Chemical Systems

! An assemblage of coexisting phases

Introduction to Metamorphism (thermodynamic equilibrium and the phase rule)
• A basaltic composition can be either:
– Melt
Reading:
– Cpx + plag (± olivine, ilmenite…)
Winter Chapter 21
– Or any combination of melt + minerals along the
liquid line of descent
– If uplifted and eroded → surface, will weather → a
combinations of clays, oxides…

Definition of Metamorphism Lower Limit of Metamorphism

“Metamorphism is a subsolidus process leading to
• Low-temperature limit
changes in mineralogy and/or texture (for example grain
– Grades into diagenesis
size) and often in chemical composition in a rock. These
– The boundary is somewhat arbitrary
changes are due to physical and/or chemical conditions • Diagenetic/weathering processes are
that differ from those normally occurring at the surface indistinguishable from metamorphic
• Metamorphism begins in the range of 100-
of planets and in zones of cementation and diagenesis 150oC for the more unstable types of protolith
below this surface. They may coexist with partial • Some zeolites are considered diagenetic and
melting.” others metamorphic – pretty arbitrary

Upper Limit of Metamorphism Metamorphic Agents and Changes

• High-temperature limit grades into melting Temperature: typically the
• Over the melting range solids and liquids most important factor in
coexist metamorphism
• If we heat a metamorphic rock until it melts,
at what point in the melting process does it Estimated ranges of oceanic
and continental steady-state
become “igneous”? geotherms to a depth of 100
km using upper and lower
• Xenoliths, restites, and other enclaves are limits based on heat flows
considered part of the igneous realm because measured near the surface.
After Sclater et al. (1980),
melt is dominant Earth. Rev. Geophys. Space
Sci., 18, 269-311.
• Migmatites (“mixed rocks”) are gradational

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 Increased Temperature
• Promotes recrystallization which
increases grain size
• Larger surface/volume ratio of a
mineral has lower stability
• Increasing temperature eventually
overcomes kinetic barriers to
recrystallization, and fine aggregates
coalesce to larger grains
Effect of Pressure
“Normal” gradients may be perturbed in
several ways, typically:
• High T/P geotherms in areas of
plutonic activity or rifting
• Low T/P geotherms in subduction
zones
Metamorphic Grade
A general increase in degree of
metamorphism without specifying
the exact relationship between
temperature and pressure
High Temperature Effects
• Reactions occur that consume unstable
mineral(s) and produces new minerals that
are stable under the new conditions
! 3) Overcomes kinetic barriers that might
otherwise preclude the attainment of
equilibrium
Metamorphic field gradients (estimated P-T conditions along surface traverses directly up metamorphic
grade) for several metamorphic areas. After Turner (1981). Metamorphic Petrology: Mineralogical, Field, and
Tectonic Aspects. McGraw-Hill.
Deviatoric Stress
• Lithostatic pressure is uniform stress (hydrostatic)
• Deviatoric stress = unequal pressure in different
directions
• Deviatoric stress can be resolved into three
mutually perpendicular stress (σ) components:
σ1 is the maximum principal stress
σ2 is an intermediate principal stress
σ3 is the minimum principal stress
• In hydrostatic situations all three are equal
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 Stress and Strain
Types of Deviatoric Stresses:
• Stress is an applied force acting on a rock (over a
particular cross-sectional area)
• Tension
• Strain is the response of the rock to an applied
• Compression
stress (= yielding or deformation)
• Shear
• Deviatoric stress affects the textures and
structures, but not the equilibrium mineral
assemblage

• Strain energy may overcome kinetic barriers to

reactions

In tension: σ3 is negative, and the resulting strain is In compression σ1 is dominant: folding produces
extension, or pulling apart more homogenous flattening
original shape strain
ellipsoid
σ3

σ1

σ1
σ3

The three main types of deviatoric stress with an example of possible resulting structures. a.
Tension, in which one stress in negative. “Tension fractures” may open normal to the extension The three main types of deviatoric stress with an example of possible resulting
direction and become filled with mineral precipitates. Winter (2001) structures. b. Compression, causing flattening or folding. Winter (2001)

Foliation Allows Estimation of the

Orientation of σ1 Metamorphic Agents and Changes
Shear motion occurs along planes at an angle to σ1
σ1

σ1

• σ1 > σ2 = σ3 → foliation and no lineation

• σ1 = σ2 > σ3 → lineation and no foliation
• σ1 > σ2 > σ3 → both foliation and lineation
Flattening of a ductile homogeneous sphere (a) containing randomly oriented flat The three main types of deviatoric stress with an example of possible resulting
disks or flakes. In (b), the matrix flows with progressive flattening, and the flakes are structures. b. Shear, causing slip along parallel planes and rotation. Winter (2001)
rotated toward parallelism normal to the predominant stress. Winter (2001)

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 Metamorphic Fluids
Fluid Pressure
Evidence for the existence of a metamorphic
fluid: • Pfluid indicates the total fluid pressure, which is the
sum of the partial pressures of each component
– Fluid inclusions (Pfluid = pH2O + pCO2 + …)
– Fluids are required for hydrous or carbonate
phases • May also consider the mole fractions of the
components, which must sum to 1.0 (XH2O + XCO2
– Volatile-involving reactions occur at + … = 1.0)
temperatures and pressures that require finite
fluid pressures

