Economic and Political Weekly Economic and Political Weekly

Towards an Understanding of Gandhi's Views on Science
Author(s): Shambhu Prasad

Source: Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 36, No. 39 (Sep. 29 - Oct. 5, 2001), pp. 3721-
3732
Published by: Economic and Political Weekly
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Towards an Understanding of Gandhi's
Views on Science
Gandhi, it is argued in this paper, was not anti-science as is commonly misunderstood.
Through a look at his various experiments, many unrealised in his time, it is shown that
Gandhi's life defined a space for an alternative science for civil society that would operate
with different methods. Gandhi's focus on the non-physical resources in organising for
science, the satyagrahi scientist, for instance, is a radical departure from science policy as
expressed by Nehru in his famous Scientific Policy Resolution of 1956 and followed in India
since independence. He also had a universal message by providing a new cosmology of
man-nature and fact-value relations that he articulated and put in place through his various
experiments. With this outline of a theoretical framework for Gandhian science, the
case of the khadi movement is taken up for detailed explication.
SHAMBHU PRASAD
Reading of the rather extensive lit 'alternative' view need working out inCongress and the national movement have
erature on Gandhi reveals that his detail, the present collation will correct thenot adopted it... I have mentioned these
views on science rarely find men- situation of indifference, if not negation,considerations to you not to defend the
tion, almost to the point of exclusion. Based of Gandhi's views on science by sciencespinning wheel but so that you may realise
on his critique of modern civilisation andpolicy proponents in India. While Nehru's that Indian nationalism is not opposed to
the sheer lack of material on his views on views on science have been written about big scale machinery and much less to
science. I have no doubt that when it is
science, Gandhi has been labelled as anti- and quoted extensively, Gandhi's have not
in a position to do so, it will industrialise
science. This has not been addressed received any scholarly attention so far.
the country as rapidly as possible. Mean-
adequately either by his followers or Aldous
by Huxley was among the first to while, helpless as we are, we have to carry
social analysts of Gandhi's philosophy brand
andGandhi and the khadi movement as
out such makeshifts as possible... My
practice. In this paper focusing on anti-science:
his whole outlook on life and its problems is
Collected Works (1888-1948) we seek to
Tolstoyans and Gandhiites tell us that we a scientific one and I have never felt at-
address this lacuna by presenting a mustde- 'return to nature', in other words, tracted towards religion and its methods
tailed contextual collation and analysis
abandon
of science altogether and live like [Singh 1988: 15-18].
his views on science over the years.primitives,
We or, at best, in the style of our Nehru while seeking to explain Gandhi's
medieval ancestors. The trouble with this attitude to science actually ends up further-
look at the responses of scholars to these
advice is that it cannot be followed -or
representations. We then present new ing the divide between the so-called per-
rather, it can be followed if we are prepared
sonal view of Gandhi and the public view
material on Gandhi's views on the subject
to sacrifice at least 8-900 million human
that have been ignored and stand in need of the Congress. His view shared by a large
lives. Science, in the form of modern
of analysis. The readings presented here section of the Indian intelligentsia even
industrialisation and agricultural technol-
would in our opinion have the potential today acknowledges Gandhi's ability
ogy, has allowed the world's population
of answering squarely some of Gandhi's merely to mobilise people and rally them
to double itself in about three generations.
critics who saw his views as retrograde. around the call for freedom. The charkha
...Tolstoy and Gandhi are professed hu-
manitarians, but they advocate slaughter, is consequently important for its immedi-
This 'archive', it is hoped, will contribute
compared with which the massacres ofate economic and instrumental value in
to equalising the focus in Gandhian studies
frbm an overemphasis on his political Timur and Jinghiz Khan seem impercep- achieving freedom, to be discarded later.
philosophy to his contribution to intel-tibly trivial [Quoted in Singh 1988: 15]. Nehru makes a clear divide between him-
lectual history and the sociology Huxley's
of criticism of Gandhi was rep- self as a science person and Gandhi as a
knowledge. resentative of contemporary understand- religious man. This stereotype that sees
Gandhi's views on science have often
ings of Gandhi on science. Even Nehru, Gandhi in purely religious terms alone and
been seen as presumed upon his views onone of Gandhi's closest followers, revealed thereby outside science, was expressed
machinery, the machine age and modernthe extent of his misunderstanding whenseveral years later by one of the few social
civilisation. However, as we shall show, he responded to Huxley above: scientists who interacted with Gandhi -
there is ample direct reference to science It [Gandhi's] may not be a correct attitude; the anthropologist Nirmal Kumar Bose.
in Gandhi's discussions with co-workers As part of Gandhi's Noakhali effort of
its logic may be faulty... Even this attitude
or talks with fellow countrymen. The new 1946, Bose had to soon confront his own
is not necessarily accepted by the political
data presented here would also strengthenassociates and followers of Gandhi. serious disagreements with some of
the existing critique of modern science and Personally, I do not agree withGandhi's
it and experiments which led to his
development. While the contours of thisI should make it clear that the Indian departure from Gandhi's camp. What is
Economic and Political Weekly September 29, 2001 3721
significant is that Bose sought to explain the history of science movements in India, ethics, logic and politics - that one can
his actions as those of a scientist with Biswas in a recent study follows the re-construct his view of science (1991, 1997).
ceived view on Gandhi and science. He
politics being undertaken only in emergen- Visvanathan sees him as one of the great
and of
believes the Gandhian view, unlike that
cies (1974: 49-68). For Bose, science and most inventive of scientists of the
Vivekananda, is primarily spiritualswadeshi
politics were clearly separate entities with and era. To escape the modern west,
Gandhi had to subvert or transform sci-
ignores the material foundations of Indian
little possibility of one including the other.
He thus unwittingly cast Gandhi civilisation.
as a Nehru, he argues, followed
ence, playfully and politically. According
political and religious person alone the to him Gandhi's was a fluid science of
in model of Vivekananda more perfectly
contrast to himself as a scientist.1 This
[Biswas 2000: 205-17]. This representa-
resistance. In Gandhi's altered organisation
image has stuck and been made unforget-tion conforms to the stereotype ofofthe science, science would need money the
spiritual Gandhi ignoring the fact thatleast
table by Einstein's famous quote on Gandhi theand that there would be instead of
where he sees Gandhi as a saint and big laboratories, ashrams and gurukuls of
spirit and practice of the khadi movement
politician who was well versed with
wastheprimarily grounded in the material science (1997: 212-44).
art, not science of peace.2 culture of Indian civilisation. Others like While the above studies have challenged
Bose and Nehru indicate an attitude of Mclure miss the point entirely when they
Huxley's portrayal of Gandhi without being
discomfort and ambivalence to their leader
try to fit Gandhi into standard modelsapologetic like Nehru, there still remain
Gandhi and are unable to reconcile his of science and find him lacking, rather some questions. They have all used Hind
than questioning modern experimental
public persona with the more controversial Swaraj (1909) as the main text in their
'private' one. The response by Indian methods (1997). analysis. While it is true that most of his
scientists to Gandhi on the other hand To add to this 'missing' Gandhi in scienceradical critiques of science and modern
shares none of this discomfort. Meghnadpolicy studies is the missing 'science' in professions appeared in Hind Swaraj, the
Gandhian studies. Studies on Gandhi have
Saha, the scientist-architect of the plan- keen interest that Gandhi expressed for an
ning and industrialisation model in inde-
largely focused on his political philosophy alternate path in science finds little men-
with little, if any reference to his views ontion in this book. In fact, science finds no
pendent India, for instance saw Gandhian
science as entirely retrograde: science. Though the political scientist direct mention in Hind Swaraj. Yet given
Parekh has correctly argued that "a goodits importance in Gandhi's critique of
Amongst our leaders [are] a considerable
number incapable of seeing the great deal
and needs to be done on his [Gandhi's] modern civilisation, it has been the main
inevitable part which the new ageconception of of the nature of science [and]source or text for scholars studying
technic will play in India's destiny... his Onereasons for using the language of Gandhian thought and by extension sci-
comes across overdrawn pictures of the
research and experiments" (1989b), work ence. Our attempt here would be to show
imaginary good old days when nobodyon was
Gandhi's science has been limited. Some that such efforts are grossly inadequate in
supposed to have anything to complain of
recent scholarship has indeed attempted tounderstanding Gandhi's views on science.
