Golan Heights

The Golan Heights (Arabic: ‫َه ْض َب ُة اْلَج ْو اَل ِن‬,

romanized: Haḍbatu l-Jawlān or ‫ُم ْر َتَف َع اُت‬
‫اْلَج ْو اَل‬, Murtafaʻātu l-Jawlān; Hebrew: ‫רמת‬
‫ِن‬
‫הגולן‬, romanized:  Ramat HaGolan), or
simply the Golan, is a region in the Levant
spanning about 1,800 km2 (690 sq mi).
The region defined as the Golan Heights
differs between disciplines: as a
geological and biogeographical region, the
term refers to a basaltic plateau bordered
by the Yarmouk River in the south, the Sea
of Galilee and Hula Valley in the west, the
Anti-Lebanon with Mount Hermon in the
north and Wadi Raqqad in the east. As a
geopolitical region, it refers to the border
region captured from Syria by Israel during
the Six-Day War of 1967; the territory has
been occupied by the latter since then and
was subject to a de facto Israeli
annexation in 1981. This region includes
the western two-thirds of the geological
Golan Heights and the Israeli-occupied
part of Mount Hermon.
 Golan Heights
‫َه ْض َب ُة اْلَج ْو اَل‬
‫ِن‬
‫רמת הגולן‬‎

Location of the Golan Heights

Coordinates: 33°00′N 35°45′E (https://geoha
ck.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=G
olan_Heights&params=33_00_N_35_45_E_di
m:80km_type:city)

Status Internationally
recognized as Syrian
territory occupied by
Israel;[1][2][note 1]
see Status of the
Golan Heights.
 Area
 • Total 1,800 km2
(700 sq mi)
 • Occupied by State 1,200 km2
of Israel (500 sq mi)
 • Controlled by 600 km2 (200 sq mi)
Syrian Arab
Republic (including
de jure 235 km2
(91 sq mi) UNDOF
Zone)
Highest elevation 2,814 m (9,232 ft)
Lowest elevation −212 m (−696 ft)

Populationof Israeli-occupied area.[5][6][7]

 • Total 40,000–49,700
 • Arabs 20,000–25,700
 • Israeli Jewish 20,000–22,300
settlers
Time zone UTC+2
 • Summer (DST) UTC+3
The earliest evidence of human habitation
on the Golan dates to the Upper Paleolithic
period.[8] According to the Bible, an
Amorite kingdom in Bashan was
conquered by the Israelites during the
reign of King Og.[9] Throughout the Biblical
period, the Golan was "the focus of a
power struggle between the kings of Israel
and the Aramaeans who were based near
modern-day Damascus."[10] After Assyrian
and Babylonian rule, the region came
under the domination of Persia, following
which Jews were freed from Babylonian
captivity and allowed to return and resettle
in the land.[11][12][13] The Itureans, an Arab
or Aramaic people, settled in the area in
the 2nd century BCE.[14][15][16] In the 16th
century, the Golan was conquered by the
Ottoman Empire. Within Ottoman Syria, the
Golan was part of the Syria Vilayet.[17] The
area later became part of the French
Mandate in Syria and the State of
Damascus.[18] When the mandate
terminated in 1946, it became part of the
newly independent Syrian Arab Republic.
By the late-19th century, the Golan Heights
was inhabited mostly by colonized
peasants (fellaḥîn), Bedouin Arabs, Druze,
Turkmen, and Circassians.[19]

Since the Six-Day War of 1967, the western

two-thirds of the Golan Heights has been
occupied and administered by Israel,[1][2]
whereas the eastern third remains under
the control of Syria. Following the war,
Syria dismissed any negotiations with
Israel as part of the Khartoum Resolution
at the 1967 Arab League summit.[20]
Construction of Israeli settlements began
in the remainder of the territory held by
Israel, which was under a military
administration until the Knesset passed
the Golan Heights Law in 1981, which
applied Israeli law to the territory;[21] the
move has been described as an
annexation. The Golan Heights Law was
condemned by the United Nations Security
Council in Resolution 497,[2][22] which
stated that "the Israeli decision to impose
its laws, jurisdiction, and administration in
the occupied Syrian Golan Heights is null
and void and without international legal
effect", and Resolution 242, which
emphasizes the "inadmissibility of the
acquisition of territory by war". Israel
maintains it has a right to retain the Golan,
also citing the text[23] of Resolution 242,
which calls for "secure and recognized
boundaries free from threats or acts of
force".[24]

After the onset of the Syrian Civil War in

2011, control of the Syrian-administered
part of the Golan Heights was split
between the state government and Syrian
opposition forces, with the United Nations
Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF)
maintaining a 266 km2 (103 sq mi) buffer
zone in between to help implement the
Israeli–Syrian ceasefire across the Purple
Line.[25] From 2012 to 2018, the eastern
half of the Golan Heights became a scene
of repeated battles between the Syrian
Army, rebel factions of the Syrian
opposition (including the United States-
backed Southern Front) as well as various
jihadist organizations such as al-Nusra
Front and the Islamic State of Iraq and the
Levant-affiliated Khalid ibn al-Walid Army.
In July 2018, the Syrian government
regained full control over the eastern
Golan Heights.[26] On 25 March 2019, then-
President of the United States Donald
Trump proclaimed US recognition of the
Golan Heights as a part of the State of
Israel, making it the first country to do
so.[27][28] The 28 member states of the
European Union declared in turn that they
do not recognize Israeli sovereignty, and
several experts on international law
reiterated that the principle remains that
land gained by either defensive or
offensive wars cannot be legally annexed
under international law.[29][30][31]
Etymology
In the Bible, Golan is mentioned as a city of
refuge located in Bashan: Deuteronomy
4:43 (https://www.biblica.com/bible/?osis
=niv:Deuteronomy%204:43) , Joshua 20:8
(https://www.biblica.com/bible/?osis=niv:
Joshua%2020:8) , 1 Chronicles 6:71 (http
s://www.biblica.com/bible/?osis=niv:1%20
Chronicles%206:71) .[32] 19th-century
authors interpreted the word Golan
(Hebrew: ‫ )גולן‬as meaning "something
surrounded, hence a district".[33][34]

The Greek name for the region is

Gaulanîtis (Γαυλανῖτις).[35] In the Mishna
the name is Gablān similar to Aramaic
language names for the region: Gawlāna,
Guwlana and Gublānā.[35]

The Arabic names are Jawlān[35] and

Djolan (Arabic: ‫ )جوالن‬and are Arabized
versions of the Canaanite and Hebrew
name "Golan".[36] Arab cartographers of
the Byzantine period referred to the area
as jabal (‫َج َب ل‬, 'mountain'), though the
region is a plateau.[37]

The name Golan Heights was not used

before the 19th century.[32]
History

Early history

The Venus of Berekhat Ram, a pebble from

the Lower Paleolithic era found in the
Golan Heights, may have been carved by
Homo erectus between 700,000 and
230,000 BCE.[38]

In the third millennium BC, the Amorites

inhabited the Golan, being part of the
territories that Labaya, the Canaanite king
of Shechem, annexed in the 14th century
BCE, as stated in the Amarna Letters sent
to Ancient Egypt.[39]
After the Late Bronze Age collapse, the
Golan was part of the newly formed
kingdom of Geshur, until it was conquered
by the Arameans in the 9th century BC.[39]
The Aramean state of Aram-Damascus
extended over most of the Golan to the
Sea of Galilee.[40]

In the 8th century BCE, the Assyrians

gained control of the area, followed by the
Babylonian and the Achaemenid Empire. In
the 5th century BCE, the Achaemenid
Empire allowed the region to be resettled
by returning Jewish exiles from the
Babylonian Captivity, a fact that has been
noted in the Mosaic of Rehob.[11][12][13]
After the Assyrian period, about four
centuries provide limited archaeological
finds in the Golan.[41]

Greek and Roman period

Temple of Pan at Banias and the white-domed shrine of Nabi Khadr in the background.

The Golan Heights, along with the rest of

the region, came under the control of
Alexander the Great in 332 BCE, following
the Battle of Issus. Following Alexander's
death, the Golan came under the
domination of the Macedonian general
Seleucus and remained part of the
Seleucid Empire for most of the next two
centuries.

In the middle of the 2nd century BCE,

Itureans moved into the Golan,[16]
occupying over one hundred locations in
the region.[42]

In the 1st century BCE, the region as far as

Trachonitis, Batanea and Auranitis was put
under the administrative control of Herod
the Great by Augustus Caesar.[43] In the
Roman and Byzantine periods, the area
was administered as part of Phoenicia
Prima and Syria Palaestina, and finally
Golan/Gaulanitis was included together
with Peraea[37] in Palaestina Secunda,
after 218 AD.[35] Ancient kingdom Bashan
was incorporated into the province of
Batanea.[44]

Following the death of Herod the Great in 4

BCE, Augustus Caesar adjudicated that the
Golan fell within the Tetrarchy of Herod's
son, Herod Philip I. After Philip's death in
34 CE, the Romans absorbed the Golan
into the province of Syria, but Caligula
restored the territory to Herod's grandson
Agrippa in 37. Following Agrippa's death in
44, the Romans again annexed the Golan
to Syria, promptly to return it again when
Claudius traded the Golan to Agrippa II, the
son of Agrippa I, in 51 as part of a land
swap.

