CHAPTER 4

HARDWARE

This chapter presents The components used to implement the quadcopter hardware
which selected according to certain requirements, specifications and design
considerations. The quadcopter payload, flight duration, power consumption,
maximum altitude and many other factors are necessarily taken into account during
the selection process. We will briefly explain every component used in our project.

4.1 Frame

HJ450 Frame : is the glass fiber quadcopter frame which is very simple and easy to build
frame. This Flame wheel is one of the most popular frames out there for number of good reasons:

It is the only quadcopter frame type available on the market in Yemen.

It’s relatively inexpensive

It is famously durable

The center plate doubles as a power distribution board which tidies things up quite a bit
and allows us to get rid of my ugly DIY wiring harness.

The design is really well thought out – it’s a compact frame. Plenty of room for receiver,
control board, ESCs, and battery, with mounting options and room to spare for a GoPro
or other camera setup.

As one of the most popular quadcopter frames on the market, there is a wide variety of
spare parts and accessories to choose from such as landing gears, gimbals, etc.
 Fig.(4.1) HJ 450 Frame(F450)

4.2 Electronic Speed Controllers (ESC):

Electronic speed control (ESC) is a device that controls the rotational speed of the BLDC motor.
Control pins of the ESC are connected to the flight controller output. The flight controller sends
the desired PWM values for each motors and the ESC drives the motors according to these
values. 30A BLDC ESC is used for the stated purpose. The term (30A) refers to the size of the
ESC which is the amount of amps supplied for the motor connected to the ESC. Before the first

Fig.(4.2) Standard 30A BLDC ESC Electronic Speed Controller

4.2.1 Features:

High quality MOSFETs for BLDC motor drive

High performance microcontroller for best compatibility with all types of motors at
greater efficiency

Fully programmable with any standard RC remote control

Throttle range can be configured to be compatible with any remote control available in
the market

Auto Low BATTERY Slow down at 3.0V/cell Lipo, cut-off at 2.9V/cell lipo

4.3 Controller :

Quads are inherently unstable they constantly need an on board computer to calculate the
changes in rotor speeds necessary to stabilize the quad and adjust their speeds accordingly.

A controller acts as the brain of the quadcopter, it’s responsible for all actions a quad can
perform from takeoff and landing to autonomous flight as well as camera and sensors control.

For our project we chose APM 2.8 which is an open source UAV platform capable of controlling
multi-copters, fixed wing crafts as well as ground vehicles and boats a head by employing a GPS
module.

4.3.1 Features:

Arduino Compatible

3-axis gyro, accelerometer and magnetometer, along with a high-performance barometer

Onboard 4 MP Dataflash chip for automatic datalogging

Digital compass powered by Honeywell's HMC5883L-TR chip, now included on the

main board.

Optional off-board GPS, (any TTL level GPS should work, main choice being the uBlox
LEA-6H module).
 Intenseness’ 6 DoF Accelerometer/Gyro MPU-6000.

Barometric pressure sensor, MS5611-01BA03, from Measurement Specialties.

Atmel's ATMEGA2560 and ATMEGA32U-2 chips for processing and USB functions.

4.3.2 Datasheets:

MPU-6000, Six-Axis (Gyro + Accelerometer) MEMS Motion Tracking.

HMC5883L-TR, 3-Axis Digital Compass.

LEA 6 GPS.

MS5611, MEAS High Resolution Altimeter.

Fig.(4.3) APM inside it’s protective casing

4.4 Motors :

We require high quality reliable motors with rapid response in order to control the quadcopter. If
one or several of the motors at some point during a flight experience any problems it would be
devastating for the quadcopter, and can at worst endanger the quadcopter itself, property and
people. Furthermore it is important that the motors are powerful enough to be able to lift the
quadcopter and perform various aerial movements. We also require the motors to have a fast
response in order to ensure a more stable flight. Finally we require that the motors are close to
vibration free, as any vibration will cause noise in our IMU measurements. Based on these
criteria’s we decided to use A2212 KV1000 Brushless Motor. It is a brushless motor designed
for remote controlled airplanes as well as quadcopters, and are considered to be highly reliable. It
have long experience with motors for RC airplanes and quadcopters, and their motors are known
for being vibration free.

4.4.1 Advantages of brushless motors VS brush motors:

There is no sparking and much less electrical noise.

There are no brushes to wear out.

With the electromagnets on the stator, they are very easy to cool.

You can have a lot of electromagnets on the stator for more precise control.

The only disadvantage of a brushless motor is its higher initial cost, but you can often recover
that cost through the greater efficiency over the life of the motor. The poles on the stator of a
two-phase BLDC motor used to power a computer cooling fan.