and a tendency to attribute all the troubles
of the world to the evils of science ... We make good this lack. For instance, UberoiThere is enough evidence of Gandhi ex-
do not for a moment believe that better and sees Gandhi as having a distinct theory andpressing himself directly on the subject in
happier conditions could be created bypractice of the scientific experiment asmany of his other writings. On khadi and
discarding modern scientific technique and well as a scientific explanation that pre-education, and almost throughout his
reverting back to the spinning wheel, thesupposed the equality of man and natureCollected Works, in letters to his co-workers
loin cloth and the bullock cart [Quoted in(1982). Nandy argues that Gandhi was notand speeches, Gandhi regularly uses the
Visvanathan 1985: 100-101]. opposed to technology per se but to term 'science'.3 These could be seen as
Saha believed that the primary task of technologism, which was a condition thatnew sites to explore his writings on sci-
science in India was in "weeding outcreated a hierarchical relationship betweenence. Historically too, the emphasis on
medieval passion" and training the popu-man (those who possess technology) andHind Swaraj freezes Gandhi's view on
lace for "a proper grip and sufficient man (those who do not), and man and science to 1909, ignoring 39 years of his
operation of the beauty and power of nature. Gandhi, according to him, judgedscientific practice since then. Another site
science". In anothercontext, Saha informed a technology not on the grounds of whatthat is often used to study Gandhi's sci-
Russian scientists that he and his brother it was but on the grounds of what it re- entific views is his autobiography. The
scientists had "as little regard for Gandhi's placed, represented or symbolised (1985). scientific metaphor that he used for his
economic and social theories as you 'the Sahasrabuddhe whose work exclusivelyautobiography, My Experiments with
Russians' have for Tolstoy [Quoted in focuses on what he terms the 'science Truth, is well known. Similarly, the fact
Narayan 1960: 55]. question' argues that there is little that
work he made several experiments in the
Saha's caricature of Gandhi's views on field of
from the Gandhian angle on science though brahmacharya, dietetics and
science is important historically for thea lot has been written on his opposition
food. However, the notion of the experi-
role he played in formulating the ideology ment in his public life has not been
to machinery. He sees Gandhi's 'life-work'
of science policy in free India. Given such
as paving the way for a new dynamic examined adequately.
views, it is no wonder that science policy
theory of man-man and man-nature rela- This paper has been organised into four
writings in India have made no mention parts. We first explore Gandhi's qualified
tions that do not separate fact from value.
of Gandhi. Sinha while reviewing theHe sees Gandhi's critique of modern critique of science by looking at his early
relation of science to the Indian National writings on science covering his South
science hidden in his critique of modern
Congress charged Gandhi with an attitude western civilisation and argues thatAfrican
it is days. In it we highlight his
that was revivalist and hostile to modern only through his general philosophy - critique of the separation of science and
science [Kumar 1991: 161-81]. Tracing metaphysics, ontology, epistemology, morality. We also explore his institutional
3722 Economic and Political Weekly September 29, 2001
experiments on his arrival in India and of Science who visited South Africa in believed that, "when many Indians too of
look at Gandhi's response to his science 1904. Gandhi commended the associa- this calibre are born in India or South
critics covering the period from 1915 to tion's efforts in popularising science Africa,
and we shall cease to suffer as at present"
the mid-1920s. The period is significant (CW 5: 286). The above instances of
in bringing Britain and the colonies closer
for the non-cooperation movement and the to each other. In pursuance of the latter,
Gandhi's views on science from his early
spread of universal spinning through the he suggested that the association should writings indicate that Gandhi's position on
Congress. The spread of the movement meet in India and be renamed as the 'British
science was taking shape in South Africa.
and his views on machinery received Empire Association for the Advancement However. it is in his later years of stay in
critical responses from intellectuals, which of Science'. Such a visit, according tothat science finds increasing mention
India
forced Gandhi to articulate his position on Gandhi, would be greatly to the advantage
in Gandhi's writings, partly as a response
machinery and science. not only to India, but the association as
to very many critics.
In the second part we look at his fun- well (CW 5: 46). During the Non-Cooperation movement
damental critique of existing scientific This seemingly innocuous move for a
of 1919-20 and the popularisation ofkhadi,
practice through the case of vivisection - change of name is actually an early indi-
in that period Gandhi was often questioned
a part of normal science - and Ayurveda cation of his differences with the liberal
on his stand on machinery. Leaders like
- a traditional Hindu system. We then, in view of the British and members of the Tagore accused Gandhi of rejecting west-
the third part, examine khadi, perhaps the Indian elite like Rammohun Roy who sawern science. Gandhi had to repeatedly clarify
best site for his experiments in an alter- in the introduction of western science in his stand on machinery and these have
native science practice. We trace his usage India the key to India's emancipation. On been extensively collated and quoted
of the term "science of khadi" and see how the contrary, Gandhi placed science in the[Bhattacharya 1997, Parel 1997: 164-70].
he tries to make his khadi workers scien- larger context of decolonisation. The sci-This material tends to highlight however
tists. We examine his attempts to rMakeentist, he believed, was to benefit equallythe moral critique and portray Gandhi as
improvements in machinery, highlightingfrom interaction with the colonies and its anti-machine. They reveal little about his
his lesser-known creative attitude to sci- subjects. Popularisation of science, Gandhialternative practice evident from Gandhi's
ence focusing on the thirties. We review suggested was not a linear transfer ofkeen interest in improvements in machin-
some of the institutional innovations and knowledge from the expert to the lay person ery and various kinds of hand tools indi-
constructive programmes that sought to but had to be a collaborative effort. It was cate the contrary. Gandhi claimed that he
take this science to the villages. We con- only thus that science too could benefit had no design on machinery as such and
clude in the last section, by highlighting from the process. The inclusion of the had no intention to put back the hand of
the distinguishing features of his method colonial subject was to Gandhi a starting the clock of progress. No disturbance had
and its underlying cosmology. point for the rearticulation of the content been created by machinery that could pot
and not just the context of an alternate and be corrected. It was a mental state that had
Gandhi's Early Critique non-violent science that had to include the to be put right (CW 19: 241; 21: 114). It
of Science claims of dumb, subhuman creatures
is this principle that was to guide him in
as well. his search for improved tools.
Modern civilisation, far from having done
Gandhi's critique of science emanates This attitude is perhaps best revealed in
the greatest good to humanity, has forgot-
from his dissatisfaction with the divorce his letter to Daniel Hamilton on the newly
ten that its greatest achievements are
of science and progress from morality. He begun khadi movement. Gandhi requested
weapons of mass destruction, the awful
often quoted the scientist Alfred Wallace
growth of anarchism, the frightful disputes Hamilton not to be prejudiced by "any-
to argue that people's moral sense had in
between capital and labour and the wanton thing you might have heard about my
no way improved as a result of scientific
and diabolical cruelty inflicted on inno- strange views about machinery". He added,
cent, dumb, living animals in the namediscoveries.
of The advance of science had "India does not need to be industrialised
added "not an inch to the moral stature
science, falsely so called (CW 1: 189-91). in the modern sense ofthe term" (CW 22:
The boast about the wonderful discov- of Europe". It had not reduced hatred and
401, emphasis added). The modern way,
eries and the marvellous inventions of injustice (CW 12: 146; 16: 106-08 and 18:
Gandhi suggests, is not the only way to
science, good as they undoubtedly are 235-36).
in industrialise a nation. This different path
themselves, is, after all, an empty boastGandhi's early critique of civilisation of progress holds the key to Gandhi's
(CW 3: 414). and the modern professions found expres- science through which the khadi move-
The above quotes indicate Gandhi'ssion in some of his works, notably Hind ment was seeking to re-define machinery.
strong views on science very early in his Swaraj. However, despite his critique of As he argued he was not a romantic or
public life. The use of the phrase 'falselymodern science, he was appreciative of the
mystic out to "spiritualise machinery, but
so-called' indicates that Gandhi believed spirit of modern scientists. Amongst the to introduce a human or the humane spirit
that the prevailing practice of science hadlargely Indian readers of Indian Opinion among the men behind the machinery".