Gamla, the capital of Jewish Galaunitis,

would play a major role in the Jewish-
Roman wars,[45] and came to house the
earliest known urban synagogue from the
Hasmonean/Herodian realm.[46] Although
nominally under Agrippa's control and not
part of the province of Judaea, the Jewish
communities of the Golan participated in
the First Jewish-Roman War, only to fall to
the Roman armies in its early stages.
Gamla, a major Jewish stronghold in the
Golan, was captured in 67 CE, with,
according to Josephus, its inhabitants
committing mass suicide, preferring it to
crucifixion and slavery. Agrippa II
contributed soldiers to the Roman war
effort and attempted to negotiate an end
to the revolt. In return for his loyalty, Rome
allowed him to retain his kingdom but
finally absorbed the Golan for good after
his death in 100.

In about 250 CE, the Ghassanids, an Arab

Christian tribe from Yemen, established a
kingdom that encompassed southern
Syria and the Transjordan, building their
capital at Jabiyah.

According to current research, the political

and economic recovery of the Land of
Israel during the reigns of Diocletian and
Constantine, towards the close of the 3rd
and the early 4th century CE, is what led to
the return of Jewish village life in the
Golan. The ceramics and coins found
during the excavations at various
synagogue sites provide evidence of the
re-settlement of Jewish settlements in the
central Golan.[47]
Byzantine period

Church of Deir Qeruh and the reconstructed synagogue at Umm el-Qanatir

Like the Herodians before them, the

Ghassanids ruled as clients of Rome – this
time, the Christianized Eastern Roman
Empire, or Byzantium; the Ghassanids
were able to hold on to the Golan until the
Sassanid invasion of 614. Following a brief
restoration under the Emperor Heraclius,
the Golan again fell, this time to the
invading Arabs after the Battle of Yarmouk
in 636.

During the same period, several

synagogues were built in the Golan
Heights. Currently, there are 25 locations
where ancient synagogues or their
remnants have been discovered. These are
all located in the Golan's center. They were
built from basalt stones, which are
abundant in the Golan Heights, and were
influenced by the synagogues of the
Galilee but had its own distinctive
characteristics. The extravagant
synagogues were possibly the result of
years of producing and selling olive oil.[47]
Data from surveys and excavations
combined show that the bulk of sites in
the Golan were abandoned between the
late sixth and early seventh century as a
result of military incursions, the
breakdown of law and order, and the
economy brought on by the weakening of
the Byzantine rule. Some settlements
lasted till the end of the Umayyad era.[47]

Early Muslim period

After the Battle of Yarmouk, Muawiyah I, a

member of Muhammad's tribe, the
Quraish, was appointed governor of Syria,
including the Golan. Following the
assassination of his cousin, the Caliph
Uthman, Muawiya claimed the Caliphate
for himself, initiating the Umayyad
dynasty. Over the next few centuries, while
remaining in Muslim hands, the Golan
passed through many dynastic changes,
falling first to the Abbasids, then to the
Shi'ite Fatimids, then to the Seljuk Turks.

An earthquake devastated the Jewish

village of Katzrin in 746 CE. Following it,
there was a brief period of greatly
diminished occupation during the Abbasid
period (approximately 750-878). Jewish
communities persisted at least into the
Middle Ages in the towns of Fiq in the
southern Golan and Nawa in Batanaea.[47]

For many centuries nomadic tribes lived

together with the sedentary population in
the region. At times, the central
government attempted to settle the
nomads which would result in the
establishment of permanent communities.
When the power of the governing regime
declined, as happened during the early
Muslim period, nomadic trends increased
and many of the rural agricultural villages
were abandoned due to harassment from
the Bedouins. They were not resettled until
the second half of the 19th century.[48]
Crusader/Ayyubid period

Nimrod Fortress, built by the Ayyubids and hugely enlarged by the Mamluks

During the Crusades, the Heights

represented an obstacle to the Crusader
armies,[49][50] who nevertheless held the
strategically important town of Banias
twice, in 1128–32 and 1140–64.[51] After
victories by Sultan Nur ad-Din Zangi, it was
the Kurdish dynasty of the Ayyubids under
Sultan Saladin who ruled the area. The
Mongols swept through in 1259, but were
driven off by the Mamluk commander and
future sultan Qutuz at the Battle of Ain
Jalut in 1260.

The victory at Ain Jalut ensured Mamluk

dominance of the region for the next
250 years.

Ottoman period
Sykes–Picot Agreement map signed 8 May 1916 showing the Golan Heights in area "A", an independent Arab state in the
French sphere of influence.[52]

In the 16th century, the Ottoman Turks

conquered Syria. During this time, the
Golan formed part of the southern district
of their empire. Some Druze communities
were established in the Golan during the
17th and 18th centuries.[53] The villages
abandoned during previous periods due to
raids by Bedouin tribes were not resettled
until the second half of the 19th
century.[48]In 1868, the region was
described as "almost entirely desolate."
According to a travel handbook of the
time, only 11 of 127 ancient towns and
villages in the Golan were inhabited.[54] As
a result of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–
78, there was a huge influx of refugees
from the Caucasus into the empire. The
Ottomans encouraged them to settle in
southern Syria, particularly the Golan
Heights, by granting them land with a 12-
year tax exemption.[55][56][57] In 1885, civil
engineer and architect, Gottlieb
Schumacher, conducted a survey of the
entire Golan Heights on behalf of the
German Society for the Exploration of the
Holy Land, publishing his findings in a map
and book entitled The Jaulân.[58][59]
Early Jewish settlement

In 1884, there were still open stretches of

uncultivated land between villages in the
lower Golan, but by the mid-1890s most
was owned and cultivated.[60] Some land
had been purchased in the Golan and
Hawran by Zionist associations based in
Romania, Bulgaria, the United States and
England, in the late 19th century and early
20th century.[61] In 1880, Laurence
Oliphant published Eretz ha-Gilad (The
Land of Gilead), which described a plan for
large-scale Jewish settlement in the
Golan.[62]
In the winter of 1885, members of the Old
Yishuv in Safed formed the Beit Yehuda
Society and purchased 15,000 dunams of
land from the village of Ramthaniye in the
central Golan.[63] Due to financial
hardships and the long wait for a kushan
(Ottoman land deed) the village, Golan be-
Bashan, was abandoned after a year.

Soon afterwards, the society regrouped

and purchased 2,000 dunams of land from
the village of Bir e-Shagum on the western
slopes of the Golan.[64] The village they
established, Bnei Yehuda, existed until
1920.[65][66] The last families left in the
wake of the Passover riots of 1920.[63] In
1944 the JNF bought the Bnei Yehuda
lands from their Jewish owners, but a later
attempt to establish Jewish ownership of
the property in Bir e-Shagum through the
courts was not successful.[65]

Between 1891 and 1894, Baron Edmond

James de Rothschild purchased around
150,000 Dunams of land in the Golan and
the Hawran for Jewish settlement.[63]
Legal and political permits were secured
and ownership of the land was registered
in late 1894.[63] The Jews also built a road
stretching from Lake Hula to Muzayrib.[65]
The Agudat Ahim society, whose
headquarters were in Yekaterinoslav,
Russia, acquired 100,000 dunams of land
in several locations in the districts of Fiq
and Daraa. A plant nursery was
established and work began on farm
buildings in Djillin.[63]

A village called Tiferet Binyamin was

established on lands purchased from
Saham al-Jawlan by the Shavei Zion
Association based in New York,[61] but the
project was abandoned after a year when
the Turks issued an edict in 1896 evicting
the 17 non-Turkish families. A later
attempt to resettle the site with Syrian
Jews who were Ottoman citizens also
failed.[67]

Between 1904 and 1908, a group of

Crimean Jews settled near the Arab village
of Al-Butayha in the Bethsaida Valley,
initially as tenants of a Kurdish proprietor
with the prospects of purchasing the land,
but the arrangement faltered.[68][69]

Jewish settlement in the region dwindled

over time, due to Arab hostility, Turkish
bureaucracy, disease and economic
difficulties.[70] In 1921–1930, during the
French Mandate, the Palestine Jewish
Colonization Association (PICA) obtained
the deeds to the Rothschild estate and
continued to manage it, collecting rents
from the Arab peasants living there.[65]

French and British mandates

Boundary changes in the area of the Golan Heights in the 20th century

Great Britain accepted a Mandate for

Palestine at the meeting of the Allied
Supreme Council at San Remo, but the
borders of the territory were not defined at
that stage.[71][72] The boundary between
the forthcoming British and French
mandates was defined in broad terms by
the Franco-British Boundary Agreement of
December 1920.[73] That agreement
placed the bulk of the Golan Heights in the
French sphere. The treaty also established
a joint commission to settle the precise
details of the border and mark it on the
ground.[73] The commission submitted its
final report on 3 February 1922, and it was
approved with some caveats by the British
and French governments on 7 March 1923,
several months before Britain and France
assumed their Mandatory responsibilities
on 29 September 1923.[74][75] In
accordance with the same process, a
nearby parcel of land that included the
ancient site of Tel Dan and the Dan spring
were transferred from Syria to Palestine
early in 1924. The Golan Heights, including
the spring at Wazzani and the one at
Banias, thus became part of French Syria,
while the Sea of Galilee was placed
entirely within British Mandatory Palestine.
When the French Mandate for Syria ended
in 1944, the Golan Heights became part of
the newly independent state of Syria and
was later incorporated into Quneitra
Governorate.

