GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

MIDTERM NOTES 1

Lesson 1: Introduction to Biology

BIOLOGY is the study of life.
THE IMPORTANCE OF BIOLOGY
1. Biology is the study of our body and its environment.
2. Biology also involves studying and examining other animals.
3. Biology also encompasses the study of different causative agents of diseases
such as bacteria and viruses.
4. Biology also helps you respond to the demands of an increasing human
population, through careful studies and research.
5. Biology also studies the reproduction and population growth to assure that
problems regarding overpopulation will be given answer.
6. Biology takes into its realm the study of plants.
UNIFYING THEMES OF LIFE
a. Living things are made of cells and organized.
b. Living things acquire materials and energy.
c. Living things maintain homeostasis.
d. Living things respond to their environment.
Ectothermic Animals
Snakes and other reptiles are ectotherms, which means that they have no internal
means of regulating metabolic function. Like other reptiles, snakes are most active
during the day, using the sun’s rays to warm their bodies as they hunt for food or
simple bask in the sunlight. The heat of the sun speeds up the metabolism, giving
them energy and helping them to digest their food. They will also hide in shady spots
or burrow underground during the hottest part of the day to avoid overheating.
e. Living things reproduce.

f. Living things have a universal genetic code.

g. Living things grow and develop.
h. Living things evolve as a group and have adaptations.
BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION
 1. Atom – the smallest particle
2. Molecule – two or more atoms bonded together
3. Cell – the smallest unit of life
4. Tissue – a group of similar cells
5. Organ – a group of similar tissues working together
6. Organ System/Body System – a group of similar organs working together
7. Organism – a complete multicellular individual
8. Population – a group of the same species in an area
9. Community – a group of different species in an area
10. Ecosystem – all the biotic and abiotic factors in an area
11. Biome – An area of the planet that can be classified according to the plants
and animals that live in it.
12. Biosphere – a global ecological (EARTH)

Lesson 2: Basic Principles of Cells and Cell Theory

The Cell: Basic Principles
Two primary kinds of cells;
1. Eukaryotic cells
- have nucleus containing DNA
- found in humans, plants, animals, fungi, and insects
- have linear strands of DNA
- contains organelles
2. Prokaryotic
- have no nucleus
- found in bacteria archaea
- less complex than Eukaryotic cells.
- Have smaller, circular DNA. DNA is held in nucleoid.
- Does not contain organelles
Cells contain nucleic acids, DNA and RNA, the genetic information necessary for
direction cellular activities
CELL PRODUCTION FOR EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Cell cycle – a complex sequence of events where eukaryotic cells grown and
reproduce. At the end of the cycle, cells will divide either through the processes of
mitosis or meiosis.
Mitosis – somatic cells replicate (every cells except eggs and sperm cells)
Meiosis – sex cells

CELL PRODUCTION FOR PROKARYOTIC CELLS

Binary Fission – a type of asexual reproduction that prokaryotic cells reproduce.
Higher organisms are also capable of asexual reproduction through formation of
spores plants), budding, fragmentation, regeneration, and parthenogenesis
(animals).

CELLULAR PROCESS
1. PHOTOSYNTEHISIS – uses CO2, water, and energy
from the sun. Light energy from the sun is converted
to glucose.

2. CELLULAR RESPIRATION – then the glucose are

consumed by animals and humans are used as
energy. It releases energy stored in glucose
molecules. It requires oxygen to happen and
produces CO2 that are needed by plants.
*ATP IS PRODUCED BY GLUCOSE*
TRANSPORT MECHANISM OF MATERIALS INSIDE AND OUTSIDE THE CELL
*Both are active process that uses energy (ATP)
1. ENDOCYTOSIS – If the material is going inside the cell
2. EXOCYTOSIS - if the material is going outside the cell

PROCESS IN CELLS
a. CELL MIGRATION – a process that is vital for the development of tissues
and organs. It is also required for mitosis and cytokinesis to occur. It is made
 possible by interactions between motor enzymes and cytoskeleton
microtubules.