(begun in 1903), Gandhi sought to incul-
defects but this was not necessarily intrin- The message of the charkha, he reminded
sic to the scientific quest. Nor was such cate the courage and spirit of inquiry his
of American friends, was universal and
would show for Lancashire as well so that
a condition irremediable warranting a totalthe scientist. The journal carried examples
rejection. There was a need for the scien- of scientists that Gandhi felt were worthy
they would have to cease to use machinery
of emulation. In one such article, Gandhi
tific enterprise to undergo a course correc- for exploitation (CW 28: 188).
tion. This qualified criticism becomes praised Metussi's courage amidst dangerIt is perhaps not a matter of accident that
clearer in his response to members of the in collecting data from the volcano the more radical of his critiques on ma-
British Association for the Advancement Vesuvius while it was still active. He chinery and modern 'civilisation' was in
interviews with the 'moderns' both in India back as the early 1920s and also argued the science students to work with their
and abroad. His writings on science ad- that criticism must include a different hands, as science was one of the few things
dressed to his co-workers in India had a conception of the experiment and not just that involved accuracy of thought and
different colour altogether. It is in these be reduced to the realms of humanistic accuracy of handling:
letters, addresses and conversations that despair. Students in India labour under one very
we get clues to the nature and scope of his Vivisection according to Gandhi added serious disability. Those who go in for this
alternative science. The Non-Cooperation had not added "an inch to our moral height". class of education or for higher education
are drawn from the middle class. Unfor-
movement placed Gandhi as the nation's Though the scientific spirit of the west
tunately for us and unfortunately for our
foremost political leader. Strangely though, commanded his admiration it was quali-
country, the middle classes have almost
Gandhi's own self-image was not that of fied, because the scientist of the west took
lost the use of their hands... Science is
no note of god's lower creation:
a politician or a saint but that of a scientist:
essentially one of those things in which
It [saint] is too sacred a word to be lightlyI abhor vivisection with my whole soul.
theory alone is of no value whatsoever...
applied to anybody, much less to one likeI detest the unpardonable slaughter of
Unless our hands go hand in hand with our
myself who claims only to be a humbleinnocent life in the name of science and
heads we would be able to do nothing
searcher after truth, knows his limitations, humanity so-called, and all the scientists'
whatsoever (CW 29: 326-7).
makes mistakes, never hesitates to admit discoveries stained with innocent blood I
them when he makes them, and frankly count as of no consequence. If the circu-Asking the students to follow the two
most brilliant examples of Indian scien-
confesses that he, like a scientist, is making lation of blood theory could not have been
experiments about some of 'the eternaldiscovered with out vivisection the human tists who carried their profession for the
verities' of life (CW 17: 405-6). kind could well have done without it. And sake of it, namely,J C Bose and P C Ray,
We will explore this in Gandhi's viewsI see the day clearly dawning when the he remarked, "They cultivated it [science]
on vivisection as a critique of the existinghonest scientist of the west will put limi- for the sake of it... their researches have
scientific practice and on Ayurveda as atations upon the present methods of pur- been devoted in order to enable us to come
critique of techno-revivalism. In the nextsuing knowledge. Future measurements nearer to our maker ... I feel that we are
section, we will focus instead on his will take note notonly of the human family,
placed on this earth to adore our maker,
but of all that lives and even as we are
understanding of khadi as practice of an to know ourselves, in other words, to realise
slowly but surely discovering that it isourselves
an and therefore to realise our
alternate science. Defending himself
error to suppose that Hindus can thrive
against the charge of being anti-science upon the degradation of a fifth of them-
destiny" (CW 29: 326-27). Despite his
Gandhi often admitted that though he was selves or that peoples of the west can radical
rise criticism of the anthropomorphism
not an 'unmixed' admirer of science, he or live upon the exploitation and degra-of modern medicine inherent in the
was not a sentimental proponent of tradi- practice of vivisection, Gandhi was deeply
dation of the eastern and African nations,
tion. This is evident from his ongoingso shall we realise in the fullness of time,
appreciative of modern scientists' humil-
dialogues with Ayurveda scholars. Gandhithat our dominion over the lower order of ity and spirit of inquiry, a spirit that he
remained aware that one could not live creation is not for their slaughter, but for felt traditional practice solely lacked.
without science, provided though it wastheir benefit equally with ours. For I am This comes through in his dialogue with
as certain that they are endowed with a soul Ayurvedic scholars. Gandhi's severe
kept in its right place. He had seen the
misuse of science in his travels round as that I am (CW 29: 325-26). critique of western medicine for practis-
the world and believed that there were Through practices like vivisection mod- ing vivisection and thereby disregarding
ern medical science to him divorced itself
limitations even to scientific search. the claims of the non-human creation
from true religion and had separated thewas presumed upon a different cosmology
Existing Scientific Practice: body and the soul. By disregarding theof the god-man-nature relationship -
Vivisection and Ayurveda claims of subhuman creation, man, one which was non-hierarchical and non-
instead of being lord and protector of the violent.
The practice of vivisection for Gandhi lower animal kingdom, had become Traditional medicines like Ayurveda
was a shining example of the need for such its tyrant: and.Unani, Gandhi felt, had unlike west-
limitation in modern scientific research
Vivisection in my opinion is the blackest ern science, maintained a relation between
particularly since the practice of inflicting of all the blackest crimes that man is at
science and religion, body and soul, but
pain and violence on live animals was a present committing against god and his had not inculcated the spirit of research
part of the experimental method 'normal' fair creation. We should be able to refuse
that fired modern science and gave it
to modern science. Premised on a mecha- to live if the price of living be the torture
contemporary relevance. In 1921, inaugu-
nistic notion of the body and the universe, of sentient beings (CW 19: 357-58).
rating the Tibbia College at Delhi, Gandhi
it legitimated the subjugation of the infe- Scientists, in Gandhi's conception,
expounded his views on modern and tra-
rior non-human creation by and for the needed to recognise their own role in the
ditional medicine. His speech started with
human. This to Gandhi was ethically and cosmos. What science saw as progress,his radical and then well known critique
epistemically unacceptable. Recent cri-Gandhi wanted to qualify based on his
of modern medicine. In the same speech
tiques have highlighted vivisectory prac-experiences of the colonised and as a
however, he lauded the spirit of inquiry
tice not only in medicine as a machine, butspokesperson for the dumb creation. Forof the modern scientists:
in the concentration camps of Hitler andGandhi, the real challenge of science lay I would like to pay my humble tribute to
the bombing of Hiroshima during secondin carrying out experiments not on the the spirit of research that fires the modern
word war [Visvanathan 1997: 15-47]. 'other' - the colonised, the excommuni- scientists. My quarrel is not against that
Gandhi's writings on a non-violent cos- cated brothers, or the dumb creatures - but spirit. My complaint is against the direc-
mology anticipated these criticisms as faron the self. With this in view he exhorted tion that the spirit had taken. It has chiefly
concerned itself with the exploration of instead of a gloriously progressive and faith was all that it would take to turn
laws and methods conducing to the merely science. His criticism was about the lack the tide.
material advancement of its clientele. But
of humility and-complacency of profes-One such vaidya with whom he had a
I have nothing but praise for the zeal,sors of Ayurveda and not the discipline dialogue was Gangadhar Shastri Joshi.
industry and sacrifice that have animated itself. He remarked provocatively that Gandhi enquired from him in what way
the modern scientists in the pursuit after"I know of not a single discovery or inwas Ayurvedic treatment superior to the
truth. I regret to have to record my opinion
vention of any importance on the part of allopathic treatment? How was Ayurveda
based on considerable experience that our
Ayurvedic physicians as against a brilliant aimed at purifying the whole system rather
hakims and vaids not exhibit that spirit in
array of discoveries and inventions which than affording only temporary relief? Was
any mentionable degree. They follow
western physicians and surgeons boast". there any progressive research work being
without question formulas. They carry on
little investigation. The condition of indig-
Elaborating his position, as some vaids
done either in Ayurvedic materia medica
enous medicine is truly deplorable. Not were not satisfied with Gandhi's response, or in any other branch of medicine or
Gandhi added: surgery in terms of Ayurveda (CW 33:
having kept abreast of modern research,
their profession has fallen largely into I do like everything that is ancient and 439)? The letter is indicative of Gandhi's
disrepute. I am hoping that this college will noble, but I utterly dislike a parody of intention
it. to focus the critique of the dis-
try to remedy this grave defect and restore And I must respectfully refuse to believe cipline vis-a-vis allopathy and to learn
Ayurvedic and Unani medical science to that ancient books are the last word on the about the discipline. A month later he
its pristine glory. I am glad, therefore, that matters treated in them. As a wise heir to wrote again to Joshi saying that he had
this institutionhas its western wing (CW the ancients, I am desirous of adding tofound Ayurveda to be neither cheap.nor
19: 357-58). and enriching the legacy inherited by us simple or efficacious. Some of the pre-
In 1925, he was asked to speak at the (CW 27: 344). scriptions were most complicated. Even
Ayurvedic Pharmacy, Madras and later in Gandhi's position on science was not for for simple home treatment, he had been
the same year to inaugurate the Ashtangaempty revivalism. He maintained a fine yet obliged to use allopathic drugs. For in-
Ayurvedic Vidyalaya at Calcutta. On bothdistinct line that was critical of the preva- stance, he remarked that he found nothing
these occasions, he reminded those who lent practices of the vaids and full of praise as efficacious as quinine for malaria or
had gathered of his criticism of the vaids.for the modern doctors. At the same time iodine for simple pains or Condy's fluid
He was pained by the large-scale adver-it was also an endorsement of the Ayurvedicas a disinfectant (CW 34: 199).
tisements primarily of Ayurvedic tonics assystem as a coherent system comparable This dialogue with the vaids continued
sexual stimulants, ample proof that to modern medicine. The assertion that for several years. While in Sevagram in
Ayurvedic physicians were merely tryingancient texts were not the last word was January 1945, Gandhi became seriously ill
to capitalise on the past glories of Ayurvedato him an axiom that would pave the way experimenting with the Ayurvedic system.