Fig.(4.4) Brushless motor winding Fig.(4.2) A2212/13T Brushless Motor 1000 KV

4.5 Propellers

Here in this project quadcopter there arises the need of two types of propellers to need the
purpose of flight. A pair of clockwise (CW) and anticlockwise (ACW) propellers are needed.
The care should be taken in finalizing the dimensions of the propellers. A propeller is a type of
fan that transmits power by converting rotational motion into thrust. A pressure difference is
produced between the forward and rear surfaces of the air foil-shaped blade, and a fluid (such as
air or water) is accelerated behind the blade. Propeller dynamics can be modelled by both
Bernoulli's principle and Newton's third law. A marine propeller is sometimes colloquially
known as pitch of the screw. Generally, increased propeller pitch and length will draw more
current. Also the pitch can be defined as the travel distance of one single prop rotation. In a
nutshell, higher pitch means slower rotation, but will increase your vehicle speed which also use
more power. When deciding on length and pitch, you need to find a good balance. Generally a
prop with low pitch numbers can generate more torque. The motors don’t need to work as hard
so it pulls less current with this type of prop.

We require light propellers with size and lift potential such that the quadcopter can hover at less
then 50 % of the motor capacity. It is also preferable if the propeller can survive soft bumps. For
our quadcopter we choose plastic 10X4.5 propellers (254mmx114mm) with their light weight.
This is a standard propeller used by many quadcopters. The total length of the propeller is
254mm while the pitch is 114mm.

Fig.(4.3) Propellers
4.6 Power Supply

In order to fly an UAV, an energy source is needed. For most UAV uses, lithium polymer
batteries are used (LiPo batteries), and they are known for their high power capacities and low
pack weights.

4.6.1 Battery

A lithium polymer battery, or more correctly lithium-ion polymer battery (abbreviated variously
as LiPo, LIP, Li-poly and others), is a rechargeable battery of lithium-ion technology in a pouch
format. Unlike cylindrical and prismatic cells, LiPos come in a soft package or pouch, which
makes them lighter but also less rigid. Quadcopters typically use LiPo batteries which come in a
variety of sizes and configurations. We typically use 3S1P batteries, which indicates 3 cells in
parallel. Each cell is 3.7 volts, so this battery is rated at 11.1 volts. LiPo batteries also have a C
rating and a power rating in mAh (which stands for milliamps per hour). The C rating describes
the rate at which power can be drawn from the battery, and the power rating describes how much
power the battery can supply. Larger batteries weigh more so there is always a tradeoff between
flight duration and total weight. A general rule of thumb is that doubling the battery power will
get you 50% more flight time, assuming your quadcopter can lift the additional weight.

Li Po batteries have three main things going for them that make them the perfect battery choice
for RC planes and even more so for RC helicopters over conventional rechargeable battery types
such as NiCad, or NiMH :

Li Po batteries are light weight and can be made in almost any shape and size.

Li Po batteries have high discharge rates to power the most demanding electric motors.

Li Po batteries hold lots of power in a small package

Just as with other lithium-ion cells, LiPos work on the principle of intercalation and
deintercalation of lithium ions from a positive electrode material and a negative electrode
material, with the liquid electrolyte providing a conductive medium. To prevent the electrodes
from touching each other directly, a micro porous separator is in between which allows only the
ions and not the electrode particles to migrate from one side to the other.

Unlike lithium-ion cylindrical and prismatic cells, which have a rigid metal case, LiPo cells have
a flexible, foil-type (polymer laminate) case, so they are relatively unconstrained. By themselves
the cells are over 20% lighter than equivalent cylindrical cells of the same capacity.
Being lightweight is an advantage when the application requires minimum weight, such as in the
case of radio controlled models. However, it has been investigated that moderate pressure on the
stack of layers that compose the cell results in increased capacity retention, because the contact
between the components is maximized and delamination and deformation is prevented, which is
associated with increase of cell impedance and degradation .

Fig.(4.1) Lipo Battery 2200 mAh, 11.1 V

4.6.2 Power Module:

Because the same Li-Po battery supplies both the controller(APM 2.8) and the motors, a power
module controls the voltage across the two according to their optimal requirements. A power
module splits the battery current to the power distribution board (to the ESCs) and the power port
in the APM 2.8 flight controller. The power module should be carefully selected such that the
connector matches that of the battery.

In our project we have used 3DR Power Module because the 3DR Power Module is a simple
way of providing your control board with data of the current consumption and voltage
measurements of a LiPo battery so that the control board can estimate the remaining flight
durations according to the remaining an power capacity and the real time current consumption
calculated by the received data. This 3Dr Power Module has the function of BEC which can
provide stable power supply to the control board.
 Fig.(4.1) 3DR Power Module

3.7 Radio Controller

In order to control a quadcopter, it’s necessary to have intermediary components between

quadcopter itself and piloting user. Such components are essential for piloting because they
determine the behavior of a quadcopter.

Piloting a quadcopter can be quite a challenge for novice pilots, because a quadcopter can fly in
various 3D space directions: left and right, to the front and back, up and down. The simplest and
fastest way to start controlling a quadcopter is using a radio controller. A radio receiver on the
quadcopter is needed to receive radio frequency (RF) data. This data is transmitted by a radio
transmitter, controlled by the user, to control quadcopter’s attitude.

In our project we have used Fly sky Transmitter and Receiver (FS-TH9X transmitter and the
FS-R9B receiver )which has 8 channels.

