Criminological Research

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
The scientific investigation of phenomena which includes collection, presentation, analysis and
interpretation of facts that links man’s speculation with reality.
Man’s Major Problems Demand Research
Before research can be conducted, it must be understood. But before one can understand, one must
learn. If man understands, learns, and does research, progress becomes possible because research is a contributing
factor of progress.
Man’s major problems which demand research include how to reduce his burden of work, how to relieve
suffering and how to increase satisfaction in fulfilling his cravings and aspirations.
Example:
Man suffers from shortage of rice. To solve this problem, an agronomist researcher should research on the
modern methods and techniques in planting rice. If he is successful in his research, then he can supply more rice
to the consumers.
Example:
In Metro Manila, employers, teachers, students, businessmen and many others find difficulty in commuting
everyday due to heavy traffic, hence, the LRT (Light Rail Transit) is constructed to ease the problem.
Example:
A Century ago, Filipinos found difficulty in communicating with their relatives and friends here and abroad. The
problem has been greatly reduced by new communication facilities such as the telephone, fax machines,
computers which make possible even instant communication over long distance.

Research Standing of the Philippines

In the 1950’s, the Philippines was second to Japan economically. Forty-five years ago, the Philippines was
scientifically ahead to most of the Southeast and East Asian nations as well as to Japan. But now, “the Philippines is
less than a squeaky one tenth of one percent.” (Arroyo, 1989)
Values of Research to Man
Through research, the quality of man’s life is improved from conventional to modern because life
becomes not only meaningful but enriching as well. Research is valuable for:
1. Research improves the quality of life.
Man is a dreamer, is ambitious, and is industrious in achieving his dreams.
2. Research improves instruction.
Studies conducted on different strategies and approaches in the various subjects. Conventional
teaching is no longer and only modern one is applied.
3. Research satisfies man’s needs.
Due to advance science and technology, man’s conventional ways of living have become modern.
4. Research reduces the burden of work.
Modern devices such as calculators, computers, copier machine, washing machines, refrigerators
and many other products of research.
5. Research improves the exportation of food products.
The products being exported to other countries are bananas, pineapples, rice, mangoes, frozen
tuna, frozen prawns and many others.

Characteristics of Research
1. Empirical
Research is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher. The Collection of the data relies on
practical experience without benefit of the scientific knowledge or theory.
2. Logical
Research is based on valid procedures and principles. Scientific investigation is done in an orderly manner so that
the researcher has confidences on the results.
3. Cyclical
Research is a cyclical process. It starts with a problem and ends with a problem. For instance, a researcher who
completes his study states his findings and draws up his conclusion and recommendations. In his
recommendations, many problems may crop up as other subjects for study hence, the cycle is repeated.
4. Analytical
Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data, whether historical, descriptive, experimental,
or case study. In historical research, the data gathered focus on the past; in descriptive research, the study focuses
on the present situation; experimental, future; and in case study, past, present and future.
Types of Research
1. Pure Research
It aims to discover basic truths or principles. It is intended to add to the body of scientific knowledge by exploring
the unknown to extend the boundaries of knowledge, discover new facts.
Example:
Newton’s Law of Motion which states that “A body at rest remains at rest and a body in motion will continue to
move with the same velocity in a straight line unless acted upon by an external force”. (Rebollos, et. Al., 1986)
2. Applied Research
This type of research involves seeking new application of scientific knowledge to the solution of a problem, such as
the development of a new system or procedure, new device, new method in order to solve a problem.
Example:
Problem on population explosion. To solve this problem, research on the effectiveness of the different
contraceptives for family planning has been conducted to alleviate the number of children per family.
3. Action Research
This is decision-oriented research involving the application of the steps of the scientific method in response to an
immediate need to improve existing practices.
Example:
The culture of seaweed, particularly Eucheuma using the broadcasting method and can be improved and can be
improved by using staking and bamboo rafts methods.

Classification of Research
1. Library Research
This is done in the Library where answer to specific questions or problems of the study are available. The historical
method lends itself to library research because the study is focused on the past.
2. Field Research
Conducted in a natural setting. No changes are made in the environment. Field research is both applicable to
descriptive survey and experimental methods.
Example:
Cultivation of Green Mussel using Bamboo Raft Staking Methods in Bulobadyang Island” .
3. Laboratory Research
Conducted in Artificial on controlled conditions by isolating the study in a rigorously specified and operationalized
area.
Applicable to both experimental, descriptive, and case study methods.
Example:
Cultivation of Milkfish at the Fishpond Using Fish Meal and Bread Meal as Supplement Feeds.
 Problems/Objectives
It cannot be denied that majority of the thesis writers and beginners in research find difficulty in
formulating research problems and research objectives.
An investigation knows that a problem is really researchable when:
1. There is no known solution to the problem
2. The solution can be answered by using statistical methods and techniques;
3. There are probable solutions but they are not yet tested; or
4. The occurrence of phenomena require scientific investigation to arrive at precise solution.
Qualities of a Good Researcher/Investigator
There are 10 qualities of a good researcher whose first letters from the acronym RESEARCHER, as follows:

R - research – oriented
E - effective
S - scientific
E - efficient
A - active
R - resourceful
C - creative
H - honest
E - economical
R - religious

Characteristics of a Research Problem

The characteristics of a good problem possesses the acronym – SMART.
S - Specific. The problem should be specifically.
M - Measurable. It is easy to measure by using research instruments. (i.e. questionnaire, tests, etc.) in collecting
data.
A - Achievable. The data are achievable using correct statistical techniques to arrive at precise results;
R - Realistic. Real results are not manipulated;
T - Time-bound. Time frame is required in every activity because the shorter completion of the activity the better.
Criteria of a Good Research Problem
A good research problem is:
1. Interesting- An interesting research problem attracts the attention of the investigator to study the problem
further.
2. Relevant to the needs of the people.
3. Innovative - A good research problem may not be necessarily new. It may be a restatement and restructuring of
an old problem to make it now.
4. Cost Effective - The 4M’s – Man, Money, Materials and Machinery are needed in conducting research. A
research problem should be economical and effective in solving the problems of the society.
The Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework shapes the justification of the research problem/research objectives in order to provide
the legal basis for defining its parameters.
It is a symbolic construction which uses abstract concepts, facts or laws, variables and their relations that explains
and predicts how an observed phenomenon exists.
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework presents specific and well defined concepts which are called constructs. Its
function is similar with theoretical framework because the constructs used are derived from abstract
concepts of theoretical framework.
Level Independent Intervening Variables Dependent
Variable Variables

Theoretical Educational Values Performance

Conceptual Qualifications Age, sex, civil status, Outstanding
B.S., M.S./M.A., social and economic Very satisfactory
Ph.D./Ed.D status, attitude towards Satisfactory
work etc. Fair
Unsatisfactory

The Variable
Meaning of Variable
A variable is defined as a quantity or a “characteristics that has two or more mutually exclusive values of
properties” (Sevilla et. al., 1992). Numerical values or categories represent these qualities or characteristics.