for the market without any genuine re- for further research creating new textbooks To Shiv Sharma the vaidya who treated
search. He bemoaned the fact that there in a contemporary context. The vaids he him, he said that despite its failure to cure
was no association of Ayurvedic physi- observed had not yet created a contempo-him, he was keen to spread Ayurveda. But
cians that protested against these immoral rary Charkha Samhita (the classic it was only when a 'true practitioner' of
business and ethical practices. Testifying Ayurvedic treatise). Ayurveda went to the villages that this
to the spirit of the western physicians, he Gandhi's position can be appreciated would happen. Through his dialogue with
remarked that despite his strong views on better if one notes the contexts of his the vaids, Gandhi was seeking to explore
modern medicine the one thing that it had criticisms. His open criticisms were from if the system could be reformed and in a
in its favour was the humility of its prac-within, those of an internal critique, madesense upgraded. He was curious to know
titioners and its research. He wished that from platforms such as opening offor instance if Homeopathy or Ayurveda
this spirit would fire the Ayurvedic phy-Ayurvedic colleges or through his journal. could cure the cholera that had broken out
sicians too. Ayurveda's lost glory couldHe felt the need to revitalise a tradition in Sevagram and if experiments could be
only be recovered if the vaids acquired whose self-reflective practices had either conducted in that direction (CW 79: 42;
honesty of purpose and pursued thebeen lost or become blunt with disuse. He 81: 222, 224).
research spirit of the west (CW 26: 388,wanted to reform it from the inside and Gandhi's search for a true practitioner,
27: 44-45). not by pitting it against a more competitivehis satyagrahi scientist, was not a com-
Gandhi's controversial speech at Calcuttaand organised system from the outside.pletely successful one. Yet, from his
evoked a letter from Kaviraj GananathThis role of the internal reformer that writings, especially his letters to the vaids,
Sen, a senior practitioner, asking thatGandhi saw for himself becomes clear by we can get an idea of the method that he
Gandhi clarify his stand on Ayurveda. Inexamining the detailed correspondences would have pursued. To Vallabhram
his response, Gandhi repeated that many he had with individual practitioners.Vaidya, a practitioner who he believed had
Ayurvedic practitioners were mere quacksThrough dialogues with them, he sought the qualities of the satyagrahi scientist he
pretending to know much more than theyto raise and answer questions and get was looking for, Gandhi indicated that he
actually did and arrogating to themselvesthem to undertake research. He even and a few others should get together, form
an infallibility and ability to cure all dis-offered himself and his own institutions a team and train volunteers. He offered to
eases. Instead of studying the Ayurvedicas sites for experimentation. Through this absorb these volunteers in his own insti-
system and wresting from it secrets whichprocess, he wanted to create a few tutions even if they had no degrees (CW
appeared to be completely hidden fromsatyagrahi scientists amongst them. For 85:458). We find similar echoes in his Key
the world, they imputed to Ayurveda he believed, like in the field of politics, to Health wherein he talks about the kind
omnipotence making it a stagnant systemthat a few satyagrahis of purity of character of organisation that would be required for
a revitalised health care system. Though scientists. The Satyagraha Ashram that at Bose and Raman gave to their work:
mentioned in the context of nature cure, Ahmedabad provided the necessary insti- The science ofkhadi requires technical and
the statements would be applicable to tutional base for training satyagrahi scien- mechanical skill of a high order and de-
Ayurveda too. Nature cure to Gandhi was tists needed for the khadi movement. mands as much concentration as is given
not a drug cure but a way of life to be learnt, Foremost amongst them was Maganlal by SirJ C Bose to the tiny leaves of plants
in his laboratory before he wrests from
which placed the onus on the patient's self- Gandhi, the manager of the Satyagraha
them the secrets of nature held by these
curing abilities. Gandhi felt that although Ashram and a long-standing associate of
fellow creatures of ours (CW 59: 127).
the medical profession had taken up some Gandhi. Maganlal was able to translate
While much of his attempts to inculcate
nature cure methods, overall they had given many of Gandhi's ideas and vision into
the spirit of the science of the charkha were
a cold shoulder to naturopathy. The medi- reality. The ashram in Ahmedabad func-
directed at khadi workers, students of his
cal professionals presented an attitude of tioned as a laboratory, educational and
institutions and the Congress, he also
indifference, if not that of contempt, for training institution and a production house.
sought to further his idea amongst modern
anything that lay outside their groove. On For Gandhi, the knowledge of the scientists.
'sci- He did not want khadi scientists
the other hand, the nature curists nursed ence of spinning' was critical to the suc-
to be working in isolation from the latter.
a feeling of grievance against the medicos cess of the khadi movement and he there-
In 1927 when he addressed students at
and in spite of their very limited scientific fore urged all community workers to be
the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore,
knowledge, made tall claims. They also well versed in it. Gandhi believed that only
he reminded them of their responsibility
lacked the spirit of organisation with each those who had a thorough knowledge of
to society and the need to combine both
one being self-satisfied and working in both theoretical and practical aspects of heart and mind in their research and
isolation instead of pooling their resources the science of spinning could become
experiments:
for the advancement of their system. No village workers. The rigorous technical
criteria for khadi workers indicate how If we were to meet the villagers and to
one tried to work out in a scientific spirit
explain to them how we are utilising their
all the implications and possibilities of the Gandhi envisaged the community worker
money on buildings and plants which will
system. It was his conviction that as long as a scientist. The worker was to be well
never benefit them, but might perhaps
as some dynamic personality, from among versed in all aspects of cloth making. Hebenefit their posterity, they will not under-
the naturopaths themselves, did not come was to know the different varieties of cotton
stand it. They will turn a cold shoulder.
forward with the zeal of a missionary, the and the method of picking cotton suitableBut we never take them into our confi-
present state of affairs would continue. It for hand spinning. He had to know how dence; we take it as a matter of right, and
would be asking for too much to expect to gin and the varieties of hand-gins used forge that the rule of 'no taxation without
the medical profession to put faith, all of in Indian villages. The worker had also to representation' applies to them too. ... the
a sudden, in things that were yet to be fully be able to test the strength, evenness, and properties of some ... chemicals ... take
years of experiments to explore. But who
tested and scientifically proven (CW 77: counts of yar, know a good charkha from
will try to explore these villages? Just as
25-26). a bad one, be able to put dilapidated
some of the experiments in your labora-
Gandhi's experiments and suggestions charkhas under repair and be able to tories go'on for all the 24 hours, let the
in Ayurveda did not reach fruition in his straighten an incorrect spindle (CW 33: big corner in your heart remain perpetually
time, as he could not see it through. We 151-52). warm for the benefit of the poor millions...
thus perhaps do not have a clear empirical Gandhi warned workers that this science I expect much more from you than from
case to see how Gandhi's science was of the spinning wheel was by no means the ordinary man in the street. I tell you,
translated in practice in the area of health.
trivial, often the task involved greater care you can devise a far greater wireless in-
The above dimension however illustratesthan in the mill processes. Unlike in mill- strument, which does not require external
research, but internal - and all research
that in Gandhi's method for organising
spinning cotton for hand spinning, if prop-
will be useless if it is not allied to internal
science it is the individual scientist, rather
erly picked, would make the yarn stronger.
research - which can link your hearts with
than physical resources, which hold the Then again, the mills did not have to bother those of the millions. Unless all the dis-
key to change. His whole method hinged whether cotton seeds remained intact in
coveries that you make have the welfare
on finding or creating such scientists. In
ginning, but khadi workers could not afford of the poor as the end in view, all your
to be careless in this matter. The seeds had
khadi, Gandhi came closest to finding such workshops will be really no better than
a science and his ideal practitioner - the
to retain their properties and had to be fed satan's workshops (CW 34: 156-57).
satyagrahi scientist, Maganlal Gandhi. to the cattle and oil extracted from them Thus while on the one hand, Gandhi
(CW 39: 222). wanted his village workers to be confident
Alternative Scientific Practice: The charkha to Gandhi was also a grand of their science, on the other, he felt that
Khadi and noble science: the modern scientists had to take the
I call it grand because the more closelyvillagers

we into confidence in their scientific
It is in the khadi movement that the study it the more we discover in it. And pursuits.