Border incidents after 1948

Minefield warning sign in the Golan

After the 1948–49 Arab–Israeli War, the

Golan Heights were partly demilitarized by
the Israel-Syria Armistice Agreement.
During the following years, the area along
the border witnessed thousands of violent
incidents; the armistice agreement was
being violated by both sides. The
underlying causes of the conflict were a
disagreement over the legal status of the
demilitarised zone (DMZ), cultivation of
land within it and competition over water
resources. Syria claimed that neither party
had sovereignty over the DMZ. Israel
contended that the Armistice Agreement
dealt solely with military concerns and that
it had political and legal rights over the
DMZ. Israel wanted to assert control up till
the 1923 boundary in order to reclaim the
Hula swamp, gain exclusive rights to Lake
Galilee and divert water from the Jordan
for its National Water Carrier. During the
1950s, Syria registered two principal
territorial accomplishments: it took over Al
Hammah enclosure south of Lake Tiberias
and established a de facto presence on
and control of eastern shore of the
lake.[76][77]

The Jordan Valley Unified Water Plan was

sponsored by the United States and
agreed by the technical experts of the Arab
League and Israel.[78] The US funded the
Israeli and Jordanian water diversion
projects, when they pledged to abide by
the plan's allocations.[79] President Nasser
too, assured the US that the Arabs would
not exceed the plan's water quotas.[80]
However, in the early 1960s the Arab
League funded a Syrian water diversion
project that would have denied Israel use
of a major portion of its water
allocation.[81] The resulting armed clashes
are called the War over Water.[82]

in July 1966,[83] Fatah began raids into

Israeli territory in early 1965, with active
support from Syria. At first the militants
entered via Lebanon or Jordan, but those
countries made concerted attempts to
stop them and raids directly from Syria
increased.[84] Israel's response was a
series of retaliatory raids, of which the
largest were an attack on the Jordanian
village of Samu in November 1966.[85] In
April 1967, after Syria heavily shelled
Israeli villages from the Golan Heights,
Israel shot down six Syrian MiG fighter
planes and warned Syria against future
attacks.[84][86]

In the period between the first Arab–Israeli

War and the Six-Day War, the Syrians
constantly harassed Israeli border
communities by firing artillery shells from
their dominant positions on the Golan
Heights.[87] In October 1966 Israel brought
the matter up before the United Nations.
Five nations sponsored a resolution
criticizing Syria for its actions but it failed
to pass due to a Soviet veto.[88][89]

Former Israeli General Mattityahu Peled

said that more than half of the border
clashes before the 1967 war "were a result
of our security policy of maximum
settlement in the demilitarised area."[90]
Israeli incursions into the zone were
responded to with Syrians shooting. Israel
in turn would retaliate with military
force.[76] Sir Alec Douglas-Home, former
Prime Minister of the UK, stated that when
he was visiting the Galilee a few months
before the 1967 war "at regular intervals
the Russian-built forts on the Golan
Heights used to lob shells into the villages,
often claiming civilian casualties." He said
after the 1973 war that any agreement
between the two sides "must clearly put a
stop to that kind of offensive action."[91]

In 1976, former Israeli defense minister

Moshe Dayan said Israel provoked more
than 80% of the clashes with Syria in the
run up to the 1967 war, although historians
debate whether he was "giving an accurate
account of the situation in 1967 or
whether his version of what happened was
colored by his disgrace after the 1973
Middle East war, when he was forced to
resign as Defense Minister over the failure
to anticipate the Arab attack."[92] The
provocation was sending a tractor to plow
in the demilitarized areas. The Syrians
responded by firing at the tractors and
shelling Israeli settlements.[93][94] Jan
Mühren, a former UN observer in the area
at the time, told a Dutch current affairs
programme that Israel "provoked most
border incidents as part of its strategy to
annex more land".[95] UN officials blamed
both Israel and Syria for destabilizing the
borders.[96]
Six-Day War and Israeli occupation

Israeli children in a bomb shelter at Kibbutz Dan during the Six-Day War

After the Six-Day War broke out in June

1967, Syria's shelling greatly intensified
and the Israeli army captured the Golan
Heights on 9–10 June. The area that came
under Israeli control as a result of the war
consists of two geologically distinct areas:
the Golan Heights proper, with a surface of
1,070 km2 (410 sq mi), and the slopes of
the Mt. Hermon range, with a surface of
100 km2 (39 sq mi). The new ceasefire line
was named the Purple Line. In the battle,
115 Israelis were killed and 306 wounded.
An estimated 2,500 Syrians were killed,
with another 5,000 wounded.[97]

Territory held by Israel:

   before the Six-Day War
   after the war
During the war, between 80,000[98] and
131,000[99] Syrians fled or were driven
from the Heights and around 7,000
remained in the Israeli-occupied
territory.[99] Israeli sources and the U.S.
Committee for Refugees and Immigrants
reported that much of the local population
of 100,000 fled as a result of the war,
whereas the Syrian government stated
that a large proportion of it was
expelled.[100] Israel has not allowed former
residents to return, citing security
reasons.[101] The remaining villages were
Majdal Shams, Shayta (later destroyed),
Ein Qiniyye, Mas'ade, Buq'ata and, outside
the Golan proper, Ghajar.
Israeli settlement in the Golan began soon
after the war. Merom Golan was founded
in July 1967 and by 1970 there were 12
settlements.[102] Construction of Israeli
settlements began in the remainder of the
territory held by Israel, which was under
military administration until Israel passed
the Golan Heights Law extending Israeli
law and administration throughout the
territory in 1981.[21] On 19 June 1967, the
Israeli cabinet voted to return the Golan to
Syria in exchange for a peace agreement,
although this was rejected after the
Khartoum Resolution of 1 September
1967.[103][104] In the 1970s, as part of the
Allon Plan, Israeli politician Yigal Allon
proposed that a Druze state be
established in Syria's Quneitra
Governorate, including the Israeli-held
Golan Heights. Allon died in 1980 and his
plan never materialised.[105]

Yom Kippur War

During the Yom Kippur War in 1973, Syrian

forces overran much of the southern
Golan, before being pushed back by an
Israeli counterattack. Israel and Syria
signed a ceasefire agreement in 1974 that
left almost all the Heights in Israeli hands.
The 1974 ceasefire agreement between
Israel and Syria delineated a demilitarized
zone along their frontier and limited the
number of forces each side can deploy
within 25 kilometers (15 miles) of the
zone.[106] East of the 1974 ceasefire line
lies the Syrian controlled part of the
Heights, an area that was not captured by
Israel (500 square kilometres or 190 sq
mi) or withdrawn from (100 square
kilometres or 39 sq mi). This area forms
30% of the Golan Heights.[107] Today, it
contains more than 40 Syrian towns and
villages. In 1975, following the 1974
ceasefire agreement, Israel returned a
narrow demilitarised zone to Syrian
control. Some of the displaced residents
began returning to their homes located in
this strip and the Syrian government began
helping people rebuild their villages,
except for Quneitra. In the mid-1980s the
Syrian government launched a plan called
"The Project for the Reconstruction of the
Liberated Villages". By the end of 2007, the
population of the Quneitra Governorate
was estimated at 79,000.[108]

In the aftermath of the 1973 Yom Kippur

War, in which Syria tried but failed to
recapture the Golan, Israel agreed to return
about 5% of the territory to Syrian civilian
control. This part was incorporated into a
demilitarised zone that runs along the
ceasefire line and extends eastward. This
strip is under the military control of
UNDOF.

Mines deployed by the Syrian army remain

active. As of 2003, there had been at least
216 landmine casualties in the Syrian-
controlled Golan since 1973, of which 108
were fatalities.[109]

De facto annexation by Israel and civil rule

Golan Heights wind farm on Mount Bnei Rasan

On 14 December 1981, Israel passed the
Golan Heights Law,[21] that extended Israeli
"laws, jurisdiction and administration" to
the Golan Heights. Although the law
effectively annexed the territory to Israel, it
did not explicitly spell out a formal
annexation.[110] The Golan Heights Law is
not recognized internationally except (as
of March 2019) by the United
States,[111][112] and was declared "null and
void and without international legal effect"
by United Nations Security Council
Resolution 497.[113][114][2][22] The resolution
demanded Israel rescind its decision.[113]
Israel maintains that it may retain the area,
as the text of Resolution 242 calls for "safe
and recognised boundaries free from
threats or acts of force".[24] However, the
international community reject Israeli
claims to title to the territory and regards it
as sovereign Syrian territory.[1][115][116]

During the negotiations regarding the text

of United Nations Security Council
Resolution 242, U.S. Secretary of State
Dean Rusk explained that U.S. support for
secure permanent frontiers did not mean
the United States supported territorial
changes.[117] The UN representative for the
United Kingdom who was responsible for
negotiating and drafting the Security
Council resolution said that the actions of
the Israeli Government in establishing
settlements and colonizing the Golan are
in clear defiance of Resolution 242.[118]

Syria continued to demand a full Israeli

withdrawal to the 1967 borders, including
a strip of land on the east shore of the Sea
of Galilee that Syria captured during the
1948–49 Arab–Israeli War and occupied
from 1949 to 1967. Successive Israeli
governments have considered an Israeli
withdrawal from the Golan in return for
normalization of relations with Syria,
provided certain security concerns are
met. Prior to 2000, Syrian president Hafez
al-Assad rejected normalization with
Israel.

