. Sometimes these interests are in conflict.

a Collect newspaper articles where there is a clear conflict of interest.

b Collate them as a poster. Under each article write a short explanation of why it is a conflict of .

Parliamentarians represent you

You have studied the idea of roles in
social science. Parliamentarians have
an important role in government. This
is being the people's representative.
Parliamentarians represent the place and
people that elected them. This should
include all the voters in the electorate, not
just the voters who voted for them.
 C Discuss and respond
Readthe following letter to the editor and then discuss the questions below it.

Obura- Wonenara needs services

Letter to the editor, Post-Courier
30 June 2010
As a true son of the Obura- Wonenara
Electorate, I am very sad to see my uncles,
brothers and father carrying heavy white
bags of coffee and climbing the big
mountains, crossing the fast flowing rivers
and waiting for hours for PMVs to reach
towns.
We voted you [our MP] in for services
and not for drinking, buying expensive
houses and showing off in dark glass
vehicles. We need basic services. Our roads,
our bridges, our schools and health centres
are in big need of your hand. Currently,
many of our villagers have been affected
with snake bites and many children, mothers
and fathers are losing their lives while some
are still fighting for their lives in the health
centres.
When all those painful sorrows came to
us, the first thing we thought of was our MP
Is our MP dead? Ifhe is still alive, then why
doesn't he perform some actions to meet our
problems!
Gobontas 008
Via Email

2 Discuss these questions:

a What is the attitude of this writer towards his Member of Parliament (MP)?What is his
reason?

b What happens when leaders fail to represent their electorate?

c What punishment might there be for such a leader?

IIInvestigate
Working in pairs, interview 10 people from your area about how they are being
represented by their local Member of Parliament. Summarise your findings in point form.

2 Collate all class responses and send a letter to a newspaper with a summary of what
students found out.

Making laws in parliament

Did you know? Parliamentarians make the laws for Papua New Guinea. Any parliamentarian can bring
ideas to parliament for a law or laws. This can include:
• making new laws
• making amendments (changes) to new laws
• replacing old laws
• voting against new laws
• voting against changes to old laws
• voting to repeal laws.
191 Explore
1 Use the newspaper and any other sources you can find. Look for examples of new laws.

a Who do the laws benefit?

b Who brought them to parliament?

c Can you find out who voted for them and who voted against them?

t:J Discuss
1 Are there laws that you think should be changed?

2 Are there laws you think should be repealed?

~ 1930s Prohibition
~ A famous case of repealing a law comes
@! from the United States.The US had a law that
prohibited or stopped the sale of alcohol. This
r;; was called Prohibition. It lasted from 1920 to
@ 1933. The law sounded good. For example,
there would be no more drunks and drunken
driving.
~ But the result was organised crime and
if secret drinking. The law caused more problems
than it cured. Repeal started in 1933 at the
Gangsters such as AI Capone
national level. It took longer at the state level became powerful criminals because
(similar to provinces). of Prohibition laws in the USA.

Steps needed to make a law

There are several steps for making a law in parliament. Here are some of the important
ones. The first two steps involve preparing a proposed law to be considered by
parliament. The second two steps involve debating the bill in parliament until it is
passed as a new law.
 M[M~E.R.
or

First step: A Member of Parliament or a Minister receives Second step: Federal lawyers and constitutional experts
recommendations for a new law. research the idea and prepare a bill for parliament.

Third step:The bill is discussed in Parliament (three Fourth' step: If the bill passes, it becomes law when the
readings) and then a vote takes place. Speaker of the House signs it and, in some cases, the law
is published by the Governor-General.

1 Idea for a law

The idea for a new law or a change to a law might come from:
• The winning party's platform. The proposed law is designed to keep a party promise.
• The Cabinet. Ministers may have received ideas for laws from their departments or from others (for
example, NGOs, businessmen and community leaders).
• A private member. This means a parliamentarian not in Cabinet.
• A parliamentary committee. An idea may come from a committee investigating an issue (for example,
committees on forestry, village development or law and order).
These ideas may be passed around and discussed at parliament. This is informal. Sometimes it is called
"canvassing" an idea.

(
2 Drafting of a bill
The formal process of making a law starts with a bill. This is what the law is called
before it is an actual law. It is the form in which the proposed law is presented to
parliament for consideration.
A bill must be drafted-that is, it must be written up. This is a special type of legal
writing. For example, a minister may request his department to start the process. They
may put down the basic ideas. Then special drafting people write the official bill.

3 Presenting the bill to Parliament

The next step is to formally tell the parliament. The parliamentarian proposing the bill
gives the Clerk of the Parliament" notice of intention to present a bill". The notice
tells the following:
• the title of the bill
• the signature of the parliamentarian proposing the bill
• the signature of at least one other parliamentarian supporting the bill.
The title of the bill is important. Only material that is covered by the title can go into
the bill. If a bill is about harvesting timber on clan land, it must have that in the title. It
cannot also make laws about water rights or other issues.

II Discover
Use newspapers or an invited guest to find out answers to the following questions:

a What bills (laws) has parliament been discussing recently?

b What bills have been passed recently?

c How important are these new laws?

d What laws do you think parliament still needs to consider? (Explainwhy.)

2 After discussion, summarise this information in a poster or written report.

4 Three readings in parliament

Once the drafting is finished, the bill is ready for parliament to consider. Parliament will
either pass or reject the bill. Once the bill passes it is called an Act of Parliament (that
is, a law).
The bill is now tabled in parliament. This means the bill and any other documents to
support it are placed on the table. The support documents stay there until the bill is
passed or rejected.
In theory, the bill must go through three readings in parliament to pass. Often the
process is much quicker.
 The parliamentary process for making a law.

Key terms • First reading. The first reading is done by the Clerk of the Parliament. This reading is
Notice Paper the for information and to put the bill on the official record. Normally only the title is read
daily schedule
out. It is up to members to read the whole bill.
for parliamentary
business At this point there are no questions. The bill is put on the Parliamentary Notice
Order of the Day Paper. It is listed as an Order of the Day for a later time. This gives other
the businessthat parliamentarians time to consider the bill. They can read and study it if they want to.
parliament must
addresson a • Second reading. The second reading happens when the Speaker names the bill on
certain day the Order of the Day. The parliamentarian proposing the bill moves that it be read a
Committee of
second time. Again, usually only the title is read out. The minister or parliamentarian
the Whole ali
the Membersof proposing the bill can make a speech about it at the second reading. This is the
Parliamentwhen time for debate. For many bills there is little debate and they are quickly passed.
examining and Sometimes five or six bills will be presented all at once. They may be quickly passed.
debating a bili
quorum the • Committee stage. Some bills may be sent to committees to be examined. There is
minimum a special committee for bills on private business. Bills on public law may go to the
number of Parliamentary Committee of the Whole. That means the whole parliament meeting
Membersof
Parliamentwho as a committee. The Committee of the Whole is still made up of all parliamentarians,
need to be but it can be less formal than parliament itself because it is a committee chaired by
present in order the Speaker of Parliament.
to passbills
The Committee of the Whole can consider all details of the bill. It may look at
each numbered part (clause) of the bill. This rarely happens. If it does happen, the
Committee of the Whole can make changes to the bill.
Proposed changes (amendments) should be circulated before the Committee of the
Whole meets. This does not always happen. Amendments must be consistent with
the bill and its title.
• Third reading. The third reading is the last one. Often it is just a formality. It can
be a time for final debate. Presently this is very rare. The bill needs a majority of a
quorum to pass and become an Act of Parliament.
C Discuss
1 Why do you think parliament has three readings of a bill? Why are the procedures often
shortened?
2 Why do the support documents have to be tabled? Who does this help?