Gandhian understanding of science was we need as much skill to attain proficiency Throughout his tours to various parts of
translated most into practice leading to the the country, Gandhi emphasised the need
in it as in any other major craft. I call this
coinage of new terms such as the 'science noble because it touches millions of peoplefor knowledge of the science of spinning
(CW 33: 401).
of the spinning wheel' and later 'khadi and often personally inspected the various
science'. Gandhi's extensive use of the The rediscovery of the "cunning of the wheels in operation. While he did
term 'science' is found in speecheshands" and that was presently lost but had emphasise the importance of the technical
discussions with khadi workers. He wanted earlier brought fame to Indian textiles, aspects, he did not see the science of the
these workers to become satyagrahi would require the same kind of attention charkha in purely material terms but as a
3726 Economic and Political

37~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~cnmcadPliia Weekly September 29, 2001
ekySpebr26,20
social process that would create the right of progressive improvement. Researches for a machine to straighten spindles. To
atmosphere. The task of the students of the that are being made from time to time show the superintendent of a government work-
national schools was not just in knowing that there is room for the best among us shop, Gandhi wrote enquiring if there was
the science of the wheel. This science had to apply themselves to the development of any machine that could straighten out
the art so that without extra effort or time
an important role in the creation of the spindles that had become bent or crooked.
the income of the millions, for whom hand-
'charkha atmosphere'. Gandhi was clear Improvements in machines to Gandhi were
that unless these scientists of the national
spinning is designed, may be almost to be carried out in detail in immediate
doubled (CW 32: 447).
schools were to spin themselves the Thus, it was only when there were sev- contexts. He was no Luddite or tradition-
movement was unlikely to succeed. This alist out to preserve dying techniques at
eral satyagrahi scientists who practised
emphasis on 'spinning for sacrifice' (see science for sacrifice that the charkha would any cost. Where "absolutely necessary"
below) and the creation of the 'charkha the khadi worker was not to hesitate to
acquire new meanings. Gandhi believed
atmosphere' led him to introduce a spin- introduce machinery (CW 36: 347; 37:
that meaning had to be given to the charkha
ning franchise in the Congress constitu- 211, 41: 511).
and was not necessarily intrinsic to it. The
tion that made it mandatory for every At the same time improvements in
spinning wheel has no such inherent prop-
congressman to spin for half an hour a day. machinery were to be pursued without
erty as the quinine pill. It was for the
He was convinced that the middle classes sacrificing certain limiting principles. The
satyagrahi scientists to discover this mean-
should take actively to spinning. "Let me quote below in the context of the All-India
ing. He remarked despite the fact that village
point out from my own experience and that
crafts like the wheel had been in India for Village Industries Association (AIVIA)
of co-workers that khadi work will not that he instituted in 1934 (see below)
a long time, the tremendous possibilities
flourish unless the principal workers know indicates his view on speed and efficiency
hidden in them could only be realised if
the science of ginning, carding, spinning" as the main criteria in improved machines:
they were plied by awakened masses as a
(CW 32: 30). In a letter to Purushottam, The village movement, as I conceive it,
means for attaining freedom (CW 68: 256,
he linked the slow spread of the movement does not discount speed or efficiency of
69: 241). The charkha, Gandhi reminded
to the fact that there were sill very few production. Our village folk need all the
students of the national school, was an
efficiency that we can give them and more.
persons who recognised "spinning asinstrument
a of service:
science and are interested in it as a science" The AIVIA is doing its level best to in-
In a national school therefore where the
crease the speed of production consistently
(CW 42: 127). nation expects us to train national servants, with its ideal and self-imposed limits.
the scheme of studies will centre round the
Already the speed of the 'takli' (distaff)
Improvements in Spinning charkha. It is a science in itself and it is
has been increased beyond the wildest ex-
a science which gives us a knowledge ofpectations of its protagonists. But this was
The charkha atmosphere created by the means of ameliorating the condition of achieved without the slightest sacrifice of
Gandhi's army of committed scientists had the masses (CW 33: 56-7). the principle of rural mindedness. More,
an important consequence in bringing about Gandhi's keen interest in improvementsI claim that the marvellous ingenuity and
improvements in the various processes and in machinery and various kinds of handskill which rendered this possible could
the machinery of spinning. The unique tools for spinning is evident from his only spring from a village brain. The lim-
concept of 'spinning for sacrifice' was his correspondence with many inventors. iting principle that was kept in view in
and the khadi movement's original con- These letters reveal a new dimension to effecting improvement in the speed of the
tribution to science in civil society: his controversial views on machinery.takli, the spinning-wheel and other domes-
tic tools should hold good in respect of the
If you will yourself spin, the quality of Gandhi offered the ashram as a place
spinning will improve. Those who spin for where these implements could be tested. writing pen too (CW 65: 210-11).
wages must naturally be impatient. They He instituted prizes for an improved To a socialist friend who queried him
will continue to spin the count that they on his views on electricity he said:
spinning wheel. The first such prize in
are accustomed to. The task of improving If we could have electricity in every village
1921 was for Rs 5,000, an amount that
the count of yarn essentially belongs to the home, I should not mind villagers plying
research worker, the lover of spinning. increased in 1929 to Rs 1 lakh hoping to their implements and tools with the help
attract inventors from all over the world.
This has been proved by experience. If of electricity. But then the village commu-
there had not arisen a class of spinners, His journals often carried articles of nities or the state would own power houses,
including both men and women, who spin machines that seemed to be in the spirit just as they have their grazing pastures.
purely out of a spirit of service the amasing of the khadi movement in India but were But where there is no electricity and no
progress that has been achieved in the quality invented elsewhere (CW 68: 399-400). machinery, what are idle hands to do?
of yarn would not have been possible. Apart from improvements in the spin- (CW61: 187).
If you spin, your talents can be utilised in ning wheel, Gandhi was also on the look- Scientists in civil society could not
effecting improvements in the mechanism
out for a machine that would turn out goodignore the question of ownership of their
of the spinning-wheel. All the improve-
ments that have been made in the mecha- spindles. The straightening of the inventions. Ownership had to be with
spindles
at the ashram was a laborious process the commons. Thus far from a model of
and
nism of the spinning-wheel and the speed
of spinning up till now are solely due toimposed a strain upon the eyes of thestatic continuation of existing techno-
the efforts of those devoted workers whomender. He was not in favour of hand tools logies, Gandhi was for improvements in
spin for sacrifice (CW 30: 309-10, em-in case there was drudgery in the work and machinery when they were in favour of
phasis added). was deeply concerned about the effect
the villager.
Inaugurating the Khadi Service, he re- By the mid-1930s these views were
tools had on the worker's health. It was
iterated that: this concern that made him and the All- crystallised under the framework of
The science of hand-spinning is capable India Spinners Association (AISA) searchkhadi science and articulated in a series of
articles in Harijan (begun in 1933). Harijan Tour it occurred to him that the of scientists and chemists prepared to la\
Gandhi's key axiom was that everything khadi effort was inadequate in rejuvenat- not only their expert knowledge at our
could be turned into a science or a romance ing the villages and was becoming a 'life- disposal, but to sit down in our laboratories
if there was a scientific or a romantic spirit less symbol'. It was confined to a very few and to devote hours of time, free of charge.
to experiments in the direction I have
behind it. Khadi, he argued, would cease and he observed that even those who used
indicated. We shall have not only to pub-
to be an object of ridicule if it was attrib- khadi exclusively were under the impres-
lish the results from time to time, but we
uted with meaning. The potency of khadi sion that they might use other things ir-
shall have to inspect and certify various
could not be achieved as a mantra by respective of how and where they were products (CW 59:409).
pursuing it mindlessly as a needy artisan made. If such a state of things was allowed The board of advisers of 20 members of
who gins, cards, spins or weaves because to go on, he feared that khadi might evenAIVIA thus included eminent scientists
he must for his bread. Gandhi's scientist die of sheer inanition. In the following like C V Raman, P C Ray, J C Bose and
would pursue it in a deliberate, wise, section, we look at how the basic khadi Sam Higginbotham. Gandhi felt that there
model for Gandhian science was appliedwas a need for "centralisation not of
methodical manner and in a scientific spirit
realising that: "A science to be sciencein other areas and how its limiting prin- administration, but of thought, ideas and
ciple was applied.
must afford the fullest scope for satisfying scientific knowledge".
the hunger of body, mind and soul" (CW From 1934 onwards Gandhi's emphasis
64: 268). AIVIA and Science for the
moves clearly to "science for the villages".
To Gandhi, Maganlal was one such Villages In his speeches Gandhi emphasised "rural-
scientist who had a 'living faith' in the mindedness"just as he had emphasised the
potency of khadi. Maganlal had laid bare- Keen on tackling the twin problems of
creation of the "charkha atmosphere" in
the foundation of khadi science in his Indian society - idleness and the snapped
the 1920s. To him "rural-mindedness" was
classic book - Vanaat Sastra (Charkha link between the villages and the town- no "mere detail, but a prime necessity".