Since the passing of the Golan Heights

Law, Israel has treated the Israeli-occupied
portion of the Golan Heights as a
subdistrict of its Northern District.[119] The
largest locality in the region is the Druze
village of Majdal Shams, which is at the
foot of Mount Hermon, while Katzrin is the
largest Israeli settlement. The region has
1,176 square kilometers.[119] The
subdistrict has a population density of 36
inhabitants per square kilometer, and its
population includes Arab, Jewish and
Druze citizens. The district has 36
localities, of which 32 are Jewish
settlements and four are Druze
villages.[120][121] The plan for the creation
of the settlements, which had initially
begun in October 1967 with a request for a
regional agricultural settlement plan for
the Golan, was formally approved in 1971
and later revised in 1976. The plan called
for the creation of 34 settlements by 1995,
one of which would be an urban center,
Katzrin, and the rest rural settlements, with
a population of 54,000, among them
40,000 urban and the remaining rural. By
1992, 32 settlements had been created,
among them one city and two regional
centers. The population total had however
fallen short of Israel's goals, with only
12,000 Jewish inhabitants in the Golan
settlements in 1992.[122]

Municipal elections in Druze towns

In 2016, a group of Druze lawyers

petitioned the Supreme Court of Israel to
allow elections for local councils in the
Golan Druze towns of Majdal Shams,
Buq'ata, Mas'ade, and Ein Qiniyye,
replacing the previous system in which
their members were appointed by the
national government.[123]

On 3 July 2017, the Interior Ministry

announced those towns would be included
in the 2018 Israeli municipal elections. The
turnout was just over 1%[124] with Druze
religious leaders telling community
members to boycott the elections or face
shunning.[125][126][127]

The UN Human Rights Council issued a

Resolution on Human Rights in the
Occupied Syrian Golan (http://undocs.org/
A/HRC/37/L.18) on 23 March 2018 that
included the statement "Deploring the
announcement by the Israeli occupying
authorities in July 2017 that municipal
elections would be held on 30 October
2018 in the four villages in the occupied
Syrian Golan, which constitutes another
violation to international humanitarian law
and to relevant Security Council
resolutions, in particular resolution 497
(1981)".

Israeli–Syrian peace negotiations

During United States-brokered

negotiations in 1999–2000, Israel and
Syria discussed a peace deal that would
include Israeli withdrawal in return for a
comprehensive peace structure,
recognition and full normalization of
relations. The disagreement in the final
stages of the talks was on access to the
Sea of Galilee. Israel offered to withdraw
to the pre-1948 border (the 1923 Paulet-
Newcombe line), while Syria insisted on
the 1967 frontier. The former line has
never been recognised by Syria, claiming it
was imposed by the colonial powers, while
the latter was rejected by Israel as the
result of Syrian aggression. The difference
between the lines is less than 100 meters
for the most part, but the 1967 line would
give Syria access to the Sea of Galilee, and
Israel wished to retain control of the Sea
of Galilee, its only freshwater lake and a
major water resource.[128] Dennis Ross,
U.S. President Bill Clinton's chief Middle
East negotiator, blamed "cold feet" on the
part of Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak
for the breakdown.[129] Clinton also laid
blame on Israel, as he said after the fact in
his autobiography My Life.[130]

Israeli soldiers of the Alpinist Unit are dispatched to Mount Hermon

In June 2007, it was reported that Prime

Minister Ehud Olmert had sent a secret
message to Syrian President Bashar al-
Assad saying that Israel would concede
the land in exchange for a comprehensive
peace agreement and the severing of
Syria's ties with Iran and militant groups in
the region.[131] On the same day, former
Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu
announced that the former Syrian
President, Hafez Assad, had promised to
let Israel retain Mount Hermon in any
future agreement.[132]

In April 2008, Syrian media reported

Turkey's Prime Minister Recep Tayyip
Erdoğan had told President Bashar al-
Assad that Israel would withdraw from the
Golan Heights in return for peace.[133][134]
Israeli leaders of communities in the Golan
Heights held a special meeting and stated:
"all construction and development projects
in the Golan are going ahead as planned,
propelled by the certainty that any attempt
to harm Israeli sovereignty in the Golan will
cause severe damage to state security and
thus is doomed to fail".[135] A survey found
that 70% of Israelis oppose relinquishing
the Golan for peace with Syria.[136] That
year, a plenary session of the United
Nations General Assembly passed a
resolution 161–1 in favour of a motion on
the Golan Heights that reaffirmed UN
Security Council Resolution 497 and called
on Israel to desist from "changing the
physical character, demographic
composition, institutional structure and
legal status of the occupied Syrian Golan
and, in particular, to desist from the
establishment of settlements [and] from
imposing Israeli citizenship and Israeli
identity cards on the Syrian citizens in the
occupied Syrian Golan and from its
repressive measures against the
population of the occupied Syrian Golan."
Israel was the only nation to vote against
the resolution.[137] Indirect talks broke
down after the Gaza War began. Syria
broke off the talks to protest Israeli
military operations. Israel subsequently
appealed to Turkey to resume
mediation.[138]

In May 2009, Prime Minister Netanyahu

said that returning the Golan Heights
would turn it into "Iran's front lines which
will threaten the whole state of
Israel."[139][140] He said: "I remember the
Golan Heights without Katzrin, and
suddenly we see a thriving city in the Land
of Israel, which having been a gem of the
Second Temple era has been revived
anew."[141] American diplomat Martin Indyk
said that the 1999–2000 round of
negotiations began during Netanyahu's
first term (1996–1999), and he was not as
hardline as he made out.[142]

In March 2009, Syrian President Bashar al-

Assad claimed that indirect talks had
failed after Israel did not commit to full
withdrawal from the Golan Heights. In
August 2009, he said that the return of the
entire Golan Heights was "non-negotiable,"
it would remain "fully Arab," and would be
returned to Syria.[143]

In June 2009, Israeli President Shimon

Peres said that Assad would have to
negotiate without preconditions, and that
Syria would not win territorial concessions
from Israel on a "silver platter" while it
maintained ties with Iran and
Hezbollah.[144] In response, Syrian Foreign
Minister Walid Muallem demanded that
Israel unconditionally cede the Golan
Heights "on a silver platter" without any
preconditions, adding that "it is our land,"
and blamed Israel for failing to commit to
peace. Syrian President Assad claimed
that there was "no real partner in
Israel."[145]

In 2010, Israeli foreign minister Avigdor

Lieberman said: "We must make Syria
recognise that just as it relinquished its
dream of a greater Syria that controls
Lebanon ... it will have to relinquish its
ultimate demand regarding the Golan
Heights."[146]
Overview of UN zone and Syrian controlled territory from the Golan Heights

Syrian Civil War

From 2012 to 2018 in the Syrian Civil War,

the eastern Golan Heights became a
scene of repeated battles between the
Syrian Arab Army, rebel factions of the
Syrian opposition including the moderate
Southern Front and jihadist al-Nusra Front,
and factions affiliated with the Islamic
State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) terrorist
group.

The atrocities of the Syrian Civil War and

the rise of ISIL, which from 2016 to 2018
controlled parts of the Syrian-administered
Golan, have added a new twist to the
issue. In 2015, it was reported that Israeli
Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu asked
US President Barack Obama to recognize
Israeli claims to the territory because of
these recent ISIL actions and because he
said that modern Syria had likely
"disintegrated" beyond the point of
reunification.[147] The White House
dismissed Netanyahu's suggestion, stating
that President Obama continued to
support UN resolutions 242 and 497, and
any alterations of this policy could strain
American alliances with Western-backed
Syrian rebel groups.[148]

In 2016, the Islamic State apologized to

Israel after a fire exchange with Israeli
soldiers in the area.[149] In May 2018, the
Israel Defense Forces (IDF) launched
"extensive" air strikes against alleged
Iranian military installations in Syria after
20 Iranian rockets were reportedly
launched at Israeli army positions in the
Western Golan Heights.[150]
On 17 April 2018 in the aftermath of the
2018 missile strikes against Syria by the
United States, France, and the United
Kingdom about 500 Druze in the Golan
town of Ein Qiniyye marched in support of
Syrian president Bashar al-Assad on
Syria's Independence day and in
condemnation of the American-led
strikes.[151][152][153]

On 31 July 2018, after waging a month-

long military offensive against the rebels
and ISIL, the Syrian government regained
control of the eastern Golan Heights.[26]
Territorial claims
Claims on the territory include the fact that
an area in northwestern of the Golan
region, delineated by a rough triangle
formed by the towns of Banias, Quneitra
and the northern tip of the Sea of Galilee,
was part of the British Palestine Mandate
in which the establishment of a Jewish
national home had been promised.[154] In
1923, this triangle in northwestern Golan
was ceded to the French Mandate in Syria,
but in exchange for this, land areas in Syria
and Lebanon was ceded to Palestine, and
the whole of the Sea of Galilee which
previously had its eastern boundary
connected to Syria was placed inside
Palestine.[155] Syrian counters that the
region was placed in the Vilayet of
Damascus as part of Syria under the
Ottoman boundaries, and that the 1920
Franco-British agreement, which had
placed part of the Golan under the control
of Britain, was only temporary. Syria
further holds that the final border line
drawn up in 1923, which excluded the
Golan triangle, had superseded the 1920
agreement,[154] although Syria has never
recognised the 1923 border as legally
binding.
Borders, armistice line and ceasefire
line

View of Mount Hermon from the road to Masaade.

One of the aspects of the dispute involves

the existence prior to 1967 of three
different lines separating Syria from the
area that before 1948 was referred to as
Mandatory Palestine.

