Emancipatory Knowing: Empowering Nursing
Students Toward Reflection and Action
Marianne Snyder, MSN, RN
ABSTRACT
Nursing students in the 21st century are entering highly
complex health care systems that require advocates for so-
cial justice and human rights on behalf of patients. Nurses
are well positioned as patient advocates. This article pres-
ents a brief overview of the historical and theoretical per-
spectives underpinning emancipatory knowing and pro-
poses several methods nursing faculty can use to empower
nursing students to provide care informed by this way of
knowing. Nursing faculty are urged to adopt a curriculum
that supports an emancipatory and caring praxis and to
mentor students to provide care supportive of social jus-
tice, particularly for the vulnerable and marginalized mem-
bers of society. Nursing students who learn to embrace and
value emancipatory knowing during their educational pro-
gram may likely continue this praxis after they graduate.
[J Nurs Educ. 2014;53(2):65-69.]
Received: February 19, 2013
Accepted: September 11, 2013
Posted Online: January 7, 2014
Ms. Snyder is Assistant Professor of Nursing, Department of Nursing,
University of Saint Joseph, West Hartford, Connecticut.
The author thanks her doctoral academic advisor, Dr. Carol Polifroni,
University of Connecticut School of Nursing for her support.
The author has disclosed no potential conflicts of interest, financial
or otherwise.
Address correspondence to Marianne Snyder, MSN, RN, Assistant
Professor of Nursing, Department of Nursing, University of Saint Joseph,
1678 Asylum Avenue, West Hartford, CT 06117; e-mail: msnyder@usj.edu.
doi:10.3928/01484834-20140107-01
Journal of Nursing Education • Vol. 53, No. 2, 2014
T
he complexity of the health care system and chaotic clin-
ical environments beckons nurses who can conceptual-
ize and integrate emancipatory knowing into their clini-
cal practice. A praxis of emancipatory knowing offers nurses a
means to reflect and act in a manner that advocates for social
justice and human rights on behalf of the patients for whom
they care each day (Chinn & Kramer, 2011; Cowling, Chinn,
& Hagedorn, 2000; Falk-Rafael, 2005; Harden, 1996). Specifi-
cally, emancipatory knowing is the aptitude to acknowledge
social and political “injustice or inequity, to realize that things
could be different, and to piece together complex elements of
experience and context to change a situation as it is to a situ-
ation that improves people’s lives ” (Chinn & Kramer, 2011,
p. 64). Understanding the concept of emancipatory knowing
and its theoretical basis is essential to knowing how to integrate
it into practice. This way of knowing, derived from multiple
perspectives and theories, offers a relevant addition to nursing
research, theory, and practice (Chinn & Kramer, 2011). For
many nurses, the basis for understanding this concept may or
may not commence during their educational program, as it may
depend on their program philosophy, curriculum structure, and
the philosophical values and beliefs of the nursing faculty who
teach them. Given these different variables, contextualizing
emancipatory knowing may vary among nurses. Nursing stu-
dents, who learn to embrace emancipatory knowing as praxis,
may likely continue doing so after they graduate. The purposes
of this article are to present a brief overview of the historical
and theoretical perspectives that led to the conceptualization of
emancipatory knowing, to discuss its significance to nursing,
and to offer examples of how nursing faculty can empower stu-
dents to integrate emancipatory knowing into clinical practice.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
Historically, nurses have confronted power imbalances
throughout their educational programs and careers. Emancipa-
tory efforts in nursing history are often blended with feminist
views, particularly during the feminist movement of the 1960s
and 1970s and as characterized by Jo Ann Ashley in her book
Hospitals, Paternalism, and the Role of the Nurse (1976; Chinn
65
EMANCIPATORY KNOWING
& Kramer, 2011). In this book, Ashley (1976) traced the histori-
cal roots of oppression in nursing through a feminist lens and
presented a laudable critique of a patriarchal health care system
and the ongoing struggles of nurses who strive to gain control
over their education and practice. It was also during this period
that the concept of empowerment entered the nursing literature
(Bradbury-Jones, Irvine, & Sambrook, 2007; Hage & Lorensen,
2005; Kuokkanen & Leino-Kilpi, 2000; Manojlovich, 2007;
McCarthy & Freeman, 2008) and stimulated lively debate and
discourse within the nursing community. Despite more than
30 years later, these struggles persist, but not without the per-
severance of those who believe that change initiated through
emancipatory efforts does occur. Emancipatory knowing is a
call to action to advocate for social justice in a system that con-
tinues to permeate inequities and oppression among the masses
(Chinn & Kramer, 2011).