Sastra in English, 1924). Richard Gregg, dwellers - Gandhi's scientific activities Though the first step towards rural-
the American who was interested in indus- expanded beyond khadi. During the tour mindedness was taken at the Ahmedabad
trial relations and attracted to the khadi it occurred to him that the village indus- exhibition in 1921, it was only in 1936 at
movement, too had the same fire in himtries were gradually slipping out of the
the Khadi and Village Industries Exhibi-
and gave khadi a universal meaning through hands of the villager, who had become a
tion at Lucknow that a concrete conception
his Economics of Khaddar (1928). Bothmere producer of raw materials. The vil- of a rural exhibition had reached maturity
had recognised that the spinning wheel lager gave and got little in return. The (CW 60: 152, 256; 69: 297-98).
was the technology par excellence of non- artisan too had lost his creativity and partook
The concept of rural-mindedness was to
violence. He wanted Maganlal's classic of the resourcelessness of the rest of the repeatedly appear in Gandhi's writings
Vanaat Sastra updated and extended to village. It is with this vision of "reinstating
and speeches:
other fields too. Gandhi saw Maganlal as the villager" that Gandhi constituted the You cannot build non-violence on a fac-
a model satyagrahi scientist and wanted AIVIA in November 1934.
tory civilisation, but it can be built on self-
others to follow him. Though Maganlal Gandhi found the task was not easy. contained He villages. Even if Hitler was so
had not specialised in all the various craftsfelt out of his depth while researching minded,
it: he could not devastate seven
that were being pursued by the AIVIA, his Here the field is so vast, there is such hundred
an thousand non-violent villages. He
would himself become non-violent in the
khadi activity was its precursor providing infinite variety of industries to handle and
the nucleus round which the village indus- organise, that it will tax all our process. Rural economy as I have con-
business
tries movement flourished. Gandhi be- talent, expert knowledge and scientific train- ceived it eschews exploitation altogether
ing. It cannot be achieved without hard toil, and exploitation is the essence of violence.
lieved that every field had to find its own
incessant endeavour and application of You all have therefore to be rural minded
'science men'. The khadi movement had
our business and scientific abilities to this before you can be non-violent, and to be
found one such in Maganlal but it and supreme purpose. Thus, I sent a question- rural minded you have to have faith in the
Gandhi needed more. Jhaverbhai Patel naire to several of our well known doctors spinning wheel (CW 70: 295).
of Maganwadi was studying the 'ghani' and chemists, asking them to enlighten me
(traditional oil making machine) in all its
on the chemical analysis and different food Crafts and Indian Science
aspects "with the zeal and precision ofvalues
a of polished and unpolished rice, Education
scientist". The village 'chakki' and the jaggery and sugar, and so on. Many friends,
village sugar cane crusher, however, were I am thankful to say, have immediately One of Gandhi's earliest experiments,
responded, but only to confess that there has both at the Ashram and outside was in the
yet to discover their science men (CW 64:
been no research in some of the directions
268, 362: 67: 256; 70: 120-21). field of science education. Gandhi's edu-
I had inquired about. Is it not a tragedy
In 1933 Gandhi formally dissolved the that no scientist should be able to give me cational scheme was based on an emphasis
Sabarmati Ashram. After his Harijan Tour the chemical analysis of such a simple on the role of manual work, practical
to various parts of the country he shifted article as gur? The reason is that we have training and the use of the vernacular as
his base to Wardha and finally to Sevagram not thought of the villager (CW 59: 409). a medium of instruction. Gandhi was keen
a year later. He had also resigned from Elaborating on the organisational diffi- to break the vice like grip that the English
the primary membership of the Indianculties he would have, Gandhi emphasised medium had on education in science. He
National Congress. His years after 1933 the importance of the scientific challenge cited Japan as an example of an educa-
were aimed at working on the content andahead: tional system that taught science in the
structure of the independence that he What kinds of laboratory research shall wevernacular. To teachers and students of the
visualised in Hind Sivaraj. During his have to go in for? We shall need a number Gujarat Vidyapith he urged the learning
of science through the vernacular, adopt- by concentrating on the villages see that
opponent of higher education but the
the inventive skill that an intensive learn-
ing English words wherever technically manner in which it was being imparted in
necessary but giving explanations only in ing of the craft will stimulate will subserve the country. He remarked:
Gujarati (CW 39:396). This vision of using the needs of the villager as a whole (CW Under my scheme there would be more and
the vernacular for scientific matters was 66: 137-38). better libraries, laboratories, and research
This quote, typical of Gandhi's writings institutes. Under it we should have an army
translated into action by the khadi move-
starts firstly with a critique and explana- of chemists, engineers and other experts
ment both during and after his death.
tion for the existing state of affairs but soon who will be real servants of the nation and
Amongst Gandhi's other major institu-
tional innovation in the 1930s was Nai moves towards an alternative path. To answer the varied and growing require-
Gandhi, it did not follow from the 'logic ments of a people who are becoming
Talim (or basic education). It is in his
of history' or 'destiny' that the industrial increasingly conscious of their rights and
writings on Nai Talim that we find Gandhi's
revolution was inevitable firstly in the west wants. These experts would speak not a
unique explanation to the question that has foreign language but the language of the
and later in the rest of the world. On the
troubled many sociologists of science,
contrary, Gandhi by giving primacy to people. The knowledge gained by them
namely, 'Why did India not have the will be the common property of the people.
industrial revolution?'. the agency and intention of the scientist-
Only then would there be truly original
experimenter, arguing that what had his- work instead of mere imitation and the cost
Gandhi's critique of education, both
modem and traditional, was based on thetorically happened was an accident and evenly and justly distributed (CW 73: 278).
not an immutable law. There could be
place of manual and crafts work in its
overall scheme. He was convinced that: another path, an alternate science, wherePostgraduate Institute for
the inventive genius of Crompton and Research
The utterly false idea that intelligence can
Hargreaves need not necessarily lead to
be developed only through book reading
monstrous results but instead contribute to
should give place to the truth that the Significantly, most of Gandhi's attempts
communities as a whole.
quickest development of the mind can be at institutional reorganisation had their base
achieved by artisan's work being learnt in Pointing to the English 'genius' for in scientific research. When he reconsti-
a scientific manner. True developmentdeveloping
of crafts, he reiterated that unless
tuted the Satyagraha Ashram in 1928
the mind commences immediately the the Indian educational system recognised following Maganlal's death, he emphasised
apprentice is taught at every step whythis,
a the creative capacities of the populace
that the ashram was "a scientific and
particular manipulation of the hand or coulda not be awakened. His reform of the
prayerful experiment". A month before his
tool is required (CW 64: 219). system was based on the fact that the assassination, at a constructive workers'
Indian education had separated the mind occupational training then was not servingcommittee meeting, he had reiterated that
and body, reserving the former to the an educational purpose. Many skills werehe wanted the various Sanghs to become
sciences and the latter to occupations lost to the countryside resulting in poorresearch laboratories in their respective
through vocational education. He wanted workmanship that made it difficult to findfields (YI 14-6-28, CW 90: 215-19).
teachers to make the distinction between an efficient carpenter or smith in a village. The Gandhi Seva Sangh was started in
vocational training as a science and voca-The remedy lay in imparting the whole art 1923 as a support structure for volunteers
and science of a craft through practicalinterested in constructive work, or "real
tional training as a trade. He did not want
to teach industry and handicrafts in thetraining and through that imparting edu-politics", as Gandhi referred to it. In 1940
cation (CW 66: 234). Following his cri- he wanted to recast it into a 'postgraduate
traditional way but wanted crafts as a living
medium of instruction (CW 65: 389; 69: tique of traditions from the standpoint ofinstitute for research' to be used as a
203-05). Indians, according to him had not a believer, he argued that the stagnationplatform to speak about science and re-
developed its scientist-engineers like in in matters of science was inevitable if the
search for the villagers. In 1937 at Hudli,
the west because: practice of untouchability persisted. Gandhi was keen that the members of the
We are apt to think lightly of the village We look down upon those who do manual
Sangh participate in politics. However in
crafts because we have divorced educa- work. Had we assigned to craftsmen and
February 1940 at Malikanda, West Bengal,
tional from manual training. Manual work artisans a place of dignity in society, like
has been regarded as something inferior, other countries we too would have pro- Gandhi sought a radical change in the
duced many scientists and engineers direction of the Sangh that npt only meant
and owing to the wretched distortion of the
(CW 88: 207).
vara we came to regard spinners and eschewing politics, but its reconstitution
It is clear that in Gandhi's Nai Talim, as a centre for science. He envisioned the
weavers and carpenters and shoemakers as
belonging to the inferior castes and science
the education was not to proceed by Sangh as an organisation for postgraduate
proletariat. We have had no Cromptonspursuing islands of excellence in a sea ofstudies that would undertake a great deal
and Hargreaves4 because of this vicious
mediocrity. Work was to be done on theof research for organisations like the AISA,
system of considering the crafts as some-
base of education so that no hierarchies AIVIA and the Talimi Sangh. By them-
thing inferior divorced from the skilled.