The 1923 boundary between British

Mandatory Palestine and the French
Mandate of Syria was drawn with water in
mind.[156] Accordingly, it was demarcated
so that all of the Sea of Galilee, including a
10-meter wide strip of beach along its
northeastern shore, would stay inside
Mandatory Palestine. From the Sea of
Galilee north to Lake Hula the boundary
was drawn between 50 and 400 meters
east of the upper Jordan River, keeping
that stream entirely within Mandatory
Palestine. The British also received a sliver
of land along the Yarmouk River, out to the
present-day Hamat Gader.[157]

During the Arab–Israeli War, Syria captured

various areas of the formerly British
controlled Mandatory Palestine, including
the 10-meter strip of beach, the east bank
of the upper Jordan, as well as areas along
the Yarmouk.

While negotiating the 1949 Armistice

Agreements, Israel called for the removal
of all Syrian forces from the former
Palestine territory. Syria refused, insisting
on an armistice line based not on the 1923
international border but on the military
status quo. The result was a compromise.
Under the terms of an armistice signed on
20 July 1949, Syrian forces were to
withdraw east of the old Palestine-Syria
boundary. Israeli forces were to refrain
from entering the evacuated areas, which
would become a demilitarised zone, "from
which the armed forces of both Parties
shall be totally excluded, and in which no
activities by military or paramilitary forces
shall be permitted."[158] Accordingly, major
parts of the armistice lines departed from
the 1923 boundary and protruded into
Israel. There were three distinct, non-
contiguous enclaves—in the extreme
northeast to the west of Banias, on the
west bank of the Jordan River near Lake
Hula, and the eastern-southeastern shores
of the Sea of Galilee extending out to
Hamat Gader, consisting of 66.5 km2
(25.7 sq mi) of land lying between the
1949 armistice line and the 1923
boundary, forming the demilitarised
zone.[156]

Following the armistice, both Israel and

Syria sought to take advantage of the
territorial ambiguities left in place by the
1949 agreement. This resulted in an
evolving tactical situation, one "snapshot"
of which was the disposition of forces
immediately prior to the Six-Day War, the
"line of June 4, 1967".[156]
Shebaa Farms

On 7 June 2000, the demarcation Blue Line

was established by the United Nations in
order to ensure full Israeli withdrawal from
Lebanon, according to UN Security Council
Resolution 425. After Israeli troops left
Lebanese soil, the UN announced the
resolution had been respected. However,
Lebanon continues to claim a small
portion of the area occupied by Israel and
administered as part of the Golan Heights.
The territory, known as the Shebaa Farms,
measures 22 km2 (8.5 sq mi) and lies on
the border between Lebanon and the
Golan Heights. Maps used by the UN in
demarcating the Blue Line were not able to
conclusively show the border between
Lebanon and Syria in the area. Syria
agrees that the Shebaa Farms are within
Lebanese territory; however, Israel
considers the area to be inside of Syria's
borders and continues to occupy the
territory.[159][160][161]

Ghajar

The village of Ghajar is another complex

border issue west of Shebaa farms. Before
the 1967 war this Alawite village was in
Syria. Residents of Ghajar accepted Israeli
citizenship in 1981.[162] It is divided by an
international boundary, with the northern
part of the village on the Lebanese side
since 2000. Most residents hold dual
Syrian and Israeli citizenship.[163]
Residents of both parts hold Israeli
citizenship, and in the northern part often
a Lebanese passport as well. Today the
entire village is surrounded by a fence,
with no division between the Israeli-
occupied and Lebanese sides. There is an
Israeli army checkpoint at the entrance to
the village from the rest of the Golan
Heights.[161]
International views

The international community, with the

exception of the United States, considers
the Golan to be Syrian territory held under
Israeli occupation.[164][165][166][167] Many
states recognize the Israeli occupation as
being valid under the United Nations
Charter on a self-defense basis, entitling
Israel to extract concessions to guarantee
its security from the Syrians in return for
the territory. These states do not consider
those concerns to allow for the annexation
of territory captured by force.[167] The
United States, in 2019, became the first
country to recognize Israeli sovereignty
over the territory it has held since
1967.[168][165] The European members of
the UN Security Council issued a joint
statement condemning the US
announcement and the UN Secretary-
General issued a statement saying that the
status of the Golan had not changed.[169]
Under the subsequent Biden
administration, the US State Department's
annual report on human rights violations
around the world once more refers to the
West Bank, Gaza Strip, East Jerusalem and
the Golan Heights as being territories
occupied by Israel.[170] However, in June
2021, the US' Biden administration
affirmed that it will continue to maintain
the previous administration's policy of
recognizing Israeli sovereignty over the
Golan Heights.[171] However, Secretary of
State Antony Blinken has "signalled
openness to an eventual policy
review".[172][173]
UNDOF supervision

Golan ceasefire line crossing, 2012.

 A UN Toyota Land Cruiser parked near
Majdal Shams displaying UNDOF plates
and a UN flag, January 2012.

UNDOF (the United Nations

Disengagement Observer Force) was
established in 1974 to supervise the
implementation of the Agreement on
Disengagement and maintain the ceasefire
with an area of separation known as the
UNDOF Zone. Currently there are more
than 1,000 UN peacekeepers there trying
to sustain a peace.[174] Syria and Israel still
contest the ownership of the Heights but
have not used overt military force since
1974. The great strategic value of the
Heights both militarily and as a source of
water means that a deal is uncertain.
Members of the UN Disengagement force
are usually the only individuals who cross
the Israeli–Syrian de facto border (cease
fire "Alpha Line"), but since 1988 Israel has
allowed Druze pilgrims to cross into Syria
to visit the shrine of Abel on Mount
Qasioun. Since 1967, Druze brides have
been allowed to cross into Syria, although
they do so in the knowledge that they may
not be able to return.

Though the cease fire in the UNDOF zone

has been largely uninterrupted since the
seventies, in 2012 there were repeated
violations from the Syrian side, including
tanks[175] and live gunfire,[176] though
these incidents are attributed to the
ongoing Syrian Civil War rather than
intentionally directed towards Israel.[177]
On 15 October 2018 the Quneitra border
crossing between the Golan Heights and
Syria reopened for United Nations
Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF)
personnel after four years of closure.[178]
Syrian villages

View of Beer Ajam (‫)بئرعجم‬, a Syrian Circassian village in the province of Quneitra founded in 1872.

Destroyed buildings in Quneitra

The population of the Golan Heights prior

to the 1967 Six-Day War has been
estimated between 130,000 and 145,000,
including 17,000 Palestinian refugees
registered with UNRWA.[179] Between
80,000[98] and 130,000[99] Syrians fled or
were driven from the Heights during the
Six-Day War and around 7,000 remained in
the Israeli-held territory in six villages:
Majdal Shams, Mas'ade, Buq'ata, Ein
Qiniyye, Ghajar and Shayta.[99]

Israel demolished over one hundred Syrian

villages and farms in the Golan
Heights.[180][181] After the demolitions, the
lands were given to Israeli settlers.[182]

Quneitra was the largest town in the Golan

Heights until 1967, with a population of
27,000. It was occupied by Israel on the
last day of the Six-Day War and handed
back to Syrian civil control per the 1974
Disengagement Agreement. But the
Israelis had destroyed Quneitra with
dynamite and bulldozers before they
withdrew from the city.[183][184] East of the
1973 ceasefire line, in the Syrian controlled
part of the Golan Heights, an area of
600 km2 (232 sq mi), are more than 40
Syrian towns and villages, including
Quneitra, Khan Arnabah, al-Hamidiyah, al-
Rafid, al-Samdaniyah, al-Mudariyah, Beer
Ajam, Bariqa, Ghadir al-Bustan, Hader,
Juba, Kodana, Ufaniyah, Ruwayhinah,
Nabe' al-Sakhar, Trinjah, Umm al-A'zam,
and Umm Batna. The population of the
Quneitra Governorate numbers 79,000.[108]

Once annexing the Golan Heights in 1981,

the Israeli government offered all non-
Israelis living in the Golan citizenship, but
until the early 21st century fewer than 10%
of the Druze were Israeli citizens; the
remainder held Syrian citizenship.[185] The
Golan Alawites in the village of Ghajar
accepted Israeli citizenship in 1981.[162] In
2012, due to the situation in Syria, young
Druze have applied to Israeli citizenship in
much larger numbers than in previous
years.[186]
In 2012, there were 20,000 Druze with
Syrian citizenship living in the Israeli-
occupied portion Golan Heights.[187]

Druze town of Majdal Shams

Destroyed Mosque in the Syrian village of Khishniyah, Golan Heights

The Druze living in the Golan Heights are
permanent residents of Israel. They hold
laissez-passers issued by the Israeli
government, and enjoy the country's
social-welfare benefits.[188] The pro-Israeli
Druze were historically ostracized by the
pro-Syrian Druze.[189] Reluctance to accept
citizenship also reflects fear of ill
treatment or displacement by Syrian
authorities should the Golan Heights
eventually be returned to Syria.[190]
According to The Independent, most Druze
in the Golan Heights live relatively
comfortable lives in a freer society than
they would have in Syria under Assad's
government.[191] According to Egypt's Daily
Star, their standard of living vastly
surpasses that of their counterparts on the
Syrian side of the border. Hence their fear
of a return to Syria, though most of them
identify themselves as Syrian,[192] but feel
alienated from the "autocratic" government
in Damascus. According to the Associated
Press, "many young Druse have been
quietly relieved at the failure of previous
Syrian–Israeli peace talks to go
forward."[164] On the other hand,
expressing pro-Syrian rhetoric, The
Economist found, represents the Golan
Druzes' view that by doing so they may be
potentially rewarded by Syria, while
simultaneously risking nothing in Israel's
freewheeling society. The Economist
likewise reported that "Some optimists see
the future Golan as a sort of Hong Kong,
continuing to enjoy the perks of Israel's
dynamic economy and open society, while
coming back under the sovereignty of a
stricter, less developed Syria." The Druze
are also reportedly well-educated and
relatively prosperous, and have made use
of Israel's universities.[193]