Throughout history, nurses have consistently advocated
for improved health conditions for individuals, families, and
communities, with a primary focus on addressing immediate
health care needs and educating people about health promo-
tion. Nursing care in the 21st century requires nurses to practice
with a broader emphasis on the historical, social, and political
structures in society (Clare, 1993; Falk-Rafael, 2005; Ford &
Profetto-McGrath, 1994; Harden, 1996; Kagan, Smith, Cowl-
ing, & Chinn, 2010; Kuokkanen & Leino-Kilpi, 2000; Rose &
Glass, 2008) to understand the impact of these factors on the
health and well-being of individuals, groups, and communities.
Chinn and Kramer (2011) introduced emancipatory know-
ing to the nursing literature and credited the influence of several
theories and perspectives when they developed this concept.
The following discussion about these influential theories and
perspectives aims to explicate the importance of integrating
emancipatory knowing into the curricula to help broaden nurs-
ing students’ awareness about hegemonic beliefs embedded in
the sociopolitical system and to support their capacity to ques-
tion the status quo.
THEORETICAL INFLUENCE
The concept of emancipatory knowing was developed
through an eclectic process that integrated concepts from other
theories and perspectives, namely critical theory, the postmod-
ernist and poststructuralist views of Freire (1995) and Foucault
and Gordon (1980), and White’s (1995) sociopolitical pattern of
knowing (Chinn & Kramer, 2011). Important to the process of
helping a student develop this way of knowing is a caring and
transformative teacher who guides students to learn beyond a
technical model of health care and instead uses an emancipa-
tory model to emphasize reflection and action (Ford & Profetto-
McGrath, 1994; Owen-Mills, 1995).
Critical theory initially emerged during the 1920s from a
synthesis of ideas offered by philosophers from the Institute
for Social Research in Frankfurt, Germany, commonly referred
to as the Frankfurt School (Harden, 1996; Ray, 1992). The un-
derlying premise of critical theory includes three basic tenets
about knowledge—specifically, knowledge must be practical,
emancipatory, and have the potential to liberate the oppressed
(Kagan et al., 2010). In the 1960s, Habermas (1987) restruc-
66
tured critical theory by blending philosophical and sociological
perspectives to develop critical social theory (CST) grounded
in rational communication, as described in his theory of com-
municative action. Habermas’ (1987) theory offers a framework
to explain how modern society creates many social injustices.
A principle tenet of CST is to help oppressed people liberate
themselves from known and unknown societal oppression;
hence, CST offers a framework to study and conceptualize the
social and political factors influencing society (Chinn & Kramer,
2011; Ray, 1992; Wells, 1995).
Much of the CST literature is rooted in the work of Freire and
his pedagogy for liberation of the oppressed masses (Bradbury-
Jones et al., 2007; Freire, 1995). Freire (1995) contended that
the oppressed often subsume the worldview of their oppressor,
thinking that doing so will lead to greater power and control. In
reality, this social conformity often leads to marginalization of
the oppressed group and results in low self-esteem and low self-
worth (Roberts, 1983). Dialogue that asks questions of “how,”
“what,” and “why” as related to the various power structures
and relationships that exist in society helps frame a contextual
basis for nurses to understand the influence of these affiliations
on certain individuals and groups in society.
Discourses or symbolic representations in our culture shape
how we view our world and learn what is socially valued or dis-
counted (Chinn & Kramer, 2011). For example, White (1995)
expanded on Carper’s (1978) empirical, ethical, personal, and
esthetic patterns of knowing and added sociopolitical knowing
as a means to understand the sociopolitical and cultural contexts
that influence perceptions of health and illness, identity, lan-
guage, and relationship with society. Chinn and Kramer (2008)
developed emancipatory knowing and distinguished it from so-
ciopolitical knowing because it “embrace[s] a wide[r] range of
historical and contextual considerations, and… emphasize[s]
the fundamental intent to seek freedom from conditions largely
hidden that restrict the realization of full human potential”
(pp. 87-88). Foucault’s poststructuralist philosophy about power
imbalances created through discourse provides additional in-
sight to understand emancipatory knowing (Chinn & Kramer,
2011). When new knowledge and power gain momentum and
infiltrate the prevailing discourse, they can serve once again to
influence thought and alter future actions.
These theoretical and philosophical perspectives elucidate
how sociopolitical, cultural, and historical factors can influence
human action. Developing an awareness of these factors, as
well as a belief in personal capacity to change, is an important
step toward advocacy and social action. Nurses are well posi-
tioned as health care leaders to advocate for social changes that
mitigate oppression. To support this call, nursing students need
support to exercise their power to apply an emancipatory praxis
throughout their profession.