b. DNA REPLICATION – An important function that is needed for several

processes including chromosome synthesis and cell division to occur.

c. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS – The process of DNA transcription and RNA

translation.
Transcription – DNA translation then DNA replication by RNA
Translation – The copied DNA by RNA is transcripted to amino acids.
CELL THEORY
Cell Theory refers to the idea that cells are the basic unit of structure in every living
thing. This theory is one of the foundations of biology
1. Robert Hooke
- In 1665, he used a microscope to
examine a thin slice of cork (dead plant
cells as tiny boxes or a honeycomb. He
thought that cells only existed in plants
and fungi. He describe cells as tiny
boxes. *what he really observed are cell
walls*
 2. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
- In 1673, Leeuwenhoek was first to view
organism (living things). Leeuwenhoek
used a simple, handheld microscope to
view pond water & scrapings from his
teeth. He called them “animalcules”

3. Matthias Jakob Schleiden

- In 1838, the botanist suggested that every
structural element of plant is composed of cells or
their products.

4. Theodor Schwann
- In 1839, the zoologist stated that all elementary
parts of animal tissues are formed of cells.

5. Rudolph Virchow
- In 1855, a German medical doctor named
Rudolph Virchow observed cells dividing under
the microscope and concluded that cells must
arise from pre-existing cells.

CELL THEORY PRINCIPLES

 1. All organism are composed of one or more cells.
2. Cells are the smallest living units of all living organisms.
3. Cells arise only by division of a previously existing cell.
Modern Version of Cell Theory
1. Energy flow occurs within cells.
2. Hereditary information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.
3. All cells have the same basic chemical composition

Lesson 3: Cell Types, Structures, and Functions

PROKARYOTES CELLS are characterized by having
- No nucleus
- DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid
- No membrane-bound organelles
- Cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane
- Prokaryotes thrive almost everywhere, including places too acidic,
salty, cold, or hot for most other organisms
- Due to their ability to adapt to diverse habitats, prokaryotes are the
most abundant organisms on Earth
- Most are unicellular, although some species from colonies
*Halobacterium – prokaryotes (archaean) that live on too salty environment*
Prokaryotic Cells varies of shapes. 3 common shapes
A. Cocci - Spherical
B. Bacilli - Rod-shaped
C. Spiral – Spiral

CELL STRUCTURES OF PROKARYOTES

A. Flagellum: Helps in movement,
attached to the basal body of the cell.
Chemotaxis – The response to
stimulus or chemical by the
flagellum

Types of Flagellar
Arrangements

1. Polar/Monotrichous – single
flagellum at one pole.
2. Lophotrichous – tuft of flagella
at one pole
3. Amphitrichous – flagella at
both poles
4. Peritrichous – flagella all over
5. Amphilophotrichous – tuft of
flagella at both ends

B. Fimbriae: Helps in attachment to the surface

and other bacteria to form colonies. These are
small hair-like structure.

C. Pilus: Hair-like hollow attachment present on

the surface of bacteria, and is used to transfer
of DNA to other cells curing cell-cell adhesion.

D. Glycocalyx: This layer function as a receptor, an

adhesive and also provide protection to the cell wall.
Not all prokaryotes have glycocalyx
2 Types of Glycocalyx
a. Slime Layer – if the glycocalyx is liquidly and
not compact
b. Capsule – if the structure of glycocalyx is
compact.