ofIfknowledge were created between the selves, these could not take up such work to
they had been regarded as callings having
scientists as experts and the people. Hethe required extent, as their field of activity
an independent status of their own equal to was limited. The main task of the Seva
wanted a proliferation of scientists and
the status that learning enjoyed, we should
engineers in the villages, an increase in Sangh, in his conception, would be that of
have had great inventors from among our
India's
craftsmen. Of course the 'spinning-jenny' scientific manpower that would
giving meaning to the wheel and dissemi-
not be measured by the number of univer-nating this new knowledge. Towards this
led on to the discovery of water power and
sity degrees in science, but in creatingend he wanted the members to achieve
other things which made the mill displace
the labour of thousands of people. That scientists who would be true servants of perfection and specialise in some field and
the nation. Gandhi said that he was no
was, in my view, a monstrosity. We will become experts by doing research and
making discoveries in the post-graduate was new and it needed all their talents. ments in science attempted to carve out
laboratory. These experts would specialise and articulate this domain. To guide the
Through these experiments, they would be
not for making money but for serving the placing before the country scientist was his favourite talisman:
and the world
poor and bettering their lot. On the method the ideal of a new culture. The "unity of Whenever in doubt recall the face of the
and task of such scientists in civil society, body, mind and spirit" was universal. Thepoorest and the weakest man whom you
Gandhi emphasised: concept of non-violence it presumed be-may have seen, and ask yourself if the step
You should have expert knowledge not you contemplate is going to be of any use
longed to the millions. Anything that could
only of the science of the spinning wheel, not reach the millions was not for him to him (CW 89: 125).
but also of the art of spinning. Your spin- (CW 71: 260-76). The duty of the satyagrahi scientist was
ning wheel should work more efficiently to work on those areas that required "ten-
Without method and universalisability
than that of the Charkha Sangh. Your yarn der nursing" which neither the state nor
Gandhi was acutely aware that each of the
should be fine, strong and may not snap. the market could institutionally provide
individual constructive programmes like
For the expert, his tools should be of the for. This domain was large and had sub-
khadi, Nai Talim, etc, would end up being
highest quality. There should be some- stantial scope for research (CW 24: 390).
thing special about your slivers, your fetishised. It was the duty therefore of
This considered and deliberate choice of
scientists to work out and demonstrate
implements. Your implements would be
the subject matter was the first step in his
out of the ordinary. I do not wish to make wider meanings and to be constantly re-
science. To aspiring scientists at the Indian
you just skilled labourers. I want to make flexive. When asked by a scientist who
wished to know what men of science were Institute of Science, he pointed out the
you expert craftsmen and scientific re-
need to link external research to internal
searchers. I expect something unique from to do if they were asked by the Indian
you (CW 71: 280). government to engage in researches in research. By internal research, Gandhi did
This scientist would like Vinoba Bhave, furtherance of war and the atom bomb, not mean a private incommunicable do-
considered his spiritual successor (and Gandhi replied categorically: "Scientists main of mystic experience but a public
earlier Maganlal), study the smallest detail to be worth the name should resist such space where the questions of science, both
and build up a "science around every- moral and societal, kept within the pur-
a state unto death" (CW 89: 52). Clearly
thing". Mere changes in technical pro- view of laypersons. Gandhi's science was
Gandhi's method had a dissenting element
cesses alone would not suffice. Here thus to give voice to these inarticulate sub-
and was against the political and social
Gandhi breaks the fact-value dichotomy jects as well, including the non-humans.
isolation inherent in paradigms of 'normal
by insisting that the scientist should be
science'. Underlying this considered choice of the
engaged in creating meaning as well: subject of research was his conception of
You would not merely improve the tools Gandhi's Scientific Method the scientific worker. In arguing for a
and implements, but also see their confor- science of non-violence, Gandhi insisted
For Gandhi, India was an ideal sitethat
mity with our principles. You would have forstandard methods and personnel could
to see if the charkha increases yourexperiments
non- not pursue these goals. This science would
on the self and he saw himself
violent powers. There may not be politics need its own method and means of
as a scientist experimenting to prove the
in the spinning wheel of the Charkha Sangh; organisation:
fallacies
of the dominant argument on
but you would have to see if it ... increases Attainment of world peace is impossible
science. Experience, he argued, enriched
the strength of the people and whether, in except for greater scientific precision,
not contaminated his experiments. From
free India, the economic provisions of greater travail of the soul, greater patience
being a serious critic of modern science
swaraj could be based on the spinning and greater resources than required for the
wheel. Would it turn people into in his early years, Gandhi later focused
mere invention and consolidation of the means
more
automatons capable of physical labour oron the possibilities of a new science of mutual slaughter. It cannot be attained
would it make them non-violent soldiersand its practice. This has been brought out
by a mere muster roll signed by millions
of swaraj? (CW 71: 280). in his writings on Khadi and through novel
of mankind desiring peace. But it can, if
Gandhi thus sought to create a new bandinstitutional changes like Basic Education
there is a science of peace, as I hold there
of satyagrahis who would not march to (Nai Talim) and a "post graduate research
is, by a few-devoting themselves to the
Dandi and receive the blows of the lathi laboratory". We shall now point to somediscovery of the means. Their effort
but who would become specialists in theof the salient features of his method - in being from within will not be showy but
science of non-violence. Gandhi' s responsethe choice of subject of research, the then it will not need a single farthing
to the Hitlerian science of violence was byconstitution of the scientific worker, the (CW 66: 72).
engaging in research and experimentationpractice of science and finally, the under- His own life he demonstrated was one
in a new science of peace. Germany, helying cosmology of non-violence. of constant experimentation in this 'dis-
observed, was in need of specialists in the Gandhi did not see science as an autono- covery of means' - a task that was not
science of non-violence. The way of vio-mous search independent of the individual simple and could only be carried out by
lence was old and established and it was scientist. In Gandhi's scheme, the agency those who had been trained for it. The main
of the scientist was of critical importance. purpose of Gandhi's ashrams and his
not so difficult to do research in it (we have
already noted his early views on vivisec- The scientist had to be conscious and self- reformed Gandhi Seva Sangh was in pre-
tion and its violent cosmology). Now, reflecting.
he He was not to flinch from the paring such satyagrahi scientists. Gandhi's
wanted his small centre of research to question of "what should the scientist be contribution lay in demonstrating this
bring about a new social order basedworking on on"? He was clear that the right possibility as a universal truth through
truth and non-violence. He told the Sangh place of the scientist lay neither with thehis life and that of his co-workers like
members that there was a wide scope exploiting
for market nor with the stifling state, Maganlal. Through his experiments, he
research and experiment in this field as butitwith the people. All Gandhi's experi- sought to articulate the concept of a
community worker as a scientist. He high- lives. Swaraj could not leave out experi-consequent to its production, so too in
lighted the need to embed the community mentation on the self- the educated middle Gandhi's science issues of diffusion were
in the practice of science. True progress class. Advocacy alone would not do: not to be separated from the production
of science would happen according to him It is no use merely making speeches or of knowledge. The scientist community
once the satyagrahi scientist of Gandhi's giving lectures; we must make scientific worker had to do it himself and be an
science workers like Maganlal or Mirabehn experiments and declare from the house- active participant in the diffusion of ideas.
were found or created. These scientists tops the results of our experiments (CW However Gandhi does not stop by suggest-
78: 67).
would then go about creating a text and ing a different practice, instead he offers
The future of khadi (and all his pro-
manuals necessary for the spread of sci- a new cosmology.
ence. Though Gandhi's scientists weregrams) lay in workers not pursuing a As we have seen in his views on vivi-
special, what he emphasised was the Gandhian 'line' but in carrying out section, Gandhi's non-violent cosmology
scientific experiments.
method, the fundamental possibility of challenged the anthropomorphism of
The practice of science Gandhi
every one being a person of science. Science modem science and spoke on behalf of
emphasised required an attitude for re- non-human nature as well. Unlike his
was not an exclusive preserve of scientists
search more than scientific qualifications.
working in laboratories. In a discussion scientific contemporaries, Gandhi saw no
In Gandhi's method, lack of resources
with Rajagopalachari he pointed out that reason why science should inevitably be
he treated his mother who was well versed could not be an excuse for not practising
linked to the idea of progress. He remarked:
in fasting as a scientist. "One who is pure,
science. Contrary to the emphasis on We are dazzled by the material progress
physical resources which have been the that western science has made. I am not
who adheres to truth and wants to cling
focus
to it is as much a scientist as a physicist"
of science policy in independentenamoured of that progress. In fact, it
(CW 55: 441). India, for Gandhi physical resources had almost seems as though God in His wis-
to be presumed instead on a strong and dom had prevented India from progressing
Gandhi did not provide a blueprint for
moral fundamental base. He wanted from along those lines, so that it might fulfil its
a scientific method but gave general guide-
the scientists' sacrifice and dedication first.
special mission of resisting the onrush of
lines for experimentation. He saw his
More than money Gandhi emphasised that materialism (CW 35: 524).