CALL TO ACTION
Some believe that nursing is not as prepared as it could be
to address the plethora of health care challenges faced each day
by individuals and groups (Chinn & Kramer, 2011; Falk-Rafael,
2005). Nursing education programs would do well to heed this call
to action by adopting a curriculum that supports a caring praxis
Copyright © SLACK Incorporated
 SNYDER

Methods to Support an Emancipatory Praxis Among Nursing Students
Method
Engage in dialectical communication
Maintain a critical, reflective journal
View films for implicit and explicit themes
related to social justice
Participate in focus groups
Write letters to newspapers, journal editors,
and state legislators concerning matters of
health care and professional practice
Attend State Board of Nursing public
meetings
Join local and state student nurses’
associations and attend state legislative
sessions
Create blogs to share and communicate
views on particular social issues
TABLE
Dimensions of Emancipatory Knowing
Critical questions; creative processes
Critical questions; creative processes
Critical questions; creative processes
Formal expressions of knowledge;
authentication processes
Formal expressions of knowledge;
integrated expression in practice
Formal expressions of knowledge;
authentication processes; integrated
expression in practice
Formal expressions of knowledge;
integrated expression in practice
Critical questions; creative processes; formal
expressions of knowledge
Outcome
Explore potential discord between personal
preconceptions and others
Develop critical thinking and self-awareness to
increase one’s capacity as a reflective practitioner
Broaden personal perspectives through critical
reflection of movie themes and identify similarities
and differences in own practice
Deepen understanding of self and others’
thoughts and actions when sharing multiple
perspectives about an issue
Increase confidence advocating for patients and
self through praxis
Expand awareness of professional practice
issues and events within own state to advocate
intelligently on issues of social justice as they
impact patients and nursing
Develop understanding of political processes
and empower self to take action and support the
health and well-being of others
Discover personal voice and learn to communicate
personal views that advocate for action to address
injustices

and mentors students to provide care supportive of social justice,
particularly for the vulnerable and marginalized members of so-
ciety. To acquire an aptitude for emancipatory knowing, nurses
need to develop a broader understanding of the sociopolitical
forces that compromise the ability of a person, family, or commu-
nity to flourish, free from oppression, within their world. Interest
and support for integrating emancipatory approaches into nursing
education and curriculum development have increased (Bevis &
Murray, 1990; Fontana, 2004; Ford & Profetto-McGrath, 1994;
Glen, 1995; Harden, 1996; Lipp, 2003; Parker & Faulk, 2004;
Randall, Tate, & Lougheed, 2007; Schreiber & Banister, 2002).
Nursing is called to closely examine the disciplinary practices
that suppress, rather than support, nurses who question assump-
tions and challenge the status quo (Kagan, Smith, Cowling, &
Chinn, 2010). Nurse educators can support this call to action by
examining current pedagogical practices that minimize student
critical thought and action pertaining to the curriculum or clinical
experiences. Teaching guided by emancipatory action may help
create a foundation for nursing students to integrate similar ap-
proaches into clinical practice.
FACILITATING STUDENT EMPOWERMENT
The following section presents a variety of methods that ed-
ucators can integrate into nursing curricula to guide students to-
ward an emancipatory praxis. The Table outlines each method
and the dimensions of emancipatory knowing to facilitate the
outcomes. It is anticipated that these approaches will inspire ad-
ditional dialogue about other effective strategies to help nursing
students embrace a broader understanding of the environments
in which they practice.
Randall et al. (2007) suggested using critical questioning as
an emancipatory method in teaching and learning, where the
teacher and student engage in a “co-creating dialogue meant to
serve as a trigger for thinking” (p. 61). This form of questioning
aims to guide the student through open and nonjudgmental dia-
logue to explore what specific knowledge guided their actions
while caring for a patient (Randall et al., 2007). In addition,
students who are able to share their experience of caring for a
patient using exploratory dialogue and questioning are likely
to increase their inquisitiveness as related to factors outside the
patient’s immediate diagnosis (Bevis & Murray, 1990; Randall
et al., 2007). Students who are empowered to reflect critically
about clinical situations and ask questions about why certain
problems exist, how they can be resolved, why they occur, and
who benefits will learn to develop a deeper understanding of
their patients’ circumstances (Chinn & Kramer, 2011; Harden,
1996; Kagan et al., 2010). Use of critical questioning can help
nursing students to incorporate principles of emancipatory
knowing into their practice and offers those for whom they care
a voice to navigate the complexities of the health care environ-
ment.
Another strategy to enhance emancipatory knowing is to use
films to stimulate reflection and action. Films provide a platform

Journal of Nursing Education • Vol. 53, No. 2, 2014 67

EMANCIPATORY KNOWING
from which dialogue and critique can stimulate discussions and
create greater insight into the meanings embedded in the story.