E. Cell Wall: a protective layer that surrounds cells and

give them shape and rigidity. The chemical
composition of the cell walls varies between archaea
and bacteria. It also varies between bacterial
species. It helps to withstand the pressure within the
cell.
Gram staining procedure
1. Heat - fix sample
2. Crystal Violet Dye ( purpl3)
3. Iodme mordant
4. Pecolorizing solution - Peptidoglycan: A layer of sugar that is only present on the cell wall
5. Safranim dye- pink
of bacteria. Therefore, archaea does not have any peptidoglycan.
Violet-Gram+ - 2 types cell wall between bacterial species
Pink-Gram- 1. Gram-positive bacteria – have thick peptidoglycan layer
2. Gram-negative bacteria – they have thin layer of
peptidoglycan

F. Cell/Plasma Membrane: Thin layer of

protein and lipids, surrounds cytoplasm and
regulate the flow of materials inside and
outside the cells.
- Archaea – Ether linkage, lipid
monolayer
- Bacteria – Ester linkage, lipid bilayer
- This is where aerobic and photosynthetic respiration happens.
• Aerobic Prokaryote – Cellular Respiration
• Photosynthetic Prokaryote – Photosynthesis

G. Mesosomes: It is the extension of the cell

membrane, unfolded into the cytoplasm their role is
during the cellular respiration. It helps to increase
the surface area for the cellular respiration or
photosynthesis.

H. Nucleoid: It is the location of the genetic material

(DNA), large DNA molecule is condensed into the
small packet.

I. Plasmid: Prokaryotic cells may also contain

extrachromosomal DNA found in plasmids, which
are small, circular, double-stranded DNA
molecules. Plasmids often carry genes that confer
advantageous traits such as antibiotic resistance;
thus, they are important to the survival of the
organism.

J. Ribosomes: Tiny particles which help in protein synthesis.

 K. Inclusion Body: It helps in storage of carbohydrates,
glycogen, phosphate, fats in the form of particles which
can be used when needed.

L. Endospores: A protective coating that helps cell in

surviving during harsh conditions. Many prokaryotes
form metabolically inactive endospores, which can
remain viable in harsh conditions for centuries. *not
all prokaryotes have endospores.

EUKARYOTIC CELLS are characterized having

- DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a membranous nuclear
envelope
- Membrane-bound organelles
- Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma membrane and
nucleus
Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than prokaryotic cells.
Parts of Eukaryotic Cells
1. Cell Membrane
Location: Forms outer
boundary of cell; surrounds
cytoplasm; separated the cell
from its environment.
Description: made up of a
double layer of lipids with
some proteins scattered
throughout; the proteins form
tiny openings or passageways
in the membrane called
pores.
Function:
1. Helps to maintain HOMEOSTASIS by allowing certain
substance to flow in and out of the cell – SELECTIVE
PERMEABILITY.
Phospholipid has two parts: head – hydrophilic
(attracted to water) and tail - hydrophobic (repels water).
It has two layers. First layer – Interstitial Fluid
(extracellular) Second layer – Cytosolic fluid (Intracellular)
 2. Provides protection and support for the cell
3. Gives cells their shape and flexibility

2. Cytoplasm (cytosol and organelles) *cytosol suspends the organelles.

Location: found inside the cell membrane but outside the nucleus.
Description: clear, thick, jellylike material; contains a large amount of
water and chemicals may sometimes appear to be grainy.
Function: contains all the organelles outside of the nucleus

3. Cytoskeleton
Location: found throughout
the cytoplasm
Description: a web of long
tubs and fibers made of
protein (microtubules and
microfilaments).
Function: supports the cell
and helps the cell keep its
shape; also helps certain
cells move
PARTS OF
CYTOSKELETON
Intermediate Filament – allows cells to stretch and put it back in
original shape.
Microtubule – It helps to keep the organelles in place.
Actin Filament –coordinates in the nervous system for the movement
of cell.

4. Nucleus
Location: found within the
cytoplasm; separated from
the cytoplasm by the
nuclear membrane.
Description: largest
organelle; made up of 3
parts:
1. Nuclear membrane – thin layer that surrounds the nucleus;
contains pores to let materials in and out. Has two layers
nuclear pore and nuclear envelope.
2. Chromatin – thin threadlike structure made up of DNA
(controls cell activities and provides the information the
ribosomes need to make proteins.)*well-packaged DNA
3. Nucleolus- ribosomal formation
 Function: controls all of the cell’s activities; controls which proteins are
made. (*90% of our cells are devoted for the creation of proteins)