Since 1988, Druze clerics have been

permitted to make annual religious
pilgrimages to Syria. Since 2005, Israel has
allowed Druze farmers to export some
11,000 tons of apples to the rest of Syria
each year, constituting the first
commercial relations between Syria and
Israel.[164]

In the first years after the breakout of the

Syrian Civil War in 2012, the number of
applications for Israeli citizenship grew,
although Syrian loyalty remained strong
and those who applied for citizenship were
often ostracized by members of the older
generation.[194] However, in recent years,
the number of applications for citizenship
has increased, 239 in 2021 and 206 in the
first half of 2022. In 2022, official Israeli
figures suggest that of approximately
21,000 Druze living in the Golan Heights,
about 4,300 (or around 20 percent) were
Israeli citizens.[195]
Demographic map of Quneintra
Governorate (Golan Heights) before the
1967 six day war
Demographic map of Quneintra
Governorate (Golan Heights) today
(excludes any permanent depopulation or
repopulation that might have happened
during the Syrian civil war
 Demographic map of Quneintra
Governorate (Golan Heights) overlaid with
the location of the depopulated Syrian
localities

Israeli settlements
Israeli farms in the Golan Heights

Israeli settlement Ma'ale Gamla

Israeli settlement activity began in the

1970s. The area was governed by military
administration until 1981 when Israel
passed the Golan Heights Law, which
extended Israeli law and administration
throughout the territory.[21] This move was
condemned by the United Nations Security
Council in UN Resolution 497,[2][22]
although Israel states it has a right to
retain the area, citing the text of UN
Resolution 242, adopted after the Six-Day
War, which calls for "safe and recognised
boundaries free from threats or acts of
force".[24] The continued Israeli control of
the Golan Heights remains highly
contested and is still regarded as
belligerent occupation by most countries.
The international community rejects the
validity of the Golan Heights Law as an
attempted annexation by force, illegal
under the UN Charter and the Geneva
Conventions.[196] Israeli settlements and
human rights policy in the occupied
territory have also drawn criticism from
the UN.[197][198]
The Israeli-occupied territory is
administered by the Golan Regional
Council, based in Katzrin, which has a
population of 7,300. There are another 19
moshavim and 10 kibbutzim. In 1989, the
Israeli settler population was 10,000.[199]
By 2010 the Israeli settler population had
expanded to 20,000[200] living in 32
settlements,[201][202] and by 2019 had
expanded to 22,000.[203] In 2021, the Israeli
settler population was estimated to be
25,000 with plans by the Government of
Prime Minister Naftali Bennett to double
that population over a five year period.[204]
On 23 April 2019, Israel Prime Minister
Benjamin Netanyahu announced that he
will bring a resolution for government
approval to name a new community in the
Golan Heights after U.S. President Donald
Trump.[205] The planned settlement was
unveiled as Trump Heights on 16 June
2019.[206][207] Further plans for settlement
expansion on the Golan were part of the
agenda of Benjamin Netanyahu's incoming
coalition in 2023. [208]
Geography

Sea of Galilee and southern Golan Heights, from Umm Qais, Jordan.

1994 CIA map of Golan Heights and vicinity

Geology

The plateau that Israel controls is part of a

larger area of volcanic basalt fields
stretching north and east that were
created in the series of volcanic eruptions
that began recently in geological terms,
almost 4 million years ago.[209] The rock
forming the mountainous area in the
northern Golan Heights, descending from
Mount Hermon, differs geologically from
the volcanic rocks of the plateau and has a
different physiography. The mountains are
characterised by lighter-colored, Jurassic-
age limestone of sedimentary origin.
Locally, the limestone is broken by faults
and solution channels to form a karst-like
topography in which springs are common.

Geologically, the Golan plateau and the

Hauran plain to the east constitute a
Holocene volcanic field that also extends
northeast almost to Damascus. Much of
the area is scattered with dormant
volcanos, as well as cinder cones, such as
Majdal Shams. The plateau also contains
a crater lake, called Birkat Ram ("Ram
Pool"), which is fed by both surface runoff
and underground springs. These volcanic
areas are characterised by basalt bedrock
and dark soils derived from its weathering.
The basalt flows overlie older, distinctly
lighter-colored limestones and marls,
exposed along the Yarmouk River in the
south.

Boundaries

The Golan Heights have distinct

geographic boundaries.[209] On the north,
the Sa'ar Stream (a tributary of Nahal
Hermon/Nahr Baniyas) generally divides
the lighter-colored limestone bedrock of
Mount Hermon from the dark-colored
volcanic rocks of the Golan plateau.[209]
The western border of the plateau is
truncated structurally by the Jordan Rift
Valley, which falls down steeply into the
Sea of Galilee (Lake Kinneret, Lake
Tiberias).[209] The southern border is lined
by the Yarmouk River, which separates the
plateau from the northern region of
Jordan.[209] Finally, the eastern edge of the
Golan Heights is carved out by the Raqqad
river (Wadi ar-Ruqqad), along which are
stretching the areas still controlled by
Syria.[209]

Size

The plateau's north–south length is

approximately 65 km (40 mi) and its east–
west width varies from 12 to 25 km (7.5 to
15.5 mi).[210][211]
Israel has captured, according to its own
data, 1,150 km2 (440 sq mi).[212] According
to Syria, the Golan Heights measures
1,860 km2 (718 sq mi), of which 1,500 km2
(580 sq mi) are occupied by Israel.[213]
According to the CIA, Israel holds
1,300 km2 (500 sq mi).[214]
Topography

Banyas waterfall at the foot of Mount Hermon

The area is hilly and elevated, overlooking

the Jordan Rift Valley which contains the
Sea of Galilee and the Jordan River, and is
itself dominated by the 2,814 m (9,232 ft)
tall Mount Hermon.[215][214] The Sea of
Galilee at the southwest corner of the
plateau[210] and the Yarmouk River to the
south are at elevations well below sea
level[214] (the sea of Galilee at about 200 m
(660 ft)).[210]

Topographically, the Golan Heights is a

plateau with an average altitude of 1,000
metres,[214] rising northwards toward
Mount Hermon and sloping down to about
400 m (1,300 ft) elevation along the
Yarmouk River in the south.[210] The
steeper, more rugged topography is
generally limited to the northern half,
including the foothills of Mount Hermon;
on the south the plateau is more level.[210]
There are several small peaks on the
Golan Heights, most of them volcanic
cones, such as: Mount Agas (1,350 m),
Mount Dov/Jebel Rous (1,529 m; northern
peak 1,524 m),[216] Mount Bental (1171 m)
and opposite it Mount Avital (1204 m),
Mount Ram (1188 m), Tal Saki (594 m).

Subdivisions

The broader Golan plateau exhibits a more

subdued topography, generally ranging
between 120 and 520 m (390 and 1,710 ft)
in elevation. In Israel, the Golan plateau is
divided into three regions: northern
(between the Sa'ar and Jilabun valleys),
central (between the Jilabun and Daliyot
valleys), and southern (between the Daliyot
and Yarmouk valleys). The Golan Heights
is bordered on the west by a rock
escarpment that drops 500 m (1,600 ft) to
the Jordan River valley and the Sea of
Galilee. In the south, the incised Yarmouk
River valley marks the limits of the plateau
and, east of the abandoned railroad bridge
upstream of Hamat Gader and Al
Hammah, it marks the recognised
international border between Syria and
Jordan.[217]
Climate and hydrology

In addition to its strategic military

importance, the Golan Heights is an
important water resource, especially at the
higher elevations, which are snow-covered
in the winter and help sustain baseflow for
rivers and springs during the dry season.
The Heights receive significantly more
precipitation than the surrounding, lower-
elevation areas. The occupied sector of
the Golan Heights provides or controls a
substantial portion of the water in the
Jordan River watershed, which in turn
provides a portion of Israel's water supply.
The Golan Heights supplies 15% of Israel's
water.[218]

Panorama showing the upper Golan Heights and Mount Hermon with the Hula Valley to the left.

Panorama looking west from the former Syrian post of Tel Faher.
Panoramic view of the Golan Heights, with the Hermon mountains on the left side, taken from Snir.

Landmarks
The Golan Heights features numerous
archeological sites, mountains, streams
and waterfalls. Throughout the region 25
ancient synagogues have been found
dating back to the Roman and Byzantine
periods.[219][220]

Banias

Banias is an ancient site that developed

around a spring once associated with the
Greek god Pan.

Deir Qeruh
Deir Qeruh is a ruined Byzantine-period
and Syrian village. Founded in 4th century
CE, it has a monastery and church of St
George from the 6th century. The church
has a square apse – a feature known from
ancient Syria and Jordan, but not present
in churches west of the Jordan River.[221]

Kursi

Kursi is an archaeological site and national

park on the shore of the Sea of Galilee at
the foothills of the Golan, containing the
ruins of a Byzantine Christian monastery
connected to the Gospels (Gergesa).