3 What if the support documents are very long?Who will read them all?

Getting and spending money for government

A government needs money. This is called revenue. It pays for public services or public
goods. The government can raise money from many sources. Here are some examples:
• taxes on companies and individuals
• royalties on things like gas, oil, minerals, fishing rights and other sea products
• export duties on products like coffee, copra or cacao
• licenses and service charges
• grants from overseas donors (there are many; Australia is the largest).
The government can also print money. But if it prints too much, the money is worth
less and less. The government can also borrow money. But it must pay it back, usually
with interest.

Public services
Parliament decides how money is
spent. The parliament passes an annual
budget. This provides services to citizens.
Important services can include:

• health
• education
• defence
• infrastructure (e.g., ports, bridges
and roads) Education and schools are among the public
services provided by government.
• elections
• law and order (e.g., police, the courts and prisons)
• water and other services essential to urban areas.
Important services are weak in parts of PNG. They tend to be stronger in urban areas.
Different governments, from national to provincial to local, provide various services.
Often much money goes to paying public service wages. This leaves less for services.
 PNG budget an
C Discuss and respond
1 In small groups make a list of public services in your
impressive sight area. Divide them between those you think are well
serviced and those that are not.
Jenny Hayward-Jones
The PNG Government handed down its 2 Discuss these questions together:
2010 budget this week. Treasurer Patrick
I a What do you think are the most important services?
Pruaitch has predicted record high growth
of 8.5% per annum, almost double the
f b Why is it important for government to spend money
actual growth of 4.5% in 2009. The PNG
econ0'!ly recorded a major success story this f wisely?

year in continuing to grow at a robust rate i c What happens if government money is wasted?
and in surviving the global economic crisis
relatively intact, despite its high dependence
f

JJ'
on commodity exports.
!
The Lowy Interpreter, 19November 2009

III Challenge
1 What information can you find on the latest government budget? (The annual yearbook printed by the National
newspaper once a year gives all this information.)

2 Can you find where the budget is helping services in your area?

Assessment task one

Conduct a mock election or hold a mock parliament
For your first assessment task, your class can choose to either conduct a mock election or hold a mock
parliament. Your teacher will have all the details of the assignment for you.

Mock election Mock parliament

For the mock election, some of the things For the mock parliament, some of the things
you may need to think about are: you may need to think about are:
• candidates • what you will do in your parliament
• their campaigns (including policy platform • parliamentary procedures
and advertising)
• parliamentary officers
• the voting process • the roles of government and opposition.
• counting the votes. You can find further advice on running a mock
You can find further advice on running a parliament on page 319.
mock election on page 319.
 /

LAW AND ORDER

The law
Citizens are bound by the law. Think about laws for a moment.

Some laws are

Some laws are very old. The Ten
new. Laws for Commandments
business and that Moses gave
airports must the Jewish people
be new because are about 3000

Law and order is

important. There
are rules to obey.

all these laws

anyway?

Laws create order for people. You should be able to walk home safely from school. You
should be able to study peacefully at school. You should be able to sleep safely in your
home. There is generally order in societies. Laws support order.
There are formal and informal laws. Sometimes informal laws are called rules. At
every level you can find them.
 1m Explore
1 What rules are there in your family? What rules are there at school?What rules do you
follow among your friends?

a Make a chart listing some of those rules.

b Comment on what happens if you do not obey them.

Rules What are the rules What happens if rules are not
followed
Key term Family
customary law School
a law basedon
the customs With friends
of a culture or
cultural group 2 What laws do you know that come from government? Who makes you obey them?

Customary
Sometimes people in PNG are unsure about the
relationship between customary and modern
laws.
law
Customary law is still important in Papua New Guinea. For
land and traditional marriage it is very important. But it is also
changing. The many new ideas and relationships that you studied
in the history section (Unit 3) have brought new ideas about law
to PNG.
Both traditional and new laws are made to keep order. They
provide a framework for action. That means they allow you
to predict what someone will do or should do. Laws can be
disobeyed. Laws can conflict. The customary law of payback
conflicts with the formal laws against murder.
Many societies in PNG are still between laws. Often people want
more law and order than they have. The authority to make rules
is at many levels. Consider who has the authority around you.

rt Discover
1 Different clans and wantoks have different customary rules. Make a table about
customary law in your area.Yourtable should have three columns. The first column is the
clan or traditional group. The second column gives examples of the different rules the
group has.The third column tells what happens if a person breaks these rules.

Thegroup The customary rules (and any Sanctions (this means what
conflict with other laws) happens if you break the rule)
ExampleXX Clan A marriedman can only speakto his The man'sin-lawsbecomevery
mother-in-lawon specialoccasions angry.His wife becomes upset
when his wife is present

2 Discuss your tables in class.Try to estimate how many different rules there may be in PNG.
National law
You can see that there are many different rules and customary
laws in Papua New Guinea. Mr Iia Geno is a former Chief
Ombudsman of Papua New Guinea and a former Commissioner
of Police. He said that this was the reason for having one
national law for all Papua New Guinea citizens. There are 800
different language groups. Mr Geno has argued strongly that
the national law must come first for all citizens to have order. It
means that all citizens are protected by the rule of law. This is
the basis for national government. The rule of law is a concept
that supports citizenship

, What is the rule of law?

iR The idea of the rule of law comes from a long history where the rules kept changing. Kings and d
~ have often made up laws as they go. The people could find laws changing against them.
The rule of law means that governments can do nothing that is not permitted by law. The rule of la
concept includes:
1 No one is above the law. It should apply to everyone equally. This includes politicians, rich business
people, poor people, village people, workers and everyone else.

2 The rule of law has an independent court system.This ensures justice. The courts and judges do not
depend on the government of the day.

The rule of law ensures order. This requires agreement from most of society. It needs a police for e to
enforce the law and to stop lawbreakers.

The rule of law should apply equally to all Papua New Guineans.

r
2'95
 rI Discover
1 Readthe box "What is the rule of law?" on page 295.

2 Make a table about the rule of law in PNG.

• In column 1, list the three features of the rule of law

• In column 2, give examples of where each one applies in PNG.You can find these with
the help of newspaper articles
• In column 3, give examples of where each feature needs to be stronger. Again, the
newspaper may help you.
What the rule of law means Where it applies in PNG Where it needs to be
stronger in PNG
No one is abovethe law
The court system is
independent
Society hasorder

3 Collect articles for a class poster. Different class members can add comments about the
rule of law and the articles.

Key terms Types of formal laws

common law There are many types of formal law at the national level of government. These include:
law made by the
courts, with each • the Constitution and the organic laws
new case looking • the Acts of the Parliament
at earlier cases
underlying law • common law and laws adopted from other countries
the underlying or
• the underlying law.
foundational law
of PNG on which There are also emergency regulations. These are only to be enacted and used in very
all other laws sit special circumstances (such as war or a deadly volcanic eruption).
emergency
regulations There are also formal laws at the provincial level of government. And local government
laws that only has local regulations at lower levels of government. Custom can also be considered as
apply in times of part of the laws of PNG (we look at this on page 302).
emergencywhen
extra powers
may be given for C Discuss
authorities to act
1 What formal laws at the national level can you think of?
to savehuman
Iife and property 2 Can you remember an example of the government using Emergency Regulations?What
was it?