Histones – a protein that helps in packaging the

DNA
*DNA cannot be damaged because it may result
to mutation or diseases*

5. Ribosomes
Location: most are attached to the ER (making rough ER); some float
freely in cytoplasm
Description: small grain like (ribosomes are not covered in
membrane)
Function: to make protein; gets instructions for protein production from
the DNA in nucleus; the DNA gives the ribosomes the codes for which
amino acids to put together to make a specific kind of protein
Has 2 parts: large subunit and
small large unit. They combine
together when they have to create
proteins.
Other: ribosomes drop proteins directly
into the ER for transport; free-floating
ones make proteins for the particular
spot in the cell.
Eukaryotes have 80s ribosomes which
are further divided into two subunits which are 40S and 60S (S stands
for Svedberg unit).
Svedberg Unit – rate of sedimentation, rate of time *kung gaano
kabilis pumunta sa ilalim
*Prokaryotes have 70S ribosomes which are further divided into two subunits which
are 50S and 30S.
6. Endoplasmic Reticulum
Location: extends from the nuclear membrane to
the cell membrane; found winding throughout the
cytoplasm; rough ER is usually found near the
nucleus
Description: folded, tube-like membrance; round
ER has ribosomes on it; smooth ER lacks
ribosomes
Function: moves materials (especially proteins)
around the cell; acts like a conveyor belt or
passageway; is the cell’s transportation system.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

- Has bound ribosomes, which secrete
glycoproteins (proteins covalently
bonded to carbohydrates)
- Distributes transport vesicles, proteins
surrounded by membranes
- Is a membrane factory for the cell
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Synthesize lipids (phospholipids)
- Metabolizes carbohydrates
- Detoxifies poison
- Stores calcium
7. Golgi Bodies
Location: found in cytoplasm
Description: stacks of flat,
membrane – covered sacs; looks a
lot like smooth ER
Function: sort and modify proteins
from the ER to do different jobs;
these are then packaged in sacs
(called vesicles)
Others: Golgi Apparatus and Golgi
8. Mitochondria
Location: scattered throughout
cytoplasm
Description: rod-shaped
structures that have a folded inner
membrane within an out
membrane.
Function: release energy from the sugar (glucose) in food by
combining it with oxygen (cell respiration); it stores this energy in
special energy-rich molecules (called ATP) that the cell uses to do its
work
Other: called the “powerhouse” of the cell;
cells that are more active will have more
mitochondria (ex. Muscle cells)
o Have 3 parts; outer membrane,
inner membrane, intermembrane
space.
o Cristae –
o The more the cell is active, the
larger the number of mitochondria
cells

9. Lysosomes
Description: Small, round structures
filled with digestive chemicals called
enzymes
Function: 1. Break down large food
(sugar) molecules into small ones so
they can enter the mitochondria;
2. Digest waste products, worn out
organelles , and dead or injured cells
to make room for new cells (the cell’s
materials can be reused by other cells);
3. Protect the cell from foreign invaders (for white blood cells)
Other: sometime act like a “self-destruct” device for the cell
10. Vacuole
Location: found in cytoplasm
Description: large, round, fluid-filled sac; plants have
one very large vacuole; animals have a few small
ones (not all animals have vacuole)
- Plant vacuoles is storage for water, toxins,
pigments (90% of plant cells is composed of
vacuole)
- Animal vacuoles is storage for food
Function: storage area for food, water, wastes, and
other materials
Other: when plant vacuoles are completely filled of
water, the cells are plum and the plant is firm; if it
loses water, the plants wilt

11. Cell Wall (only for plant cells; animal cells do not
have cell walls)
Location: found outside the cell membrane
Description: strong and stiff; made of
bundles of nonliving cellulose fibers (sugar)
which can be of cellulose (plant cells),
pectin, chitin (fungi) or peptidoglycan
(bacteria)
Function: protects and supports plant cells;
allows materials to pass through; helps to
withstand pressure inside the vacuole
- Plasmodesma/ta – a membranous channels that cross walls of
adjacent plant cells, linking the cytoplasm and plasma membranes
of cells and allowing direct cytoplasmic cell-to-cell communication of
bother small molecules and macromolecules