Types of Metamorphism
Spatial Variations
Based on principal process or agent

• Gradients in T, P, Xfluid across an area – Dynamic Metamorphism

• Zonation in the mineral assemblages – Thermal Metamorphism

– Dynamo-thermal Metamorphism

Contact Metamorphism
Classification Based on Setting
• Contact Metamorphism • Adjacent to igneous intrusions
– Pyrometamorphism • Result of thermal (and possibly metasomatic)
• Regional Metamorphism effects of hot magma intruding cooler shallow
– Orogenic Metamorphism rocks
– Burial Metamorphism • Occur over a wide range of pressures,
• Ocean Floor Metamorphism including very low
– Hydrothermal Metamorphism
• Fault-Zone Metamorphism • Contact aureole
• Impact or Shock Metamorphism

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 Contact Metamorphism Contact Metamorphism
The size and shape of an aureole is controlled by: Most easily recognized where a pluton is
The nature of the pluton introduced into shallow rocks in a static
environment
Size Temperature
Shape Composition
Orientation – The rocks near the pluton are often high-grade
rocks with an isotropic fabric: hornfelses (or
The nature of the country rocks granofelses) in which relict textures and
Composition structures are common
Depth and metamorphic grade prior to intrusion
Permeability

Contact Metamorphism Contact Metamorphism

Polymetamorphic rocks are common, usually representing
an orogenic event followed by a contact one Pyrometamorphism

• Spotted phyllite (or slate)

Very high temperatures at very low pressures,
• Overprint may be due to: generated by a volcanic or subvolcanic body
– Lag time between the creation of the magma at depth Also developed in xenoliths
during T maximum, and its migration to the lower
grade rocks above
– Plutonism may reflect a separate phase of post-
orogenic collapse magmatism

Regional Metamorphism
Orogenic Metamorphism
sensu lato: metamorphism that affects a large body
of rock, and thus covers a great lateral extent • This type of metamorphism is associated with
convergent plate margins
Three principal types:
• Dynamo-thermal, involving one or more episodes
– Orogenic metamorphism of orogeny with combined elevated geothermal
gradients and deformation (deviatoric stress)
– Burial metamorphism
• Foliated rocks are a characteristic product
– Ocean-floor metamorphism

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 Orogenic Metamorphism Orogenic Metamorphism
Schematic model for the
sequential (a → c) • Uplift and erosion
development of a
“Cordilleran-type” or
active continental margin • Metamorphism often continues after major
orogen. The dashed and
black layers on the right deformation ceases
represent the basaltic and
gabbroic layers of the
oceanic crust. From Dewey
– Metamorphic pattern is simpler than the
and Bird (1970) J. Geophys. structural one
Res., 75, 2625-2647; and
Miyashiro et al. (1979)
Orogeny. John Wiley & • Pattern of increasing metamorphic grade
Sons.
from both directions toward the core area

Orogenic Metamorphism Orogenic Metamorphism

• Batholiths are usually present in the highest grade areas
• Most orogenic belts have several episodes of
deformation and metamorphism, creating a • If plentiful and closely spaced, may be called regional
contact metamorphism
more complex polymetamorphic pattern
• Continental collision

Burial Metamorphism Hydrothermal Metamorphism

• Low-grade metamorphism in sedimentary basins
• Caused by hot H2O-rich fluids and usually
• Mild deformation and no igneous intrusions involving metasomatism Coombs (1961)
discovered
• Difficult type of metamorphism to constrain, since
• Fine-grained, high-temperature phases, glassy ash:
very susceptible to metamorphic alteration hydrothermal effects often play some role in most
of the other types of metamorphism
• Metamorphic effects attributed to increased pressure
and temperature due to burial
• Range from diagenesis to the formation of zeolites,
prehnite, pumpellyite, laumontite, etc.

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 Bengal Fan Example
Burial Metamorphism
• The sedimentary pile > 22 km

• Occurs in areas that have not experienced • Extrapolating → 250-300oC at the base (P ~ 0.6
significant deformation or orogeny GPa)

• Restricted to large, relatively undisturbed
sedimentary piles away from active plate margins
– The Gulf of Mexico?
– Bengal Fan?
• Well into the metamorphic range and the
weight of the overlying sediments sufficient to
impart a foliation at depth
• Passive margins often become active
• Areas of burial metamorphism may thus
become areas of orogenic metamorphism

Ocean-
Ocean-Floor Metamorphism Ocean-
Ocean-Floor Metamorphism
• Affects the oceanic crust at ridge spreading centers
• May be considered another example of
• Wide range of temperatures at relatively low hydrothermal metamorphism
pressure
• Highly altered chlorite-quartz rocks-
• Metamorphic rocks exhibit considerable distinctive high-Mg, low-Ca composition
metasomatic alteration, notably loss of Ca and Si
and gain of Mg and Na
• These changes can be correlated with exchange
between basalt and hot seawater

Fault-
Fault-Zone and Impact (a) Shallow fault
Metamorphism zone with fault
breccia
• Occurs in areas experiencing relatively high rates (b) Slightly deeper
of deform-ation and strain with only minor fault zone (exposed
recrystallization by erosion) with
some ductile flow
• Impact metamorphism (“shock metamorphism”) and fault mylonite
occurs at meteorite (or other bolide) impact craters
Schematic cross section
• Both fault-zone and impact metamorphism across fault zones.
After Mason (1978)
correlate with dynamic metamorphism, based on Petrology of the
Metamorphic Rocks.
process George Allen & Unwin.
London.