I
I Ways to classify laws
Laws in Papua New Guinea may be public or private. They may also be criminal

I
or civil.
Public or private law
1 Public law provides the rules between citizens and society. Society is
represented by the state. Examples of public law are:

laws about obligations to the state (e.g., paying tax, serving in the army [in some
countries])
laws about making laws and electing government.

12 Private law is about the rights and duties people have to each other. It applies
when a problem is not a threat to society but is between "legal persons".
(A legal person does not have to be a person like you or me; it can include
companies.)

People use private law when they are hurt, disadvantaged or suffer a loss from
someone's action. The injured person can sue the wrongdoer and receive
compensation. The state is not directly involved.

Private law is about civil (non-criminal) torts. These can cover damage to and
loss of property, trespassand other civil actions that may injure people. They
also include defamation (telling lies about a person that hurts their reputation)
or gossip. Torts do not cover contract law or statute law. These can also be part
of private law.

fj Criminal or civil law

1 Criminal law protects society against actions that harm the society. Criminals
are subject to police action. Murder, rape and robbery are all considered
criminal. They hurt people and they hurt society as a whole. There are many
types of crime at all levels of society.

Civil law is similar to private law. It is about the relationships between

individuals. For example, it covers marriage, contracts, torts and other legal
relationships between individuals. In some cases,the state may be directly
involved.

~ Do, think and decide

Readthe box "Ways to classify laws" (above).List at least one example each of:

• a public law
• a private law
• a civil law
• a criminal law.
 2 A PNG citizen is forty-five years old and has never enrolled to vote.
Did you know?
a Has he broken a civil law or a criminal law?
Publicand private,
civil andcriminal b Has he broken a private law or a public law?
law are not
exclusivecategories. c What type of law is the Organic Law on National and Local-LevelGovernment
Theyoverlap.Also, Elections?
a personwho is
a criminal and 3 Why do you think there are so many types of law?
murderssomeone
mayfacea criminal Common law
court, and then be
suedundercivil law Community, commune, even communist are words that have "common" as part of
for compensation. them. "Common" means something everyone shares. One example is property. Many
Or the criminal clans have common land where everyone has a right to shares.
ahd hisclan may
facecustomarylaw
compensation. n Explore
1 What would common law be?Think further. How many clans would have common law?

The idea of common law developed in

England over hundreds of years. In the
year 1000 AD, each village in England had
different laws. There was no common
law.
In 1066 AD England was invaded by
people from what is now France. This is
called the Norman Conquest. The new
leader was William of Normandy. William
sent out justices to do a census. They
counted people, animals, landholdings
and valuables the people owned.
This information was collected in the
Thisis howanEnglishvillagelooked1000 yearsago.Howdifferentdo you
thinkthis villagecustomarylaw wasfrom a PNGvillage'scustomarylawat Domesday Book. It was used to calculate
the sametime? taxes.
The justices that William of Normandy
sent out represented him as King. Sometimes they were asked to settle disputes.
Key term Over time, this became their main work. At first they used village or customary laws,
legal precedent but different customary laws gave different judgments. People started to prefer the_
using the way King's law, practised at the King's court. The King's law was developed by judges from
a court ruled past decisions made at court. Settling crimes or disputes in a new case was based on
on a past case
to determine principles from past cases. These past decisions are called legal precedents.
a presentcase Over time the judges developed a body of law that was common to everyone. This
before the courts
is common law. The advantage over customary law is that common law applies to
everyone and is consistent. It is based on principles of justice.
( ~7::\ \\
\ ~ )\
~ J)

Common law today

Papua New Guinea adopted English common law at Independence in 1975. It has been building its 0 I
common law since. Today, common law continues to be developed. This type of law is made by jud~ and
courts. It is different from law made by parliament, which make's statutory law (see pages 284-290). I
C Discuss and respond
1 In groups, discuss the following questions:

a How do you think common law helps build a state?

b Why is it important to have law that is uniform and consistent?

IIInvestigate
1 Arrange to visit a magistrate's court and sit in on a session (yourteacher will need to get permission to this
from the court).

,
2 Write a one-page report of your visit.

'.' ,
I
1l
The court system . " ,
The court system is the judicial arm of the government. The court system in p?pua New G~i;'ea con
a mix of indigenous and imported influences. It is divided into different ~6urtjevels, each of which
different powers and handles different cases.The different court levels are theVilla&e GOl!it/Local
District Court, National Court and Supreme Court. The Chi~fJuslice. is in c:hargeof all court levels i
Papua New Guinea. ' "

Who makes decisions? ot cast§s'dealt wi#?~

':r:ype'$'
• "--,, - ~ -I.

SupremeCourt at least three judges • appealsatthe highest levei

• constitutional'cases
NationalCourt judge murder,rape,violent robbery,treason (being
disloyalto the country)
District Court magistrate breakingand entering, deliberateproperty
damage,theft, dangerousdriving
LocalCourt magistrate minor fighting, traffic offences,using bad
language
VillageCourt villagemagistrate fighting, gossiping,traditionalmatters/
customs, drunkenness
Did you know?

An absolute
majority is different
from a simple
majority.An
absolutemajority
is morethan 50%
of all the elected
pariiamentarians
in PNG.A simple
majority is 50% of
the parliamentarians
actuallypresent
The Supreme Court is the highest court in PNG.
in parliamentfor
One of its roles is to interpret the Constitution.
a vote. (Topass
legislation,only a
quorum is needed. Constitutional law
This is a third of all and changing the
pariiamentarians
electedat that time.) Constitution
The Constitution and organic laws are the
Parliament can change the Constitution but it is
highest law in the land. They are supreme. difficult to do.
The National Court and Supreme Court
can interpret constitutional law. Their rulings are important.
Parliament can amend (change) the Constitution To do this is hard. To change the
Constitution, parliament must have different majorities for different parts of the
Constitution. For some parts, it needs an absolute majority. This means that more than
50% of parliamentarians must vote for the change. Other parts of the Constitution
require a two-thirds majority of all parliamentarians. And other parts require three-
quarters of all parliamentarians.
Organic laws are a type of extension to the Constitution. They can only be made on
certain areas of government. These are named in the Constitution. Organic laws can be
made, for example:
• about provincial boundaries, provincial and local governments
• about National Capital District boundaries and National Capital District government
Key term • about leadership requirements, and the use of the PNG Leadership Code by the
ombudsman Ombudsman
official appointed
• about elections and how the Electoral Commission is to function.
by a government
to investigate Sometimes a leader may break a rule of the Leadership Code. An organic law covers
and report on what the Ombudsman can do in this case. The Constitution covers a part of this.
complaints
made by citizens Organic laws extend the Constitution.
againstpublic Organic laws are more difficult to pass in parliament. They have special requirements. It
authorities is similar to amending the Constitution.
Some laws are more powerful than other laws. This means that if two laws conflict, then the more pp
law is the correct one. Constitutional and organic laws are the most powerful in the land.

r::J Discuss
Discuss in class:

a Why would someone want to amend the Constitution?

b Why is it difficult to amend the Constitution?