community workers as scientists. Though
there was a need for persons with strong He also sought to reconstitute the rela-
he was one of the foremost spokespersons
faith and willing hands. He wanted thattions between fact and value, science and
of traditional technologies and the artisanal
the new generations of scientists makereligion in his method. By insisting that
class in contemporary politics, he did not
original researches and not be imitative:scientists are to provide meaning to what
believe in a simple valorisation of the
I wish Indian medical men would make they do, he made clear that he was not
artisanal class. His community workers interested in mere technical solutions to
original researches and explore the possi-
had to therefore go beyond learning the
bilities of dietetic changes... Has Indian a problem. The role of the scientist lay not
skill, which though important would not medicine no fresh contribution to make to
in the realm of fact alone but in creating
suffice for making experiments and dis- the medical science? Or must it always rely
meaning (value). To him they were not to
coveries. They were to see spinning and upon the patented nostrums that, together be separated. Sahasrabuddhe has also
weaving not as a trade but as a science. with other foreign goods, are dumped down explicated this aspect of the importance of
Mastery of the art of spinning (sanitation, upon this unfortunate soil? Why should
the creation of meaning in his analysis
agriculture) was a necessary, but not suf- the West have a monopoly of making
of the Gandhian concept of technology-
ficient condition in his scientific scheme. researches? (CW 35: 480).
practice. Gandhi related and connected
This mastery had to be transformed into The non-west too, he believed, could
diverse programmes with the charkha. The
a science and this was the duty, though notand should contribute to this universal
charkha for Gandhi was the symbol of a
exclusive right, of the educated classes.resource of science. At the same time he
new technology - a new relationship of
The scientist had to have a living faith inwas not being exclusive in ruling out the
man with nature, a relationship that could
his subject like Maganlal. His idea of reformpossible contribution of people of the west
be brought into existence only by active,
was based on experiments carried out by in this search:
mutually cooperating persons. It would be
this class. In one thing I do not mind being a beggar.
To clothe the Bhangi with the dignity and I would beg of you your scientific talent. meaningless for him if people who did not
respect due to him is the especial task and You can ask your engineers and agricultural value cooperation practised it (1991: 27).
privilege of the educated class. Some experts to place their services at our dis- Unlike many reformers and secular
members of the class would first them-
posal. They must not come to us as our scientists, Gandhi did not see science as
selves master the science of sanitation to
lords and masters but as voluntary work- outside of religion. On the contrary, he
educate the Bhangi round them in the same.
They would carefully study their present
ers. A Mysore engineer who is a Pole tried updating religion to include science
condition and the causes underlying it and (Maurice Frydman) has sent me a box of and science too to include faith. But unlike
set themselves to the task of eradicating hand made tools made to suit village re- the Vedantists, for Gandhi to be scientific
the same by dint of inexhaustible perse- quirements. Supposing an engineer of that was to practise one's dharma:
verance and patience that never looks back character comes and studies the tools and
If we had not become apathetic to our
and knows no defeat (CW 64: 86). cottage machines, he would be of great dharma, if we had not been indifferent to
Gandhi's scientist would have to reduce service (CW 64: 99). it, we would ... relinquished those ancient
the subject to a science and to prepare Such an attitude would not only provide superstitions or ancient practices which
treatises on sanitation. Thus, Gandhi wasnew results but also contribute to the have lost their utility or become harmful
also articulating his notion of community
process of diffusion. In khadi if the key
today... It is a sin to disregard the neces-
workers who would break the barriers of sary dharma which is in keeping with the
element lay in the fact that the distribution
the 'elite' and the 'subaltern' in their own of wealth was concurrent to and not times under the pretext of following an
imaginary but ideal dharma which is not written about them in ancient books is defined a space for an alternative science
practicable (CW 41: 449-50). treated as superstition (CW 49: 150). for civil society that would operate with
Yet, Gandhi did not see the domain of In Gandhi's cosmology, the unity different
of methods. Gandhi's focus on the
science as all encompassing through the body, mind and spirit was needednon-physical
in resources in organising for
spread of universal reason, like many exploring the relation between nature, man
science, the satyagrahi scientist, for in-
positivists. For him faith transcended rea- and God. This as we have seen comes
stance, is a radical departure from science
son. The intellect to him, took man along through in his views on vivisection, theas expressed by Nehru in his famous
policy
the battle of life to a 'certain limit' but at critique, as also in his reshaping the Gandhi Scientific Policy Resolution of 1956 and
the crucial moment failed: Seva Sangh - the practice. His understand- followed in India since independence. He
Faith is the function of the heart and had ing of the scientific method is perhaps best
also had a universal message by providing
to be enforced by reason. The two are not summarised in his own words on khadi: a new cosmology of man-nature and fact-
antagonistic as some think. The more It must be borne in mind that to make the
value relations that he articulated and put
intense one's faith is, the more it whets spinners self-reliant and through their
in place through his various experiments.
one's reason. Faith he believed enlight- activity to achieve India's freedom is, and With the above outline of a theoretical
ened the intellect and induced habits of
ought to be, the Association's goal. That
industry (CW 71: 378). framework for Gandhian science in place,
we may not reach that goal should not
When faith materialises it manifests itself we take up for detailed explication the case
cause undue worry. It is enough for us to
of the khadi movement. Bi
through reason. It is not self-luminous. For know that it is the correct goal and, having
when faith transcends its bounds and finds
started the activity, we have to correct our
another medium to express itself it shines Notes
mistakes and go forward. That is the es-
forth all the more. Faith is never lost; in sence of the scientific method. No science
1 See Srinivasan (1993) for a critique of Bose's
fact it grows and sharpens the intellect. has dropped from the skies in a perfect method in Noakhali and his separation of the
And then faith can challenge reason form. All sciences develop and are built 'self and the 'other' in field work.
(CW 78: 67). up through experience. Perfection is not 2 See Veeravalli, A (1999) for a comparison of
Though a great believer in science, he an attribute of science. Absolute perfection Einstein and Gandhi's views on the science of
was clear of its role in the cosmos. Science is not possible either for man or for the peace.
to him was not above truth and ahimsa, science that he creates (CW 83: 355-56). 3 The 100 volume Collected Works of Mahatma
Gandhi have been used extensively in this study
which were 'truer' than many so-called We have in this paper shown that Gandhi and is referred to as CW in short with the
scientific facts. They were however diffi- is not anti-science as is commonly mis- volume number and page numbers as reference.
cult to put into practice and only with understood. Through a look at his various4 Samuel Compton, the inventor of the spinning
"proper previous preparation" could be experiments, many unrealised in his time; mule in 1779 and James Hargreaves, the inventor
rendered possible and easy (CW 63: 393). we have also shown that Gandhi's life of the spinning jenny in 1764.
The Ashram as an institution was meant
to facilitate this pursuit of truth of which
science was a means. He also firmly
Note to Contributors
believed that there were many aspects of
life that science had yet to touch and it
would be arrogant on the part of scientists EPW welcomes original research papers in the social sciences. Arti
to assume knowledge of these. must be not more than 6,000 words. They should not have been sim
If the pursuit of science through instru-
taneously submitted for publication in another journal or newspaper. If
mental rationality led to the Weberian
paper has appeared earlier in an abridged version, we would appreci
position of "a disenchantment with the
world", Gandhi's non-violent science a copy of this enclosed with the submitted paper. Please note that corre
pagination and referencing and a copy complete in all respects will facilit
argued that the combination of faith and
reason could lead to territories hitherto
early processing of the article.
unexplored by science. "Science has yet Contributions should be sent as hard copy accompanied by a flop
much to learn. It has so far touched only
version. While it is possible for us to receive material by email, to a
the hem of the garment" (CW 89: 273).
Scientists to him also had no clue of the possible distortions and other problems, we prefer to receive material b
relation of moral behaviour with natural mail. Graphs, charts and maps, even if available in the soft form, m
phenomena. He controversially linked the 'be sent as clear hard copy.
Bihar earthquake of 1932 to the Hindu
EPW also invites short contributions to the 'Commentary' section
practice of untouchability:
Yajna does not merely mean work for the
topical social, economic and political developments. These are ideal
good of others; it also means body labour. 2,000-3,000 words and must be exclusive to EPW. In all cases pleas
If men did not do body labour, that is, did include the contributors' name/s and mailing address. Short contributio
not cultivate land and grow crops, the rains
would stop. My own belief is that natural
may be sent as file attachments to epw@vsnl.com to facilitate tim
phenomena are connected with moral processing and publication.
behaviour. I have no proof for this. It is Articles will be acknowledged immediately on receipt. Quoting t
my faith. Such faith can do no harm in any
case. Little research is done about such
reference number in inquiries will help.
matters in the present age, and what is

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Towards an Understanding of Gandhi's Views on Science

Author(s): Shambhu Prasad

Economic and Political Weekly September 29, 2001 3721

3722 Economic and Political Weekly September 29, 2001

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Economic and Political Weekly September 29, 2001 3725

I call it grand because the more closelyvillagers

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