12. Chloroplasts (only for plant cells/algae)

Location: found in cytoplasm
Description: large, oval-shaped structures that
contain a green pigment called chlorophyll
Function: food-making sites in plant cells/algae;
they trap the sun’s energy and use it to combine
water and carbon dioxide to make sugar
(glucose) for the plant-this process is called
photosynthesis
- Double membrane – Outer membrane &
inner membrane
- Thylakoid – where we can see the green pigment called
chlorophyll
13. Centrosomes
Location: found in cytoplasm;
usually close to the nucleus
- Made out of 2 centrioles;
centriole 1 & centriole 2
Description: consists of two
centrioles oriented at right angles to
each other; centrioles are built from a
cylindrical array microtubules
Function: allows them to control
formation of mitotic spindle fibers;
direct the movements of microtubules
and other cytoskeletal structures and
proteins allowing changes to the
shapes of animal cell membranes

14. Appendages
- Cilia (smaller in size) and Flagella
(larger in size) are locomotory
attachments, helps in the
movement of a cell towards
positive stimuli. Cilia are shorter
than flagella and numerous.

15. Surface Structure

- Glycocalyx is a kind of
polysaccharide, and it is the
outermost layer of the cell
which helps in cell
adherence, protection and
in receiving signals from
other cells.
 DIFFERENCEE BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
PLANTS
Have plastids (e.g.chloroplast)
Have a cell wall (made of cellulose)
Have a large, central vacuole
May have plasmodesmata
Do not have centrioles
Do no have cholesterol in cell membrane
Store excess glucose as starch
Generally have a fixed, regular shape
ANIMALS
Do not have plastids
Do not have a cell wall
Have small, temporary vacuoles (if any)
Do not have plasmodesmata
Have paired centrioles within
centrosome
Have cholesterol in the cell membrane
Store excess glucose as glycogen
Generally have amorphous shape

DIFFERENCES PROKARYOTIC CELLS AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

PROKARYOTIC CELLS
Small cells (< 5 um)
Always unicellular
No nucleus or any membrane-bound
organelles, such as mitochondria
DNA is circular, without proteins
Ribosomes are small (70S)
No cytoskeleton
Motility by rigid rotating flagellum (made of
flagellin)
Cell division is by binary fission
Reproduction is always asexual
Huge variety of metabolic pathways
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Larger cells (> 10 um)
Often multicellular (unicellular: protist & yeast)
Always have nucleus and other membrane-
bound organelles
DNA is linear and associate with proteins to
form chromatin (histones)
Ribosomes are large (80S)
Always has a cytoskeleton
Motility by flexible waving cilia or flagellae
(made of tubulin)
Cell division is by mitosis or meiosis
Reproduction is asexual or sexual
Common metabolic pathways

Lesson 4: Cell Specialization and Modification

Cell Specialization/ Modification/ Differentiation – a process that occurs after cell
division where the newly formed cells are structurally modified so that they can
perform their function efficiently and effectively
Plant Tissues
1. Meristematic Tissues – Plant can grow continuously due to
the activity of meristems, unspecialized tissues composed of
actively dividing cells.
Main types of meristems
• Apical meristems – located at the tips of roots
and shoots. Apical meristems elongate shoots
and roots, process called primary growth
(length).
• Lateral meristems – add thickness to woody
plants. A process called secondary growth
(width).
• Intercalary – which occur in between mature tissues
(monocots only)