Katzrin
Katzrin is the administrative and
commercial center of the Israeli-occupied
Golan Heights. Katzrin Ancient Village is
an archaeological site on the outskirts of
Katzrin where the remains of a Talmud-era
village and synagogue have been
reconstructed.[222] Golan Archaeological
Museum hosts archaeological finds
uncovered in the Golan Heights from
prehistoric times. A special focus
concerns Gamla and excavations of
synagogues and Byzantine churches.[223]

Golan Heights Winery, a major Israeli

winery, and the mineral water plant of Mey
Eden, which derives its water from the
spring of Salukiya (or Salukia) in the
Golan. One can tour these factories as well
as factories of oil products and fruit
products.

Two open air strip malls, one which holds

the Kesem ha-Golan (Golan Magic), a
three-dimensional movie and model of the
geography and history of the Golan
Heights.

Gamla Nature Reserve

Mount Gamla seen from above

The Sea of Galilee as seen from the Golan

Gamla Nature Reserve is an open park

with the archaeological remains of the
ancient Jewish city of Gamla — including a
tower, wall and synagogue. It is also the
site of a large waterfall, an ancient
Byzantine church, and a panoramic spot to
observe the nearly 100 vultures that dwell
in the cliffs. Israeli scientists study the
vultures and tourists can watch them fly
and nest.[224]

Rujm el-Hiri

Rujm el-Hiri is a large circular stone

monument similar to Stonehenge.
Excavations since 1968 have not
uncovered material remains common to
archaeological sites in the region.
Archaeologists believe the site may have
been a ritual center linked to a cult of the
dead.[225] A 3D model of the site exists in
the Museum of Golan Antiquities in
Katzrin.

Um el Kanatir
Um el Kanatir is another impressive set of
standing ruins of a village of the Byzantine
era. The site includes a very large
synagogue and two arches next to a
natural spring.[226]

Nimrod Fortress

The Nimrod Fortress was built against the

Crusaders, served the Ayyubids and
Mamluks, and was captured only once, in
1260, by the Mongols. It is now located
inside a nature reserve.

Mount Hermon and Lake Ram

A ski resort on the slopes of Mount

Hermon features a wide range of ski trails
and activities. Several restaurants are
located in the area. The Lake Ram crater
lake is nearby.

Hippos

Hippos odeon

Hippos is an ancient Greco-Roman city,

known in Arabic as Qal'at al-Hisn and in
Aramaic as Susita. The archaeological site
includes excavations of the city's forum,
the small imperial cult temple, a large
Hellenistic temple compound, the Roman
city gates, and two Byzantine churches.

Senaim

Senaim is an archaeological site in

northern Golan Heights that includes both
Roman and Ancient Greek temples.
Byzantine and Mamluk coins have also
been found at this site.

Tell Hadar

Tell Hadar is an Aramean archaeological

site.
Viticulture

Organic vineyard in the Golan Heights

On a visit to Israel and the Golan Heights

in 1972, Cornelius Ough, a professor of
viticulture and oenology at the University
of California, Davis, pronounced conditions
in the Golan very suitable for the
cultivation of wine grapes.[227] A
consortium of four kibbutzim and four
moshavim took up the challenge, clearing
250 burnt-out tanks in the Golan's Valley of
Tears to plant vineyards for what would
eventually become the Golan Heights
Winery.[228] The first vines were planted in
1976, and the first wine was released by
the winery in 1983.[227] The heights are
now home to about a dozen wineries.[229]

Oil and gas exploration

In the early 1990s, the Israel National Oil
Company (INOC) was granted shaft-
sinking permits in the Golan Heights. It
estimated a recovery potential of two
million barrels of oil, equivalent at the time
to $24 million. During the Yitzhak Rabin
administration (1992–1995), the permits
were suspended as efforts were
undertaken to restart peace negotiations
between Israel and Syria. In 1996,
Benjamin Netanyahu granted preliminary
approval to INOC to proceed with oil
exploration drilling in the Golan.[230][231][232]
INOC began undergoing a process of
privatization in 1997, overseen by then-
Director of the Government Companies
Authority (GCA), Tzipi Livni. During that
time, it was decided that INOC's drilling
permits would be returned to the
state.[233][234] In 2012, National
Infrastructure Minister Uzi Landau
approved exploratory drilling for oil and
natural gas in the Golan.[235] The following
year, the Petroleum Council of Israel's
Ministry of Energy and Water Resources
secretly awarded a drilling license
covering half the area of the Golan Heights
to a local subsidiary of New Jersey-based
Genie Energy Ltd. headed by Effi
Eitam.[236][237]

Human rights groups have said that the

drilling violates international law, as the
Golan Heights are an occupied
territory.[238]

On 18 November 2021, the United Nations

Second Committee approved a draft
resolution that demanded that: "Israel, the
occupying Power, cease the exploitation,
damage, cause of loss or depletion and
endangerment of the natural resources in
the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including
East Jerusalem, and in the occupied Syrian
Golan"[239][240]

See also
Al-Marsad
Borders of Israel
Israeli-occupied territories
Front for the Liberation of the Golan
Golan Heights wind farm
Golan Regional Council
Golan Regiment
Independent Israel–Syria peace
initiatives
International law and the Arab–Israeli
conflict
Israel–Syria relations
Petroleum Road
Shouting Hill
Syrian towns and villages depopulated
in the Arab–Israeli conflict
The Syrian Bride
UN Security Council Resolution 452
UN Security Council Resolution 465
UN Security Council Resolution 471
Explanatory notes
1. The United States recognized Israeli
sovereignty over the Golan in March 2019.
The US is the first country to recognize the
Golan as Israeli territory, while the rest of
the international community still considers
it Syrian territory occupied by Israel.[3][4]