Applying the law

The Constitution makes everyone equal under the law. But what happens in practice? People do not k ow
their rights in many PNG villages. This is a big problem
The power of the law is only strong if it is applied If people don't know their rights, the law can be
People need to understand and respect the law for it to be strong. People need access to legal services for the
law to be strong. People who cannot read or write must have someone else to help them with the la .

That company We didn't have

came and took all
our trees. .,_... -....__
 Debate
Form two teams and stage a debate putting different points of view. Use newspapers
or collect information from people around you to help you prepare. Choose one of
these debate options:
Debate option 1 Debate option 2
"The laws in PNG are not enforced "The laws in PNG are almost equal
strongly" for everyone"
vs vs
"The laws in PNG are enforced "The laws in PNG are not equal and
too strongly." favour the rich over the poor."

When laws do or do not apply

Customary law
The Constitution recognises customary law. It says it can become part of the underlying law of PNG. But it
lists three ways customary law cannot be used:
1 for any custom that conflicts with Constitutional law (that includes all the rights the Constitution gives)

2 for any custom that conflicts with a statute (a law made by parliament)

3 for any custom that is repugnant to the general principles of humanity.

Parliament has the right to make Acts about a customary law. An Act can explain the use and purpose of the
customary law. The Act will show how it is applied. It will settle conflicts between customary laws that differ.
So parliament can turn some customary law into statute law.
Customary law is used most in Land and Village Courts. Sometimes it conflicts with the Constitution. The mix
of customary and other law is still growing.

Common law
In the Constitution, Papua New Guinea has taken "the principles and rules of common law and equity in
England ... as part of the underlying law". As with customary law, there are times when common law does not
apply. For example:
• Common law does not apply if it is in conflict with the Constitutional law. The Constitution is the most
powerful law of all. It is above all the other laws.
• Common law can be challenged on other grounds, generally on a case-by-case basis.
• There may be times when customary law applies instead of common law. Again, this happens most often
in Village Courts and Land Courts.
 Bad laws
The Constitution also says that if a law has a very bad result, then it is an unlawful act. This could be I e case
where the law:
I
• is harsh or oppressive
• has a punishment that is too strong for the crime, or says there should be no punishment at all
• cannot be justified because it abuses the" dignity of mankind".
This applies to individual cases. The law may be good in most cases, but sometimes it may not be g ([)(j or
correct to use.

II Discover
Invite a village chief or Village Court magistrate to talk to your class about how customary laws are ma and
applied. Gather information to answer these questions:

a What are the most important custom laws in your area?

b Can they be applied under the Constitution?

c How do they relate to other kinds of law?

d What custom law do you know that conflicts with the three points where custom law cannot apply? 0 people
in your society accept this? I
Underlying and future law of Papua New Guinea I
You have been introduced to many different types of laws. Another idea of the Constitution is to deve op an
underlying law. This is like the base or foundation to a building. All the other law sits on top of it.
Papua New Guinea continues to develop its underlying law. This is determined by the courts and by
parliament. Remember, there are various parts to PNG law:
• constitutional law
• customary law
• common law
• statute law.
The underlying law must coordinate these parts. If there is no law, then the Supreme Court and the I tional
Court can make a ruling on what should happen. The National Court and the Supreme Court are chan d with
keeping all the laws consistent. For example, the Supreme Court can determine if a statute conflicts I ith the
Constitution.

I
The law today and tomorrow
Society is always changing. Think of the many reasons for change, for example:
• Populations are rapidly growing .
.• Technology is inventing new things that change how we live.
• Ideas are changing about what is right and wrong.
All this means that the law must change. The Constitution provides a framework.
Parliament can make laws that provide details to the principles. These can reflect the
ways that culture changes. The lawmakers should reflect the values of the culture and
the changes that society makes.
The courts, which interpret the laws, will also reflect changing cultural values.
Sometimes the courts will have a case where the law is unclear or where no law exists.
This is when they may set a legal precedent. This is then added to the common law and
can be used in future cases.
Other changes come from parliament making new laws or making amendments to the
Constitution.

~ Do, think and decide

1 Examine some ways that the law may change in the future in PapuaNew Guinea.

a Make a list of the five most important changes you can see in the society around you
(for example, mobile phones, new types of music or newcomers to the local area,
population growth, new industries or some other very new things).

b What new laws may be necessary for each item on your list?

c How will the new laws be enforced?

2 Share your ideas with the rest of the class.

C Discuss and respond

1 How much is law an answer to problems in society?

2 What other answers are there for problems in a country?

Social contracts: modern and traditional

Written laws and contracts
Formal government is based on written contracts. The principles for the contracts are
written down. For example, the right to life and liberty are basic principles. These are
written into the Constitution. Common law has built on these principles.
People often call a constitution a contract A contract is a
between the citizens and government. written agreement
This is known as a social contract. Each between two or
side has duties and responsibilities. Each
side has rights. A very important principle
to this is that everyone is equal before the
law.
You have spent weeks looking at the
rights and responsibilities of citizens and
government. Every day in the news you
will hear about government and citizens.
You can consider how well rights and
responsibilities are being developed.

Customary law is not written

down
Customary law is oral. This means it is spoken. It has been passed down from
generation to generation. We do not know how it has changed over 50 000 years.
Different groups may have different customary social contracts and laws. For example,
the Tolai, Motu and Engans all have different rules. Some general principles on land use
and compensation are more common. The idea of the big man is also more common.
There are important roles for women in Melanesia. The idea of the big woman is not as
common.
In this unit we have focused on formal government. You must analyse how this works
in your particular culture.

The underlying law

Remember the concept of the underlying
law? This is the future of government in
PNG. The Constitution considers both
formal and traditional law. The idea is
to build a system of law that combines
democracy with Melanesian values.

Can the values and rules of Melanesian cultures

you know add to the laws of PNG? Can they help
develop PNG?
(I Discover
1 Compare what you have learned about formal government with traditional systems. Make a table and discuss it in
class. Below is the outline of the table. Some items are filled in. All the rest are for you to fill in. You can add more
units to it.
-n.
Form.f!1
government and law~ '="
- ~ TradfiJsl'algbver:::l~nt and laws
Based on the Constitution Based on rules that are understood from
generation to generation (cultural values)
The Constitution is a written contract

The Constitution is the highest law in Papua

New Guinea
The Constitution is an agreement between
citizens and government
The Constitution guarantees all citizens are
equal
Citizens have a right to vote for
parliamentarians to represent them in
government
All adult citizens can vote

Parliamentarians make the laws

There are constitutional, organic and other

rules about how to make laws
The courts interpret the laws

Government provides services

[Add another item from your study]

[Add another civic and citizenship item]

[Your ideal

2 Discuss in groups or as a class:

a Where do traditional laws and government conflict with the ideas of the Constitution and formal government?

b Where can traditional law and formal law combine in PNG to develop an underlying law?

c Is it important for parliamentarians to follow the Constitution and the formal laws of PNG? Why/why not?

d Is it important to keep Melanesian values? Why/why not?

e How do politicians and government workers know what is right and wrong?
ETHICS FOR GOVERNMENT
What are ethics?
Ethics is the philosophy of the best way to live. Many people have studied ethics.
Ethics are important in developing democratic government. wrong
Society must
Ethics looks agree on them.
at the principles For example, take
beneath a the right to life.
decision. That is We agree on the
principle that lives