During primary growth, cells produced by the meristems give rise to three meristems
that will produce the mature tissues of the plant.
• The protoderm produces dermal tissue. Dermal tissue forms
the outer protective covering of a plant.
• The ground meristem produces ground tissue. Ground tissue
fills the interior of a plant.
• The procambium produces vascular tissue. Vascular tissue
transports water and nutrients within the plants as well as
providing support.
Lateral meristems, add thickness to woody plants, a process called second growth.
There are two lateral meristems: the vascular cambium and the cork cambium.
• The vascular cambium add layers of vascular tissue called
secondary xylem (wood) and secondary phloem.
• The cork cambium replaces the epidermis with periderm,
which is thicker and tougher.
 Intercalary Meristem
- Located at the internodes of the base of the leaves.
- Help in increasing the length of the internode.
- occurs only in monocots,
particularly grass.
- Through intercalary growth,
these plants are able to rapidly
regrow leaves and elongate
stems as an adaptive
mechanism against herbivory.

2. Mature/Permanent Tissues
A. Dermal Tissues
B. Ground Tissues
C. Vascular Tissues

I. Epidermal Tissues
• In nonwoody plants, the dermal
tissue system consists of the
epidermis.
• A waxy coating called the cuticle
helps prevent water loss from the
epidermis.
• Root hairs, finger-like extensions
of epidermal cells, form near the
root tip and increase the
absorptive surface of the root.
• Specialized epidermal cells called
guard cells facilitate gas exchange in shoots. It is controlled
by water in a plant.
 • Hairlike trichomes are outgrowth of the shoot epidermis that
can reduce water loss and reflect light. Trichomes can also
help defend against insects.

II. Ground Tissues

- Tissues that are neither dermal nor vascular are the ground tissue
system,
- Ground tissue internal to the vascular tissue is pith; ground tissues
external to the vascular tissue is cortex.
- Ground tissue includes cells specialized for storage,
photosynthesis, supports and transport.
- The major types of plant cells are
1. Parenchyma
• Most abundant type of plant tissue
found in all organs but the least
specialized
 • Their function depend on the type of pigment they contain.
When chloroplasts are present, the store products of
photosynthesis. A juicy bite from an apples is due mostly to
storage parenchyma cells.
• If the pigment is chloroplast then it’s for photosynthesis
(leaves), if the pigment is amyloplast, it’s sfor the storage of
starch (stems/roots)

2. Collenchyma
• Provide support and flexibility to
immature regions of a plant body by
forming bundles just beneath the
epidermis.
• An example of this are the visible strands in celery stalks
composed mostly of collenchyma cells.
• They have unevenly thickened primary cells

3. Sclerenchyma
• Rigid due to thick secondary
walls containing lignin, a
strengthening polymer. They
are dead at maturity and
function primarily to support the
mature regions of a plant.
• There are two types:
schlereids (nuts/pears) &
fibers (ropes)

III. Vascular Tissues

- Facilitates the transport of materials through the plant and provides
mechanical support
- The two vascular tissues are;
1. Xylem conducts waters and dissolves minerals upward from
roots into the shoots.
a. Tracheids – form a less obvious means of
transport (elongated with tapered ends.) Water can
move across the end walls and sidewalls because
there pits, or depressions, where the secondary
walls do not form.
b. Vessel Elements – larger, may have perforation
plates in their end walls, and are arranged to form
a continuous vessel for water and mineral
transport. Both types of conducting cells hollow
and nonliving.
2. Phloem transports sugars from where they are made (primarily
leaves) to storage structures (roots, stems, fruits) or sites of
growth.
a. Sieve tube members – specialized elongated
parenchyma cells which are arranged end to end
form a continuous column.
b. Companion cells – has a nucleus and help the
sieve tube members carry out their function
c. Fibers – lend supports to the phloem
d. Parenchyma
Animal Cells & Tissues
Four types of Animal Tissues;
1. Connective tissue
2. Epithelial tissue
3. Muscle tissue
4. Nervous tissue

ANIMAL TISSUES
01 EPITHELIAL TISSUE
- Covers the outside of the
body and lines the organs
and cavities within the body.
It contains cells that are
closely joined.
- The shape of epithelial cells
may be cuboidal (like dice),
columnar (like bricks on
end), or squamous (like floor
tiles.)
- The arrangement of epithelial
cells may be simple (single
cell layer), stratified (multiple tiers of cells), or pseudostratified (a
single layer of cells of varying length