Parker and Faulk (2004) explained how they used the film My
Life, starring Michael Keaton and Nicole Kidman, to encourage
nursing students to share their perspectives on the superficial and
underlying meanings conveyed throughout the story. Students
received several preliminary questions to think about prior to
viewing the film, and they were asked to provide evidence from
the literature to support their understanding of family systems,
complementary health care, and dysfunctional communities
(Parker & Faulk, 2004). Although students were able to explore
and evaluate their feelings and attitudes as related to the real-life
circumstances portrayed in the movie, they were limited because
it was a situation in which none of them had any direct involve-
ment (Parker & Faulk, 2004; Randall et al., 2007). The use of a
similar approach based on real-life stories from personal experi-
ences and those reported in the news or from patient situations
students encounter during clinical rotations provides a realistic
platform to develop emancipatory knowing.
An additional strategy to foster emancipatory knowing in-
volves using focus groups throughout the nursing curriculum
to encourage students to share the experience of being a nurs-
ing student during clinical. This approach invites students to
discuss and analyze institutional and sociopolitical barriers that
may interfere in their ability to provide care free from these
constraints. Jacobs, Fontana, Kehoe, Matarese, and Chinn
(2005) conducted an emancipatory study of nursing practice.
They conducted a series of focus groups over 6 to 10 weeks
with experienced nurses from different regions of the northeast-
ern United States to learn about their views of contemporary
nursing practice. The purpose of their study was to help nurses
recognize various oppressive forces within their work environ-
ments and share their perspectives of nursing practice through
a dialectical process. Throughout these focus groups, the nurses
recognized their individual and collective power to propose
changes in either themselves or their work environments to
address the oppressive forces they experienced (Jacobs et al.,
2005).
The dialectic is another method of communication that en-
courages two or more individuals with differing views to dis-
cuss their perspectives. This communication approach inten-
tionally invites participants to share contradictory viewpoints
and employ rational arguments to discuss and explore existing
power structures in society (Fontana, 2004), and it also enables
nursing students to expand their understanding about emancipa-
tory knowing. Through a process of dialectic communication,
participants are encouraged to express their differing views and
thoughts freely and without fear of retribution (Burns & Grove,
2009). Use of a dialectical approach to teaching a class, rather
than teacher-directed lectures, offers students an emancipatory
approach to collectively express their views and experiences
related to a common issue or concern. Using this form of dia-
logue, faculty could integrate dialectical groups throughout the
curriculum to help students examine the health care needs of
marginalized individuals, groups, and communities. For exam-
ple, sessions could begin with an open-ended inquiry to explore
what marginalization means and whether any members have
ever experienced marginalization. Then, group members could
68
express their understanding of this concept using stories, poetry,
music, art, or personal experiences. Subsequent sessions may
explore questions related to conditions in society that contribute
to marginalization and actions that can be taken to help mitigate
its occurrence. The experience of such a dialectical process af-
fords each participant an opportunity to develop his or her in-
ner voice and helps encourage the participant to believe he or
she can make a difference through praxis (Chinn & Kramer,
2008; Jacobs et al., 2005). From the beginning of their nursing
program, students could freely participate in these dialectical
groups to broaden their understanding about various topics and
issues of interest.
Students learn to value the knowledge and experience gained
throughout their educational program when provided opportu-
nities to share them with those outside the health care environ-
ments. They usually learn early in their educational program
how to communicate therapeutically with patients and family
members, but not necessarily with elected public and state of-
ficials. Encouraging students to write letters to newspaper edi-
tors and state legislators to support action for social justice can
help students develop and strengthen their political voice (Falk-
Rafael, 2005). Other supportive activities include having stu-
dents attend sessions at the state legislature and state board of
nursing, speak with lobbyists and representatives of their state
nurses’ association, and join their state and local student nurses’
associations. Given the various social media platforms available
today, students could also develop a professional blog or Web
page from which to express their sociopolitical views. Nursing
faculty who support these endeavors and explore opportunities
with students to broaden their views on power structures that
marginalize certain groups in society help students expand their
understanding of the social and political structures that impact
the health and well-being of these oppressed groups.
CONCLUSION
The profession of nursing is positioned strategically to ad-
vocate for social justice through reflection and action. Intro-
ducing critical social theory and other emancipatory pedagogy
into a nursing curriculum helps nursing students build a knowl-
edgeable foundation for critical inquiry and praxis guided by
emancipatory knowing. The different methods discussed in this
article support this endeavor, but other approaches also exist.
Nursing faculty who value and practice within a critical theory
paradigm can mentor nursing students through this process
by engaging them in meaningful discourse with an emancipa-
tory aim. Patients and society as a whole benefit when students
learn early in their educational program that the professional
responsibilities of a nurse include the adoption of an emancipa-
tory praxis to guide education, research, and practice. Nursing
students who learn to question and analyze the sociopolitical
conditions influencing the health of their patients may be more
likely to provide nursing care informed by emancipatory know-
ing and develop strategies to mitigate these oppressive forces.
Nurse educators are urged to support nursing practice informed
by emancipatory knowing and are called upon to share their
knowledge of other effective strategies to integrate emancipa-
tory praxis into a curriculum.
Copyright © SLACK Incorporated

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