J.I Discover
What are your ethics? In other words, what are the values that you think are most
important? Make a dot point list under the heading "My ethics':

2 What are the ethics of the Constitution?

a Look at the first part of the Preamble again (see page 248) What does this tell you?

b Consider all the rights the Constitution gives to the people of PNG (see page 255).
What does this tell you?
 /

Did you know? C Discuss and respond

The word "ethics" 1 Why are ethics important for government?
comes from the
2 See what articles you can find in newspapers about governments around the world. What
ancient Greek word
ethos. Ethos means examples can you find of good ethics and bad ethics being practised? Make a poster of
your characteror examples.
values. It is about
how you live your Government decisions involve ethics. The public good is an important value or ethic.
life. The idea of a public good is that it is something that benefits everyone. For example,
public education for all children is a public good. It provides benefits to all citizens.
A road may be a public good if it is open to everyone and well planned. (It would be
Key terms unethical if the plan for a new public road only goes to the home of the Minister for
public good a Roads and he approves it. This would be a conflict of interest.)
benefit to the
public
conflict of
interest where
an official hasa
private interest
that may work
against his or her
public duty
private good
personal
property or
personal interests

Which of these is a public good and which is a private good?

A private good is something personal. It does not serve everyone. If you have a
private bank account, that is a private good. The funds are for you. They don't benefit
everyone. Another example is a private road that you build and pay for.
Public funds (public monies) are different. They are a public good. The idea is that they
should be used to benefit everyone. The ethical value is that public money is for public
good while private money can be for private good. Your duty is to pay tax with some
of your private money-that is for public good. You can also donate private money for
public good-that is charity.
Problems happen when public money is used for private good. This is not ethical.
Politicians or public servants who take government funds to benefit themselves are
unethical. This is called an abuse of office.

There are other ways to be unethical in government. Other abuses of office include:
• taking bribes to benefit wantoks or special businesses
• selling secret government information
• using influence to get special treatment for a company or wantok
• forcing people to be unethical by threatening people with loss of their jobs
• failing to keep the law and people's constitutional rights
• not performing duties and not protecting citizens.
These kinds of abuses of office are all abuses of power. People have given government
power. Do you remember the idea of a social contract or agreement? The ethical use of
this power is very important. It is corruption when it is abused. Corruption is unethical
behaviour in government.

r::::::J Discuss and respond

1 Readthe article on page 310 from the National.

2 What ethical issues are raised by this editorial? List them on the blackboard.

3 Discuss these questions:

a What is the conflict of interest on gun control?

b What abuses of rights are exposed in this editorial?

c What traditional and modern problems are combined with guns and tribal warfare?

d Does the right to freedom of thought include belief in sorcery? (And does that allow
you to kill people as a result?)

4 What solutions can you propose for the many ethical issues the article raises?

IIInvestigation
1 Searchthe news and bring examples of corruption to class.You can also ask friends and
family for any examples of corruption that they know. Be sure to look for facts only.