• Simple squamous
epithelium – blood
vessels/ air sacs
diffusion. Exchange
of materials via
diffusion
• Simple cuboidal
epithelium – lining
of kidney
tubules/glands,
secretion
• Simple columnar epithelium – for secretion of digestive
enzymes and absorption of nutrients and usually seen in
intestines
 • Stratified squamous epithelium – for protection to areas
prone to abrasion (ex. skin)
• Stratified cuboidal epithelium – rare to see as they only
appear to glands for secretion of sweat and milk and provides
protection
• Stratified columnar epithelium – to provide protection to
conjunctiva, male urethra and uterus
• Pseudostratified columnar epithelium – usually seen in
respiratory tract, for cleaning air that are inhaled, has mucus to
filter the air that are inhaled

02 MUSCLE TISSUE
- Responsible for all muscle
movements
- Muscle tissue in the
vertebrate body is divided
into three types:
• Skeletal Muscles, or
striated muscle, is
responsible for
voluntary movement
• Smooth muscle is responsible for involuntary body activities.
Usually seen gastrointestinal tract, urinary tracts and arteries
• Cardiac muscle is responsible for contraction of the heart.
a. Intercalated disks – responsible for the timing for
the contraction of heart
03 CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- Connective tissue mainly
binds and supports other
tissues. It contains sparsely
packed cells scattered
throughout an extracellular
matrix. The matrix (ground
substance) consists of fibers
in a liquid, jellylike, or solid
foundation.
- Components of Connective
Tissue: Matrix, Protein Fibers,
& Specialized Cells
• Collagen Fibers – for strength and flexibility to a tissue
• Reticular Fibers – connects the adjacent tissues
• Elastic Fibers – for the elasticity of the tissue
Major types of connective tissue
• Loose connective tissue binds epithelia to underlying tissues
and holds organs in place
• Fibrous connective tissue is found in tendons, which attach
muscles to bones, and ligaments, which connect bones at
joints
• Bones is made up of mineralized and calcified connective
tissue and forms, and protects the skeleton
Red Bone Marrow – for the formation of red blood cells
• Adipose tissue stores fat (lipid droplets) for insulation and fuel
• Blood is composed of blood cells and cell fragments in blood
plasma. Formed by elements like: Red & white blood cells,
plasma
• Cartilage is a strong and flexible support material

04 NERVOUS TISSUE
- Nervous tissue functions in the
receipt, processing, and
transmission of information
- Nervous tissue contains
1. Neurons or nerve cells,
which transmit nerve
impulses
2. Glial cells, or glia, which
support cells
TYPES OF NEUROGLIA
SDSASSDAS
 a. Ependymal cells – secretes and circulates Cerebral Spinal Fluid that
provides cushion between brain and spinal cord.
b. Astrocytes – provides nutrients and other substances to our neurons
and also maintain homeostasis. It supports our structural sadsa of
neurons.
c. Oligodendrocytes – produces myelin sheath, which is a covering in
our neurons.
d. Microglia – for the protection of our neurons. It eats the bacteria and
cellular debris in our neuron. It maintains the health of our CNS.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

e. Satellite Cells – provides nourishment and structural support for our
neuron in our peripheral nervous system.
f. Schwann Cells – produces myelin sheath as covering to out neurons.

Human Cell Types

• Cells in the human body number in the trillions and come in all
shapes and sizes.
• There are hundreds of different types of cells in the body and
the structure of a cell is perfectly suited for the role it performs.
• No matter the differences, cells of the body depend on one
another, either directly or indirectly, to keep the body
functioning as one unit.

01 Adipocyte/Lipocyte

- Adipocytes (fat cells) store energy as an

insulating layer of fat and the majority of the
cell’s volume is taken up by a large lipid (fat
or oil) droplet.
- Fat cells - a connective tissue cell that has
differentiated and become specialized in the
synthesis (manufacture) and storage of fat.
The adipocyte is important to the body in
maintaining proper energy balance, storing
calories in the form of lipids, mobilizing
energy sources in response to hormonal stimulation, and commanding changes by
signal secretions.