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120630-9.
In 2008, a plenary session of the
United Nations General Assembly
voted by 161–1 in favour of a motion
on the "occupied Syrian Golan" that
reaffirmed support for UN Resolution
497. (General Assembly adopts broad
range of texts, 26 in all, on
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ekly.ahram.org.eg/2008/901/re3.htm)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/200
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202. "Population by District, Sub-District and
Religion" (http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shn
aton/templ_shnaton.html?num_tab=st02_0
6x&CYear=2009) . Statistical Abstract of
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Statistics. 2009.
203. "Localities and Population, by Population
Group, District, Sub-District and Natural
Region" (http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnat
on/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_1
7&CYear=2017) . Israel Central Bureau of
Statistics. 6 September 2017. Retrieved
19 September 2017.
204. "Israel approves plan to double settler
population in Golan Heights" (https://www.f
rance24.com/en/middle-east/20211226-isr
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on-in-golan-heights) . France 24. 26
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Town: Netanyahu wants to repay Trump's
Golan move with a community named in his
honor" (https://www.washingtonpost.com/
world/trump-town-netanyahu-wants-to-repa
y-trumps-golan-move-with-a-community-na
med-in-his-honor/2019/04/23/81a57efe-65
e2-11e9-a698-2a8f808c9cfb_story.html?nor
edirect=on) . The Washington Post.
Retrieved 23 April 2019.
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ps://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-eas
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Issues and Historical Background (https://b
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tp://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gmd/g7462g.ct00195
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20211009181256/https://www.loc.gov/res
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at the Wayback Machine
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NATURAL REGIONS AND LAKES (http://ww
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Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201
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213. The Syrian Golan (http://www.un.int/syria/g
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g/web/20101008052046/http://www.un.in
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the Syrian Arab Republic to the United
Nations
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215. Henry T. Conserva. Earth Tales: New
Perspectives on Geography and History.
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History, Settlement and Geography since
1949 (https://books.google.com/books?id=
rPZBjtXWjhAC&pg=RA1-PT19) Archived (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/202212140246
52/https://books.google.com/books?id=rP
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August 2019
217. FSU.edu (http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/col
lection/LimitsinSeas/IBS094.pdf) Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/2009032706
2139/http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collect
ion/LimitsinSeas/IBS094.pdf) 27 March
2009 at the Wayback Machine:
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Chapters in Hydrology and Environmental
Sciences, Yad Ben-Zvi Press, Jerusalem (in
Hebrew) Water.gov.il (http://www.water.gov.
il/%EE%E0%E2%F8%E9+%EE%E9%E3%F2/%
EE%F9%E0%E1%E9+%E4%EE%E9%ED+%E
1%E9%F9%F8%E0%EC/%EE%F7%E5%F8%E
5%FA+%E4%EE%E9%ED+%E4%E8%E1%F2%
E9%E9%ED/%E0%E2%ED+%E4%EB%E9%F
0%F8%FA/%EE%E0%E6%EF+%E4%EE%E9%
ED+%F9%E0%E9%E1%E5%FA+%E5%EE%F
4%EC%F1%E9%ED.htm) Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20090111041555/htt
p://www.water.gov.il/%EE%E0%E2%F8%E9
+%EE%E9%E3%F2/%EE%F9%E0%E1%E9+%
E4%EE%E9%ED+%E1%E9%F9%F8%E0%E
C/%EE%F7%E5%F8%E5%FA+%E4%EE%E9%
 ED+%E4%E8%E1%F2%E9%E9%ED/%E0%E
2%ED+%E4%EB%E9%F0%F8%FA/%EE%E0%
E6%EF+%E4%EE%E9%ED+%F9%E0%E9%E
1%E5%FA+%E5%EE%F4%EC%F1%E9%ED.ht
m) 11 January 2009 at the Wayback
Machine indicates that the Golan Heights
contributes no more than 195 million m³
per year to the Sea of Galilee, as well as
another 120 million m³ per year from the
Banias River tributary. Israel's annual water
consumption is about 2,000 million m3.
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Oxford University Press. pp. 289–290.
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2018.
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l/neta/kanatir/kanatir.htm) Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/2006051803063
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a/kanatir/kanatir.htm) 18 May 2006 at the
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Country" (http://www.forward.com/articles/
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s://web.archive.org/web/2012042602020
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out-us/2nytimes.pdf) (PDF). Archived from
the original (http://www.welnerwines.com/
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0120629204607/http://www.israeli-wine.or
g/map/) . mykerem. Archived from the
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on 29 June 2012. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
230. Hayoun, David (15 April 1997). "INOC Will
Seek Two Year Extension of Golan Heights
Drilling Licence" (https://archive.today/201
20714113903/http://archive.globes.co.il/se
archgl/INOC%20Will%20Seek%20Two%20Y
ear%20Extension%20of%20Golan%20Heigh
ts_h_hd_2L3amDp1SCpOnD3CsBcXqRMm
0.html) . Globes. Archived from the original
(http://archive.globes.co.il/searchgl/INOC%
20Will%20Seek%20Two%20Year%20Extensi
on%20of%20Golan%20Heights_h_hd_2L3a
mDp1SCpOnD3CsBcXqRMm0.html) on 14
July 2012. Retrieved 14 May 2012. "The
Israel National Oil Company (INOC), intends
shortly to approach the Commissioner for
Oil Prospecting at the Ministry of National
Infrastructures with a demand for a two-
 year extension of the licence awarded the
company in the past for shaft-sinking on
the Golan Heights."
231. "Netanyahu Approves Oil Drilling In Golan
Heights" (https://apnews.com/6ca8bcf86b
3e4902870f5663644aa3ea) . Associated
Press. Jerusalem. 25 October 1996.
Retrieved 14 May 2012. "The National Oil
Company expects the Golan site to yield
some 2 million barrels of oil and revenue of
about $24 million, Haaretz said."
‫ההחלטה החשאית של השר לנדאו‪ :‬ישראל ‪232.‬‬
‫‪ (http://www.themark‬תחפש נפט ברמת הגולן‬
‫‪er.com/dynamo/1.1706455) [The covert‬‬
‫‪decision of Minister Landau: Israel will‬‬
‫‪search for oil in the Golan Heights].‬‬
‫‪TheMarker (in Hebrew). 13 May 2012.‬‬
‫על פי הדיווח‪Retrieved 14 May 2012. ",‬‬
‫בראשית שנות ה‪ ,90-‬בימי ממשלתו של יצחק‬
‫רבין ז"ל‪ ,‬הוחלט להקפיא את את מתן‬
‫הרישיונות על רקע הנסיונות לנהל משא ומתן‬
‫"‪.‬לשלום בין ישראל לסוריה‬
233. Hayoun, David (3 July 1997). ,‫מחפשים נפט‬
‫( ושלום‬https://web.archive.org/web/201504
02130902/http://www.globes.co.il/news/ar
ticle.aspx?did=132167) [Searching for Oil,
and Peace]. Globes (in Hebrew). Archived
from the original (http://www.globes.co.il/n
ews/article.aspx?did=132167) on 2 April
2015. Retrieved 14 May 2012. "‫תהליך‬
)‫הפרטתה של חנ"ל (חברת הנפט הלאומית‬
‫ מנהלת רשות החברות‬:‫החל ברגל ימין‬
‫ היתה מאושרת לפני‬,‫ ציפי ליבני‬,‫הממשלתיות‬
‫ כי שבע קבוצות ניגשו‬,‫מספר חודשים לשמוע‬
‫למיכרז הראשוני לרכישת החברה‬."
234. Hayoun, David (3 July 1997). ‫ הוצאת‬:‫לבני‬
‫זיכיון הקידוח בגולן מחנ"ל נועדה למנוע חשיפת‬
‫( המדינה לתביעות‬https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20150402144927/http://www.globes.c
o.il/news/article.aspx?did=129317) [Livni:
Taking the Golan drilling permit from INOC
meant to prevent exposure of state to legal
action]. Globes (in Hebrew). Archived from
the original (http://www.globes.co.il/news/
article.aspx?did=129317) on 2 April 2015.
Retrieved 14 May 2012. "‫ כי מנהלת‬,‫נודע‬
‫ הודיעה על החלטה‬,‫ ציפי לבני‬,‫רשות החברות‬
‫לשלול את הזיכיון לקידוחים ברמת הגולן‬
‫לשלוש הקבוצות המתמודדות על רכישת חנ"ל‬."
235. Ben Zion, Ilan (13 May 2012). "Government
secretly approves Golan Heights drilling" (ht
tp://www.timesofisrael.com/government-se
cretly-approves-golan-heights-drilling/) .
The Times of Israel. Retrieved 14 May
2012.
236. Barkat, Amiram (20 February 2013). "Israel
awards first Golan oil drilling license" (htt
p://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/docvi
ew.asp?did=1000824062&fid=1725) .
Globes. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
237. "N.J. firm wins original rights to drill in
Golan Heights" (https://archive.today/2013
0415044823/http://www.jta.org/news/artic
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ghts-to-drill-in-golan-heights) . JTA. 21
February 2013. Archived from the original
(http://www.jta.org/news/article/2013/02/
21/3120221/jersey-firm-wins-rights-to-drill-i
n-golan-heights) on 15 April 2013.
Retrieved 22 February 2013.
238. Khoury, Jack (25 February 2016). "Human
Rights Groups: Golan Oil Drilling
Contravenes International Law" (http://ww
w.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-1.705
391) . Haaretz. Retrieved 5 April 2016.
239. "Permanent sovereignty of the Palestinian
people in the Occupied Palestinian Territory,
including East Jerusalem, and of the Arab
population in the occupied Syrian Golan
over their natural resources" (https://undoc
s.org/en/A/C.2/76/L.35) . United Nations.
"Demands that Israel, the occupying Power,
cease the exploitation, damage, cause of
loss or depletion and endangerment of the
natural resources in the Occupied
Palestinian Territory, including East
Jerusalem, and in the occupied Syrian
Golan"
240. "Second Committee Approves Nine
Resolutions, Including One Voicing Deep
Concern over 1.3 Billion People Living in
Multidimensional Poverty" (https://www.un.
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United Nations. 18 November 2021.

General bibliography
Biger, Gideon (2005). The Boundaries of
Modern Palestine, 1840–1947. London:
Routledge. ISBN 0-7146-5654-2.
Bregman, Ahron (2002). Israel's Wars: A
History Since 1947. London: Routledge.
ISBN 978-0-415-28716-6.
Louis, Wm. Roger (1969). "The United
Kingdom and the Beginning of the
Mandates System, 1919–1922".
International Organization, 23(1), pp. 73–
96.
Maar'i, Tayseer; Usama Halabi (1992).
"Life under occupation in the Golan
Heights". Journal of Palestine Studies.
22: 78–93.
doi:10.1525/jps.1992.22.1.00p0166n (ht
tps://doi.org/10.1525%2Fjps.1992.22.1.
00p0166n) .
Maoz, Asher (1994). "Application of
Israeli law to the Golan Heights is
annexation". Brooklyn Journal of
International Law. 20, afl. 2: 355–96.
Morris, Benny (2001). Righteous Victims.
New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-
679-74475-7.
Richard, Suzanne (2003). Near Eastern
Archaeology: A Reader (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=khR0apPid8gC) .
Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-083-5.
Schumacher, G. (1888). The Jaulân:
surveyed for the German Society for the
Exploration of the Holy Land (https://arch
ive.org/details/jaulnsurveyedfo00schug
oog) . London: Richard Bentley & Son.
OCLC 1142389290 (https://www.worldc
at.org/oclc/1142389290) . (PDF
download of book (https://fada.birzeit.e
 du/bitstream/20.500.11889/4863/1/jaul
ansurveyedf00schu.pdf) )
Sheleff, Leon (1994). "Application of
Israeli law to the Golan Heights is not
annexation". Brooklyn Journal of
International Law. 20, afl. 2: 333–53.
Zisser, Eyal (2002). "June 1967: Israel's
capture of the Golan Heights". Israel
Studies. 7, 1: 168–94.
doi:10.2979/ISR.2002.7.1.168 (https://d
oi.org/10.2979%2FISR.2002.7.1.168) .

External links
Golan Heights
at Wikipedia's sister projects
 Definitions
from
Wiktionary
Media from
Commons
Travel
information
from
Wikivoyage
Data from
Wikidata

The Syrian Golan (https://web.archive.or

g/web/20101008052046/http://www.u
n.int/syria/golan.htm) – Permanent
Mission of the Syrian Arab Republic to
the United Nations
Jawlan.org (http://jawlan.org/) (in
Arabic)
Gaulonitis (http://www.jewishencyclope
dia.com/view.jsp?artid=87&letter=G&se
arch=golan) in The unedited full text of
the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia
Golan, Gaulonitis (http://www.studylight.
org/enc/isb/view.cgi?number=T3866)
in the International Standard Bible
Encyclopedia
Qatzrin (https://web.archive.org/web/20
060214005537/http://qatzrin.muni.il/ts.
exe?tsurl=0.752.18040.0.0)
What is the dispute over the Golan
Heights? (http://israelipalestinian.proco
n.org/view.answers.php?questionID=00
0507) Archived (https://web.archive.or
 g/web/20130824220747/http://israelipa
lestinian.procon.org/view.answers.php?
questionID=000507) 24 August 2013 at
the Wayback Machine
A View From Damascus: Internal
Refugees From Golan’s 244 Destroyed
Syrian Villages (http://www.washington-
report.org/backissues/062000/000601
0.html) from Washington Report

Portals:  Israel  Asia  War

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