2 What are the ethics involved in each example of corruption? (That is, what are the rights
and wrongs of the case?)Write a brief comment on each example.

~~~ ~ ~)I))IJ(~"~..F·I'\Y(Ii~mtUl
Debate
Form two teams in class and debate these statements: "Ethics are nice, but it is more
important to be rich and powerful even if it means keeping many people poor" vs
"Ethics are important so that everyone has a chance to live well."
 Expunge sorcery and tribal fights
Editorial Might it have to do with the fact that
up to 30 MPs in the current Parliament are
There can be no two disruptive traditional known by the police to have their own illegal
practices that have been carried into modern arms caches? If this turns out to be fact, then
PNG with such chaotic consequences as PNG is in deep trouble.
sorcery and tribal fights ... The sooner these
The other nemesis of peace-loving
two practices are outlawed, the better Papua
Papua New Guineans is the paranoia over
New Guinea will be.
sorcery ... Men, women and children are
Tribal fights flare up all over the murdered in cold blood all over the country
five Highlands provinces. Businessmen, over sorcery claims.
professionals and even MPs get involved
Just outside Mt Hagen in a sorcery-
in the conflicts. The proliferation of guns
related kangaroo court, a father and son
has taken the conflicts to another level
were hung and burnt alive.
where there is now capacity for wholesale
massacres ... Police turned up but were forced back
by villagers who seemed to have far superior
Tribal fights can and will be contained
firepower in guns. The police reported the
once the Government has taken control
matter to HQ and did not pursue the case
of the gun problem in the country. Gen.
further.
(rtd) Jerry Singirok warned that guns
posed a serious security threat to PNG. He
would know.As the man who led the Guns The National, 30 June 20 I0
Committee on a road show covering the
country, Gen. Singirok has a fair idea of the
extent of the problem.
His Guns Committee Report has been
with Government for five years without
much interest or action shown. The National
has raised this matter of guns in this space
perhaps more times than it has HIV/AIDS.
The guns issue has the same gravity as
that ofHIV/AIDS with but one important
difference. The guns disease is curable. Civil
society and the public is at a loss as to why
the Government will not move on the guns
Issue.
Keeping government ethical
Integrity agencies in government
There are different bodies inside government whose job is to maintain ethics. These are called inteqt!
agencies. Integrity means being honest and doing ethical work. Some of the important systems and
agencies are:
• the Constitution and the courts
• the Ombudsman Commission
• the National Executive Council
• the public prosecutor and the police
• standing orders and operations of the parliament
• the human rights and law reform commissions.
The role of different integrity agencies in maintaining ethics is described in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: The role of integrity agencies

The Constitution This provides the written basis for the rules of government. It gives the rules doing
the right thing and avoiding doing wrong. Ethics is doing right and not doing ng.

The courts These determine if people have acted ethically or not. The courts interpret la
base for the law is the Constitution.

Ombudsman Commission Maintains ethical standards by investigating complaints against government.

Ombudsman Commission also investigates leaders to see that they are actin

National Executive Council The Prime Minister and Ministers are the members of the NEC. The NEC maKe
(NEC) decisions for the country. These decisions need an ethical base for PNG to d Islop.

The police The purpose of the police is to enforce the law. The law is based on people a tl g
ethically. I
Public prosecutor The public prosecutor presents court cases against people who are accused 0f breaking
the law. The public prosecutor tries to have people punished for bad ethical be aviour.

Public defender The public defenders (and private defenders) help maintain the ethical syste They do
this by ensuring people accused of a crime have legal advice and a legal defe ; e.

Standing orders and operations These provide an ethical base that parliamentarians should work from.
of the parliament

Law Reform Commission This examines the law and reports on how it is actually working and how it C jU d be
made better.

Other government bodies (e.g., All government bodies have important roles in doing what is right and avoidi what is
departments, commissions and wrong. This supports the development of ethics in PNG.
corporations)
I
C Discuss and respond
1 Discuss in small groups: What do you think the most important agencies for ethics are inside government?
2 Eachgroup takes a different agency from Table4.3.

a What information can you find out about them?

b What reports are there in the press 7

3 Make a table of your findings to present in class.

Helping with ethics outside government

Outside the government there are further systems and agencies to support ethics in government. Here are
some of the most important ones:
• The press. A free press is important for democracy and good government.
• Non-government organisations (NGOs). NGOs like Transparency International or Global Integrity work on
good ethics for government. Some churches promote good ethics for government.
• Citizens with the vote. Ethical voting means voting on principles for public good.
• Citizen groups for action. Citizens in groups can protest. This can happen when citizens become worried
about government ethics.

Judging a government's ethics

Some NGOs work to improve government ethics. Transparency International and Global Integrity are two
examples. They often produce reports about governments. They rate or judge governments on ethics. The
rating is like a test score.
For example, Global Integrity is an NGO that rates countries. It usessome 300 indicators. For the 2007
country report, PNG's rating was 69/100. Read what Global Integrity said:
"Papua New Guinea (PNG) receives an overall 'Weak' rating in the 2007 Global Integrity Index.
Oversight and regulatory institutions such as the Audit Institution, Ombudsman, and tax collection
agencies rate particularly well, while anti-corruption and rule of law mechanisms perform moderately
to very strong. Nevertheless, PNG suffers from significant weaknesses.Government accountability,
~ particularly in the legislative branch, can be improved while the country's performance in regulating
~ the civil service and procurement is poor. Although whistle-blowing mechanisms are in place, their
implementation remains weak."

••• ••••
•• •••••
• •••
GLOBAL INTEGRITY
I
•• ••••
•••• •
••
••••••
•• ••• Independent Information on Governance & Corruption
•
C Discuss and respond
Discuss in groups:

a What do you think are the strongest supports for ethics outside of government?

b How are citizen ethics important for government?

c How are leaders' ethics important for government?

2 Write a paragraphon each question summarising your discussion. Give reasons for your conclusions.

3 From your reading and research, write a paragraphon: How can PNG improve its weak rating on ethics
in government?

Ethical decisions: Does the politician take the money to share with his wantoks or does he make sure it is spent to ben
New Guineans?

Improving ethics and fighting corruption

Corruption is a problem in Papua New Guinea. All countries have some corruption. This happens wh
are not ethical. Corruption in government means seeking private gain from public resources. Many
concerned to stop corruption.

It is terrible that some government m

leaders are corrupt. medicine at the
But it is OK for a little So my baby d
corruption with my Corruption kil
wantoks in the office.
Fighting corruption
There are two major ways to fight corruption. Look at them carefully.
1 Tackle corruption head on. This is a law and order approach. It means finding the corrupt people and
prosecuting them. The PNG Leadership Code is part of this for politicians. The Ombudsman Commission
uses the Leadership Code to investigate corruption among government leaders. The police can also
investigate politicians and all public servants. The police also investigate themselves.

This method of fighting corruption punishes people directly. It uses the law, the police, audits and the
Leadership Code. These are its anti-corruption tools to investigate and prosecute corrupt leaders.

2 Strengthen the environment to prevent corruption. This is about improving ethical behaviour. It means
stopping the problems before they start. For example, it means every part of government has procedures
in place to prevent corruption. Each department and agency is open. The public can see how they are
spending funds. They can see who they are hiring and how.

This approach means a free press and transparent government. The environment produces or strengthens
a culture that is against corruption. The idea is to create a good environment for ethics. A good
environment helps to change the culture of corruption to a culture of honesty.

I sold my vote
because I wanted The politician said he
money. Now I was giving our village
complain about 10000 kina of his money
corruption. Who to help. But it is not
is to blame? Am I really his money, it is
corrupt? taxpayer money. Is that
corruption?
II Explore
In small groups, discuss this question: Which approach to fighting corruption do you think
will give the best results?
2 Compare the two ways of fighting corruption described on the previous page. Discuss
and add your ideas to the table below.
Ways to fight corruption
Heed-on approar:h: c;atcf'i:the fj/:)i1ty'amfIl$
_- loE!<~h,c::m ..
Cost This is expensive. Only some of the
worst cases can be followed when there
are many corrupt people. It can use up
resources. It may need very expensive
techniques to catch some corrupt
people.
Your ideas:
Impact The public sees people being
prosecuted. Many people are happy
when they see a politician or public
servant punished. The public may also
see people it thinks are corrupt not
prosecuted. This makes people unhappy.
Your ideas:
Results Results tend to be weak in countries
where ethics are weak. Some corrupt
people are punished but many continue
to be corrupt. Often many new laws are
passed to stop corruption. The problem
is that they are not enforced.
Your ideas:
Values Values include:
• Corrupt people deserve
prosecution and punishment.
• Fear of being caught stops
corruption (value: fear is a
powerful force).
• Your ideas:
ureate a n&w er'l'lIironment that
.1, prom'o,tes ggfJd f){hics to prevent
c~ cQrrufjiJion
Programs tend to be less costly once
they are firmly established. However,
starting the programs can be costly.
Your ideas:
Prevention has a lower immediate
impact. There are no newspaper
headlines. Over time, however,
corruption rates drop.
Your ideas:
Changing the environment in
government and government offices
allows more people to be ethical. It
makes it harder to be corrupt. This can
lead to more public good for more
citizens.
Your ideas:
Values include:
• People will be good if the
environment encourages
ethical behaviour.
• Most people want to do
the right thing (value: most
people are basically good).
• Your ideas:
An Electoral Commission billboard urging integrity during elections.

Debate
1 Form two teams and stage a debate putting different points of view. Choose one
of these debate options:

Debate option 1 Debate option 2

• Team 1: Government should spend
its money on tackling corruption
head on.
• Team 2: Government should
spend its money on changing the
environment.
• Team 1: Tackling corruption head
on and changing the environment
are the two best ways to stop
corruption.
• Team 2: Tackling corruption head-
on and changing the environment
do little to change corruption. We
need to find better ways to solve
the problem.

fa Challenge
1 Check corruption problems in other Pacific islands. How do they compare with PNG?

2 Between 2000 and 2010there were many problems with corruption in the police forces
and in land claims in the Pacific islands. How does this compare with PNG?

3 Why do you think that police and lands have many problems with corruption?
Revision
You now have the chance to review all the topics from this unit together. Here is what you have cov
• Independence
• the citizen
• citizens' rights and duties
• elections: the roles of leaders and citizens
• being a leader
• government
• law and order
• ethics for government.
Your final task is to analyse these against government today. You can use the National Government 0

provincial government. Maybe you want to split into teams and analyse both. Or split the work in other
Teams can report to the class on their findings.

Independence The citizen

• What has government • How well are citizens'
achieved since Independence? rights protected?
• How have government • How valuable do you
ethics developed since think PNG citizenship
Independence? is today?
• What is happening now? • Should citizenship be
expanded to a group
larger than just PNG?

Citizen's rights and duties

• What are your most important rights?
• How can you protect your rights?
• What are your most important
duties?
• What must you do to carry out
these duties?
 Elections
• Elections let citizens practise
democracy. How important is
this in PNG?
• Has Limited Preferential
Voting made elections better?

Law and Being a

order leader
• Does Papua New • What makes a
Guinea need more good leader?
laws? Or does it
• How can leaders
need the present
make good
laws to be better
decisions?
enforced?
• What is happening
• Draw a diagram of
to leadership in
the different types
government today?
of laws in PNG.

Ethics for
government
• What do you think the best
Government
way is to improve ethics in
• Do good ethics in parliament help create good
government?
legislation?
• What can you do to improve
• What else is needed to make good laws?
your own ethics and the ethics
of other citizens?

Assessment task two

For assessment task two, you must develop a set of rules for an organisation outlining member rights and
responsibilities. Details on this assessment task are on page 320.
ASSESSMENT
Assessment task one: conduct a mock election or
hold a mock parliament
There are two choices for assessment task one.
Choice 1: conduct a mock campaign and election.
Choice 2: organise a mock parliament and hold a debate on an issue.
How can I do well on this assessment?
Advice on running a mock election
If you choose the mock election option, you must:
• in groups plan, organise and conduct an election
• show you understand electoral procedures
• participate in the mock election campaign.
Here are some points to consider:
• First, decide what the election is about. How many parties and how many
independents will there be?
• Use the material on elections in this unit as a basic outline.
• Look for other books and material on elections at your school.
• Remember, you can get much more information from people in the community.
• Research and talk about how elections have been run before.
• Look carefully at the requirements the teacher gives you.
• Be sure to cover all the requirements.
• Don't be afraid to ask about anything if you are not sure.
• The smaller the number of candidates you have running, the easier it will be to count
the LPV system votes.
Advice on holding a mock parliament
If you choose the mock parliament option, you must:
• show you understand the processes and procedures of parliament
• use informed arguments to debate an issue
• participate in the mock parliament session.
Here are some points to consider:
• First, decide what you are going to do in your parliament. Will it be to consider a bill
or something else?
• If it is introducing a bill, be sure to make it simple.
• Check all the information in this unit on how parliament works.
• There should be other books at school that can help you too.

Unit 4: Civics and Citizenship 319

Assessment

• If you are near the National Parliament or a provincial parliament, you may be able to
visit to see how it is working.
• You can ask people who may have been in a parliament for more help on how it
works.
• You may find some information on how parliaments are working in the newspaper.
• You could pretend you had reached the third reading of your bill. This would allow
you to have a debate on it and suggest amendments.
• Then you could try voting to pass it.
• Look carefully at the requirements the teacher gives you.
• Be sure to cover all the requirements.
• Don't be afraid to ask about anything if you are not sure.

Assessment task two: develop rules for an

organisation
For assessment task two you must develop a set of rules for an organisation outlining
member rights and responsibilities
When you do this assessment task you must do the following:
• work in a group to develop a set of practical rules
• explain the purpose of rules and how they protect individuals as well as the
organisation as a whole.
How can I do well on this assessment?
1 In this unit you have had an introduction to rules, government organisation and
ethics. You have also looked at rights and responsibilities. Use this knowledge to
work on this assessment task.

2 A good idea may be to start with principles. Write down the principles for the
organisation. Then your rules can be based on the principles.

3 Remember you are looking at member rights and responsibilities

On page 321 are some rules from different organisations. They are only examples; you
will need to write other kinds of rules as well.

320 Social Science Grade 9: Outcomes Edition

From Britain
The following are examples of some
common rules found in organisations that
apply to employees:
• There should be proper and authorised
use of organisation equipment, time
and property.
• All absence from work, except
for reasons of sickness, should be
authorised.
Fair Work Australia rules for elections in
an organisation
Each registered organisation has a set
of rules that have been certified by Fair
Work Australia. Prospective candidates
should acquaint themselves with the
requirements of their organisation's
election rules. Most organisations have
specific rules covering:
• nominations

• All safety rules should be adhered to at • candidates' statements (if applicable)

all times. • eligibility of members to vote
• The drinking of alcohol or the taking • method of voting
of illegal drugs on the premises is not • preparation of ballot material
permitted.
• order of candidates' names on the
• Threatening or violent behaviour or ballot paper
language towards another employee is
• scrutineers
not permitted.
• term of office, and
Source: National Council for Voluntary
Organisations, UK • election dates.
Source: Australian Electoral
Commission

How to conduct a survey

1 Decide the purpose of the survey.This answers the question why you are
collecting the information.

2 Decide what information you heed to collect and how you are going to collect
it. For example, you could collect it orally-by asking people questions and
recording their answers. Or you could collect it by asking people to fill out a
written questionnaire.

3 Write suitable questions to ask people.

4 Implement the survey. If it is a written questionnaire, give it to the people who

have agreed to take part. If it is conducted orally, record people's answers in a
clear form (such as a table).

5 Collect and collate the results of the survey-bring all the information together.

6 Analyse, discuss and interpret the results. This tells you what the results mean.
7 Make a conclusion from the results, if possible.

8 If appropriate, make recommendations that follow from the results and

conclusion. Recommendations give some idea of what action should follow
from the survey, but it is not always possible to make them.

Unit 4: Civics and Citizenship 321

Glossary
abrasion
a type of erosion where loose
material wears away surfaces
absolute majority
more than half (50% plus 1). A
candidate must receive that many
votes or more to win
abuse of office
where an official uses his position
for personal gain
Act of the Parliament
a law that parliament has made
age
a time period that defines some
part of history
Age of Exploration
the time when Europeans explored
the rest of the world (approximately
1490-1610). Also known as the
Age of Discovery
aircraft carrier
a ship that carries fighter aircraft
alliance
an agreement to cooperate
Allies
the countries that fought against
German, Italian and Japanese
expansion in the Second World
War
anabatic wind
wind caused by air flowing upwards
or up-slope
arid
dry
asthenosphere
a thick layer of material in the
Earth's mantle that allows for
tectonic plates to move
322 Social Science Grade 9: Outcomes Edition
atomic bomb
a weapon that uses atomic or
nuclear forces, the same forces
that power the sun
Austronesian
a large family of languages
including many in the Pacific
Axis
the countries that supported
German, Italian and Japanese
expansion in the Second World
War
ballot paper
the piece of paper that each voter
uses to mark their vote
bias
prejudice or opinion that is not
open to further facts
bill
a proposed law being considered
by parliament
biome
a very large ecosystem like a
rainforest or desert
buffer
a country or territory that lies
between two major states or
powers
Cabinet
the National Executive Council
(NEC),made up of the Prime
Minister and all the government
Ministers
candidate
a person running for office in an
election
chain migration
when people from a place follow
others from that place to a
particular country or city