02 ENDOTHELIAL CELLS
Endothelial Cells - form the inner
lining of cardiovascular
system and lymphatic system
structures. These cells make up the
inner layer of blood vessels,
lymphatic vessels, and organs
including the brain, lungs, skin, and heart. Endothelial cells are responsible for
angiogenesis or the creation of new blood vessels. They also regulate the movement
of macromolecules, gases, and fluid between the blood and surrounding tissues, and
help to regulate blood pressure.

03 MICROVILLI
Microvilli – are finger-like projections
extending from the free surface of
epithelial cells that increase the surface
area across which substance are
absorbed.

04 SEX CELLS/GAMETES
Sperm cell – has lots of mitochondria that will
produce the energy needed to propel its flagellum
towards the egg cell during fertilization; and
contains the enzyme needed to penetrate the
thick membrane surrounding the egg and deliver
its genetic material.

05 CANCER CELLS
Cancer Cells - results from the
development of abnormal
properties in normal cells that
enable them to divide
uncontrollably and spread to
other locations. Cancer cell
development can be caused
by mutations that occur from
factors such as chemicals, radiation, ultraviolet light, chromosome replication errors,
or viral infection. Cancer cells lose sensitivity to anti-growth signals, proliferate
rapidly, and lose the ability to undergo apoptosis or programmed cell death.

06 STEM CELLS
Stem Cells – are unique cells of
the body in that they
are unspecialized and have the
ability to develop into specialized
cells for specific organs or to
develop into tissues. Stem cells
are able to divide and replicate
many times in order to replenish and repair tissue. In the field of stem cell research,
scientists are attempting to take advantage of the renewal properties of stem cells by
utilizing them to generate cells for tissue repair, organ transplantation, and for the
treatment of disease.

07 CILIA & FLAGELLA

Cilia - is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Cilia are slender protuberances that
project from the much larger cell body.
Types of cilia:
A. Motile cilia: Motile cilia are usually present on a cell's surface in large numbers
and beat in coordinated waves. For example, motile cilia are found in the lining of the
trachea (windpipe), where they sweep mucus and dirt out of the lungs. In female
mammals, the beating of cilia in the Fallopian tubes moves the ovum from the ovary
to the uterus.
Function of motile cilia: Motile cilia for the transport of fluids (e.g. transport of
mucus by stationary ciliated cells in the trachea). However, cilia are also used
for locomotion (through liquids) in organisms such as Paramecium.

B. Non-motile (Primary cilia): Usually occur one per cell; all mammalian cells have
a single non-motile primary cilium. For example, sensory organs like eye and nose
Functions of non-motile cilia:
Mechanoreceptors - A primary cilium extends from the apical surface of the
epithelial cells lining the kidney tubules and monitors the flow of fluid through the
tubules.
Chemoreceptors - Detect odors by receptors on the primary cilium of olfactory
neurons.
Photoreceptors - The outer segment of the rods in the vertebrate retina is also
derived from a primary cilium.
Flagella - is a tail-like projection that protrudes from the cell body of certain
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and functions in locomotion.
Function of flagella:
Flagella serve for the propulsion of single cells (e.g. swimming of protozoa and
spermatozoa), and motile cilia for the transport of fluids (e.g. transport of mucus by
stationary ciliated cells in the trachea). However, cilia are also used for locomotion
(through liquids) in organisms such as Paramecium.

08 ALVEOLI
Alveoli – are microscopic, grapelike
air sacs found at the tip of the
bronchioles in the lungs that provide
tremendous surface area for gas
exchange during respiration.

09 GOBLET CELLS
Goblet cell – is a glandular, modified
simple columnar epithelial cell that
secretes gel-forming mucins, the major
components of mucus. It is usually
seen in respiratory system.