Types of Variables
1. Independent Variable
This is the stimulus variable which is chosen by the researcher to determine its relationship to an observed
phenomenon.
Example:
An independent variable is when a research worker wants to ascertain the effect of education qualification (EQ)
on performance. He takes a group of high EQ teachers and observes their performance. Likewise, he takes
another group of low EQ mentors and observes their performance.
In this particular example. EQ is the independent variable because it is manipulated.
2. Dependent Variable
This is the response variable which is observed and measured to determine the effect of the independent variable.
Example:
An investigator wants to determine the effects of educational qualification (EQ) on performance. He takes a
group of high EQ teachers and observes their performance. Likewise, he takes another group of low EQ
teachersand observes their performance. In this example, the dependent variable is performance because in EQ.
if EQ is high, what happens to performance? If EQ is how what happens to performance?
3. Intervening Variables
This is a variable which interferes with the independent and dependent variables, but its effect can either
strengthen or weaken the independent and dependent variables.
Suppose a researcher wishes to know the effect of educational qualifications (EQ) on performance. EQ is an
independent variables. But it is possible that age, sex, civil status, experiences, socio-economic status, values, and
attitudes as intervening variables, might have an effect on performance.
Assumptions
Assumptions are presumed to be true statement of facts related to the research problem. They are clearly stated
to give readers of research papers, theses and dissertations a foundation to form conclusion resulting from
assumptions.
Not all studies have a section on assumptions in their study because some of these are included in the background
of the study.
The Hypothesis
A hypothesis is defined as a wise guess that is formulated and temporarily adopted to explain the observed facts
covered by the study. A hypothesis guides the investigator and describes the procedure to follow in conducting the
study. It tells the investigator what to do and how to go about solving a research problem.
Types of Hypothesis
There are two types of hypothesis, namely, null (H o) and alternative (H 1). These hypothesis are always stated in
declarative sentence form.
Null Hypothesis (Ho)
Is a denial of an existence of an attribute, a relationship or a difference of an effect. It always stated in a negative
form.
There is no significant difference in the mean rank levels of the problems met by the
Alternative Hypothesis (H1)
It is the opposite extreme of null hypothesis because this is always stated in a positive form. An affirmation of the
existence of an observed phenomenon.
Example:
There is a significant difference in the mean rank levels of the problems met by Science and Mathematics
instructors and professors.
In practice, the null hypothesis is commonly used because it is easy to reject and accept it.
Significance of the Study
The discussion of the significance of the study is presented either in the inducted or deductive perspective.
Inductive Perspective
The researcher moves from the particular to the general, and presents the importance of the study from target
beneficiaries to the researcher himself, to the people in the community, to the people in the province, and nation.
Deductive Perspective
The researchers moves from general to particular, discussion of the importance of the study starts from the
national level… to the researcher himself and to the target.
The investigator should prove that the study has important contributions in relation to (a) solving the problems
and need, (b) bringing a knowledge gap, (c) improving social, economic and health conditions, (d) supporting
government thrusts.
Scope and Limitation
This includes the coverage's of the study area, the subjects, the research instruments, the research issue concerns,
the duration of the study, and the constraints that have direct bearing on the result of the study.
Review of Related Literature
The word related readings, literature, and studies which have direct bearing or relation o the present study.
In research paper, thesis and dissertation, the review of related literature is divided into three parts. These are (1)
related readings, (b) related literature, and (3) related studies.
the related literature is a section in a research paper, thesis and dissertation in which the sources are taken from
books, journals, magazines, novels, poetry, and many others.
Related Studies
Published and unpublished research studies are sources of materials that are included in this suction. The research
studies have direct bearing to the present study are segregated into foreign and local studies.
The presentation of foreign and local studies is similar with related readings, and related literature which are
arrange in Chronological Order.
Research Designs
Research designs are of four kinds. These are as follows: Historical design, descriptive design, experimental design,
and case study design. In historical design, the study is focused in the past (what was); descriptive design, the study
is focused in the present condition (what is); experimental design, future (what will be); and case study design,
past, present and future.
The Research Format
In writing a thesis or dissertation or any other research writing project, a writer would follow a certain format.
Research format is a skeletal framework in writing a research paper.
It gives guidance and direction in the writing of the paper.

Chapter 1
Introduction
1. Background of the Study - This includes the brief statements about the problem and the need to study such
problem.
2. Objectives of the Study – This determines the thrust and direction of the study. It contains a general and specific
objectives of the study stated in a form of a statement or questions.
3. Significance of the Study – This spells out the importance or values of the study and it’s contribution to the
researcher, students, community, and others involved.
4. Scope and Limitations – It contains the coverage of the study and what are the ideas or things to be included or
to be excluded.
Chapter 2
Theoretical Framework

1. Review of Related Studies and Literatures- This includes brief and topical presentation of relevant published or
unpublished researches, thesis or dissertations conducted locally or internationally which are not necessarily
arranged in chronological order but should have relationship or similarity with the present study.
2. Synthesis – This includes a summary of the relatedness or similarities of the studies and literatures reviewed to
the present research work.
3. Hypothesis or Assumption – This part of the chapter could be either presented in the form of hypotheses or
assumptions.
4. Definition of Terms – This consists of words w/c need to be defined to provide better understanding of the
study.
Chapter 3
Methodology
1. Research Design – It is the research method used in the study, its definition or description including the
justification why it is the best design for the study.
2. Samples and Sampling Technique – It includes the description of the subjects or population involved in the
study, the sample size, the manner it is determined and the technique used in the selection of samples.
3. Instrumentation – It includes the use of questionnaires, interview or observation tools that will be used in the
study, its description, content, development and validation.
4. Procedure – It includes the steps to be used in the gathering of data, time frame, and the persons responsible
for the collection of date.
5. Statistical Analysis of Data – It includes the statistical tools to be used in the analysis of data and the reasons of
appropriateness of the said tools. This part of the paper should resolve the stated hypothesis which subsequently
resolves the objectives of the study.
 Chapter 4
Results and Discussion
1. Results – This includes topical presentation of data presented.
2. Discussion – This includes presentation of the most important findings, its analysis and interpretation of data in
a united or holistic approach.
These two (2) components of this Chapter may be presented accordingly. The writer may first write the results and
immediately followed by discussions.
Chapter 5
Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation

1. Summary – It includes brief statements of the research objectives, significance, methodology and findings.
2. Conclusion – It includes the general statements inferred from the results usually based on the hypothesis or
assumption.
3. Recommendations – It includes the suggestions to be undertaken based on the significance of the findings and
recommendations for future research.