citizen
a member of a country (with
citizenship gained by birth or by
law)
civil law
law that deals with the relations
between companies or persons
Clerk of the Parliament
a government employee whose
office assists Members of
Parliament in running parliament
climograph
a graph showing the precipitation
and temperature of a place over
time
coalition
a group of two or more political
parties that have joined together to
govern
cohort
a group of people with a particular
characteristic in common (for
example, age or sex)
colonials
Australians working in the colonies!
territories of Papuaand New
Guinea
Committee of the Whole
all the Members of Parliament
when examining and debating a bill
common law
law made by the courts, with each
new case looking at earlier cases
conflict of interest
where an official has a private
interest that may work against his
or her public duty
constituency
the people a politician represents
within the boundaries of the
electorate
constitution
the written base that establishes
a nation's government and most
important laws
contour interval
the vertical distance between
contour lines on maps
contour lines
lines that show elevation on maps
contract law
law that applies to contracts (e,g"
contracts for work or purchasing
property)
criminal law
law that deals with crimes, which
are actions that hurt people or the
society
crust
the hard surface of the Earth
customary law
a law based on the customs of a
culture or cultural group
deciduous
a deciduous tree loses all its leaves
in winter
Declaration of Loyalty
an oath or affirmation that one is
loyal to one's nation
delta
a landform created by a river or
watercourse depositing material
where it enters a sea or lake
demographer
a person who studies human
populations and their characteristics
deposition
the process of depositing material
that has been eroded from another
place
dictatorship
a government under the control of
a single leader or political party
dynasty
a line of rulers from the same
family
economic migration
when people move to find
economic opportunity
emergency regulations
laws that only apply in times of
emergency when extra powers
may be given for authorities to act
to save human life and property
enclave
a small area of land with clear
boundaries inside a larger area
erosion
removal of Earth materials by
various natural processes including
wind, water, chemical and
biological processes
ethics
the ideas that define what is right
and wrong
executive
the part of government that leads,
made up of the National Executive
Council (NEC)
eyewitness
someone who saw an event or was
part of it
fieldwork
working outside of the office or
classroom; investigating an area
"on the ground"
firebombing
using fire or incendiary bombs to
set buildings and homes on fire
Foehn wind
a hot, dry wind that blows
the leeward side of mounta
forced migration
being forced to migrate, for
example, by war, natural ha
or slavery
formal law
Parliament, other auth in
the Constitution
freedom movement
movements in many coloni
aimed to make those coloni
independent
futures market
a financial market where
product at a fixed price but
glacier
a large mass of ice that
globalisation
the spread of ideas, p
technologies across the
that everyone shares in the
Great Depression
a period of severe economi '
hardship for much of the
from 1929 until the late 193
holding force
a military unit that is strong
to hold on to a piece of
Holocene
live, beginning about 12
ago
humidity
the amount of moisture in
Glossary 323
Glossary
indentured labour
where workers are bound by a
contract to work for a certain time
period (from two years to life);
similar to slave labour
independence
freedom; being a sovereign state
that can decide its own future
Industrial Revolution
the social change brought by steam
engines and other machines that
did not use animal or human power
(1750-1900)
informal law
a law agreed among people
but never officially written and
approved
invasive species
plants or animals that come from a
different environment and invade
new environments
katabatic wind
wind caused by air flowing
downwards or down-slope
Koppen classification
a way of classifying different
climates according to precipitation
(rain, snow, etc.) and temperature
labour migration
moving to another area or country
to find better work
landform
a natural feature of the Earth's
surface
Lapita
Austronesian settlers, originally
from Taiwan, who colonised parts
of the Pacific over 3000 years ago
324 Social Science Grade 9: Outcomes Edition
League of Nations
international organisation formed
after the First World War to
promote peace between countries
legal precedent
using the way a court ruled on a
past case to determine a present
case before the courts
legislature
the part of government that makes
laws, that is, the parliament
Limited Preferential Voting
a voting system in which a voter
can choose three candidates
in terms of preferences on the
ballot paper. The candidate with
more than half of the total votes/
preferences at the end wins
lithosphere
the outer layers of the planet Earth
including the crust and mantle
magma
molten rock and other melted Earth
material
mandate
an official command or instruction
from an authority
Marshall Plan
a US plan that helped Europe to
redevelop after the destruction of
the Second World War
mass wasting
types of erosion caused by gravity
pulling material down a slope
migration
the movement of people or animals
from one location to another
minister
the Member of Parliament
responsible for a government
department or other government
body
moraine
landform caused by glaciers
depositing materials such as rocks
mud map
a simple or informal map drawn by
hand
nationalism
a strong feeling of pride in your
country
natural growth
population growth where more
people are born than die. Also
called natural increase
naturalisation
citizenship gained by law
nomination
to formally choose a candidate to
stand in an election
Notice Paper
the daily schedule for parliamentary
business
ombudsman
official appointed by a government
to investigate and report on
complaints made by citizens
against public authorities
Opposition
the Members of Parliament who
are not in government
oral history
spoken history in song, stories and
spoken events of the past
Order of the Day
the business that parliament must
address on a certain day
organic law population pressure raze
a law that is defined in the when too many people are burn. "Razed to the ground"
Constitution and is difficult for competing for available space or means burnt to the ground
parliamentarians to change resources
refugee
j

over-population population pyramid a person who seeks asylum (help

having too many people for the (histogram) and protection) in another cou try
available resources a type of graph to show population to escape violence, misfortun or
structure by age and sex persecution
overseas assistance
providing money, people and precipitation Renaissance
goods to assist another country or water that falls to the ground in a period of European history
countries various forms (rain, snow, etc.)
practical science starting arq nd
oxidation preferential voting
1450. Renaissancemeans rebirth'.
a chemical process that binds a type of voting that lets the voter
oxygen to other materials to create list candidates from the one they Returning Officer
new compounds like most to the one they like least the person in charge of all
matters in an electorate, inc uding
per annum prehistory
both polling and vote countl g
each year history before written history
operations
started
platform
revenue
what a political party stands for and Prime Minister
money raised by a govern ent to
is promising to do in government the head of government
pay for public services ana goods
political campaign private good
Richter scale
a process of trying to get people to personal property or personal
a scale from 1 to 10 for rn asuring
vote for you interests
the magnitude (size)of earthquakes
Poll Clerk private law
rift
a government official located in a law that is between individuals,
polling place to direct and assist often about contracts
apart
voters
provisional result
rule of law
polling booth an early count of votes in an
a private area in a polling place election
law and have access to c
where you can mark your ballot
public good
alone satellite state
a benefit to the public
a satellite state depends on a larger
polling place
public law state for economic, military and
the location where people go to
law that covers how the political support
vote in an election
government interacts with citizens
scale
population density and with other nations; it includes
the number of people in a given criminal law
area measurements
quorum
population distribution the minimum number of Members
where people have settled around of Parliament who need to be
the world present in order to pass bills

Glossary 325
Glossary
seismic waves
the energy released by earthquakes
or other shocks travelling through
the Earth
social contract
the idea that leaders and citizens
have rights and obligations to each
other
social forces
values, attitudes, beliefs,
knowledge, ways of organisation
or opinions that make a change in
a society or part of a society (for
example, education, politics and
religion are social forces)
Speaker
the person who controls parliament
when it is meeting (the Speaker
is a Member of Parliament who
is elected by parliament to this
position)
specialisation
a focus on one particular body of
knowledge and skills
statute law
a law written by parliament in the
form of bills
stock market
a financial market where shares in
companies are bought and sold
strategic value
the value of something for
advancing a strategy or plan
subduction
the process of a tectonic plate
being forced downward into the
Earth's mantle by another tectonic
plate
subsistence
self-sufficiency; supplying all one's
own needs
326 Social Science Grade 9: Outcomes Edition
supply
the supply of money budgeted
by government and passed by
parliament to run government and
all its services
table a bill
formally bring a bill into parliament
to see if it can become law
tectonic plate
a section of the Earth's surface that
slowly moves over time
topographic map
a map that shows the shape of land
features and elevations
tort
a law about getting compensation
or payment for damages
trans
across. A trans-Pacific group is one
from across the Pacific
underlying law
the underlvinq or foundational law
of PNG on which all other laws sit
urban
relating to a town or city
urbanisation
the growth of cities and city
populations
weathering
the breaking down of rock
minerals by chemical or physi
means
writ
a formal document issued under
authority to allow elections,to be
conducted
written history
history recorded in writing, from
clay tablets to books
Acknowledgments
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