3.7.1 FS-TH9X transmitter:

The transmitter itself generates a radio frequency alternating current, which is applied to the
antenna. When excited by this alternating current, the antenna radiates radio waves. The term
transmitter is usually limited to equipment that generates radio waves for communication
purposes; or radiolocation, such as radar and navigational transmitters. A transmitter can be a
separate piece of electronic equipment, or an electrical circuit within another electronic device. A
transmitter and receiver combined in one unit is called a transceiver. The purpose of most
transmitters is radio communication of information over a distance. The transmitter combines the
information signal to be carried with the radio frequency signal which generates the radio waves,
which is often called the carrier. This process is called modulation. A radio transmitter is an
electronic circuit, which transforms electric power from a battery or electrical mains into a radio
frequency alternating current, which reverses direction millions to billions of times per second.
The energy in such a rapidly reversing current can radiate off a conductor (the antenna) as
electromagnetic waves (radio waves).

3.7.2 FS-R9B receiver:

A radio receiver is an electronic circuit that receives its input from an antenna, uses electronic
filters to separate a wanted radio signal from all other signals picked up by this antenna,
amplifies it to a level suitable for further processing, and finally converts through demodulation
and decoding the signal into a form usable for the consumer, such as sound, pictures, digital data,
measurement values, navigational positions, etc. The receiver is the receiving end of a
communication channel. It receives decoded messages/information from the sender, who first
encoded them. Sometimes the receiver is modelled so as to include the decoder. Real-world
receivers like radio receivers cannot be expected to receive as much information as predicted by
the noisy channel coding theorem. In the given figure below

Right Stick: The right stick controls roll and pitch. In other words, it moves your quadcopter
left/right and backwards/forwards.

Left Stick : The left stick controls yaw and throttle. In other words, it rotates your quadcopter
clockwise or counterclockwise, and it adjusts the height at which you are flying.

Fig.(4.1) FlySky-2-4G-9CH-FS-TH9X-Transmitter-FS-R8B-Receiver-Radio-Control
3.8 Global Positioning System(GPS):

In order to perform autonomous tasks, such as waypoint-guided missions, failsave mode or to

save home location, a GPS sensor is needed to give accurate reading about quadcopter’s current
position in 3D space. With GPS, the user can track down quadcopter’s current position in real
time. Also, it gives a more accurate reading about quadcopter’s current altitude above sea level,
and on windy environments, GPS readings improve quadcopter’s current position and altitude
holding. GPS sensor it’s indispensable for outdoor quadcopter flights, since failsafe mechanisms
and other autonomous tasks relies almost completely on GPS readings.

Fig.(4.1) ublox-NEO-7m-GPS

3.9 Radio Telemetry

Radio telemetry is a method for communication between APM 2.8 and Ground Control
Station(GCS). By using radio telemetry, the receiver (Rx) is directly connected to APM 2.8
flight controller, and the transmitter directly connected to your computer or GCS as well. These
radio transmitters and receivers are already prepared to exchange Micro Air Vehicle
Link(MAVLink) data between them, if the chosen device supports ArduPilot messaging
protocol, MAVLink. There are various radio telemetry devices, and each one has different
communication frequencies, range, power consumption and cost. Mostly radio telemetry devices
operate at 433 MHz (which is radio we have used). In this dissertation, a 3DR Radio Telemetry
kit was used for its price and compatibility. It has a 300m communication range, and it was just
used for test purposes.
 Fig.(4.1) 3DR Radio Telemetry Kit 433Mhz

Appendix A
HARDWARE SPECIFICATIONS
Frame Specifications:
Model HJ 450 Frame(F450)

Frame weight 282g

Diagonal Wheelbase 450mm

Takeoff Weight 800g-1600g

Material Fiber Glass, Plastic& polyamide nylon

 Arm Size 23.5*4.9*5cm

Electronic Speed Controllers (ESC) Specifications:

Model Standard 30A BLDC ESC Electronic Speed
Controller

Weight 32gms

Dimensions 55 x 26 x 13mm(LxWxH)

Color Yellow

Current (A) 30A

BEC 5V, 3Amp for external receiver and servos

Li-Poly 2-3 cells

Input voltage 2-4 cells Lithium Polymer / Lithium Ion

battery or 5-12 cells NiMH / NiCd

Output 30A continuous; 40Amps for 10 seconds

A2212/13T Brushless Motor Specifications:

Motor KV (RPM/V) 1000 KV

Maximum Efficiency 80%

Weight 64 g

Max Efficiency Current 4 - 10A (>75%)

No Load Current 0.5A @10V

Resistance 0.090 ohms

Max Current 13A for 60S

Max Watts 150W

Size 28 mm dia x 28 mm bell length

 Shaft Diameter 3.2mm

Poles 14 Model

Digital Radio Controller System

4.1 Transmitter (FS-TH9H)

4.2 Receiver (FS-R9B)

Appendix B

Components of Quadcopter Designed in SolidWorks

Appendix C
Quadcopter UAV Simulink Models Subsystems
X-axis
Y-axis

Alt

Rolling
Patching

Yawing