TPN 202 BASIC FOOD CHEMISTRY AND

BIOCHEMISTRY
3 (1-2)

Coordinator:
Dr. Dian Herawati

Food Technology Study Program

Department of Food Science and Technology
IPB University

http://fst.ipb.ac.id
 Internationally Accredited Study Program by IFT and IUFoST

TPN 202
Postharvest Physiology of Fruits
and Vegetables
Food Technology Study Program
Department of Food Science and Technology
Learning Outcomes

After completing this topic, the students are expected to

be able to:
▪ Explain functional properties of postharvest plants
which related to the growth process until senescence,
also respiration and the role of ethylene.
▪ Explain characteristics of climacteric and non-
climacteric fruits
▪ Explain physical and chemical changes of fruits in terms
of color and texture
▪ Explain browning formation via enzymatic reaction
Introduction
❖“living structures”: continuing metabolic reactions
and sustaining physiological processes for a
considerable time during their postharvest period.
❖Respiration and transpiration
❖Subsequent to harvest, the source of water,
photosynthates and minerals are cut off, and they
enter into a deterioration or perishable phase.

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Introduction
❖Cell-wall composition and structure changes that
result in the softening of the fruits and
vegetables.
❖Visual color gradually changes as chlorophyll is
degraded and yellow pigment of the skin and
flesh increases in content.
❖In fruits and vegetables respiration involves the
enzymatic oxidation of sugars to carbon dioxide
(CO2) and water, accompanied by release of
energy.
❖However, other substances such as organic
acids and proteins also enter the respiratory
chain.
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Fruit Development Stages
Details of Development Stage
❖ Development
▪ The series of processes from the initiation of growth to death of a plant or
plant part.
❖ Growth
▪ The irreversible increase in physical attributes (characteristics) of a developing
plant or plant part.
❖ Maturation
▪ The stage of development leading to the attainment of physiological or
horticultural maturity.
❖ Physiological maturity
▪ The stage when a plant or plant part will continue developing even if detached
❖ Horticultural maturity
▪ The stage of development when a plant or plant part possesses the
prerequisites for utilization by consumers for a particular purpose
❖ Ripening
▪ The set of processes that occur from the later stages of growth and
development through the early stages of senescence and that results in
characteristic aesthetic and/or eating quality, as evidenced by changes in
composition, color, texture, or other sensory attributes
Limit of Postharvest Physiology

Study on
Postharvest
physiology
Fruit Development

Fruit development can be divided into a series of stages, as shown here for tomato.
Early in development fruit are enlarging rapidly and are small, hard, green and
accumulating organic acids. The seeds become mature prior to ripening. During
ripening fruit become soft textured, and accumulate soluble sugars, pigments and
aroma volatiles. Eventually fruit will become over-ripe, cell structures will deteriorate
and the fruit will become susceptible to pathogens. (Photograph courtesy D.A.
Brummell)
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❖ Growth and maturation is referred to as “fruit
development”.
❖ Senescence is the period when anabolic and biochemical
processes give way to catabolic processes—leading to
aging and final death of the tissue.
❖ Ripening generally begins during the later stages of
maturation and is considered the beginning of
senescence.
❖ The relative changes in weight, sugars, chlorophyll, and
acidity are common to most fruits and vegetables (See
Figure in the next slide) but other parameters such as
respiration, flavor, aroma, and carotenoids can vary from
commodity to commodity.

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Simultaneous Changes; Pineapple
 Senescence
❖ The last stage of development during which degradation
of biological components occur
❖ Physiological Changes Accompanying Senescence of Horticultural Crops
▪ Cellular:
• Loss of chlorophyll, disassembly of chloroplast structure
• Degradation of cell walls, altered membrane composition, loss of fluidity
• Loss of cellular compartmentation, release of vacuolar
▪ Composition:
• Altered sugar content, and switch to alternative substrates for respiration
• Net loss of RNA
• Increased protease activity, net loss of protein
• Altered amino acid content
❖ Physical Changes Accompanying Senescence of Horticultural Crops
▪ Color:
• Loss of green color
• Synthesis of new pigments (carotenoids, flavanoids)
▪ Texture:
• Softening, Wilting, Drying
❖ Loss of resistance to pathogens:
▪ Development of infections, Lesions
Respiration
❖ Respiration of fruits and vegetables involves the enzymatic oxidation
of sugars to carbon dioxide, water, and release of energy

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Respiration
❖The rate of respiration can he defined as the weight
of CO2 produced per unit fresh weight and time (mg
CO2/kg/h) (See Table in next slide).
❖ The rate of respiration may be expressed in ml
CO2/kg/h or the quantity of O2 taken up rather than
CO2 given out.

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15
16
17
Climacteric and Non Climacteric

❖A large number of fruits and ‘vegetables show a

sudden and sharp rise in respiratory activity called
the climacteric rise during the life cycle;
❖whereas others which do not show climacteric rise
are called non-climacteric fruits and vegetables.

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2 Types of ripening
❖ Group 1: Fruits that are not capable of continuing their ripening
process once removed from the plant.
▪ Longan, Pineapple, Watermelon, Lime, Pepper (bell), Tamarillo, Lemon,
Orange, Strawberry, Grapefruit, Muskmelons, Raspberry, Grape,
Mandarin, Rambutan, Cherry, Lychee, Prickly pear, Blackberry, Loquat,
Pomegranate
❖ Group 2: Fruits that can be harvested and ripened off the plant
▪ Kiwifruit, Pepper (chili), Guava, Pear, Tomato, Cherimoya, Peach, Sapote,
Banana, Passion fruit, Sapodilla, Avocado, Papaya, Quince, Apricot,
Nectarine, Plum, Apple, Mango, Persimmon
Why is it different?
Climacteric and Non-Climacteric

❖ Non-climacteric fruits must be physiologically mature and have

acceptable eating quality when harvested as they will not ripen
further
❖ Climacteric fruits must be physiologically mature but have the
potential to ripen after harvest
100
Climacteric Fruit Respiration
Ethylene

Climacteric Climacteric
Minimum Peak
50

Cell Division

Cell Maturation
Enlargement
Ripening
Senescence
0

Full bloom Physiological Eating Breakdown

Maturity Ripe
Implication to Quality
❖Non – Climacteric
▪ During harvest time
▪ Harvesting procedure
❖Climacteric
▪ Harvesting and ripening procedure
The Role of Ethylene in Fruits Ripening Process
❖Ethylene is an unsaturated hydrocarbon compound
at room temperature in the form of a gas, which
can be produced by living plant tissues at certain
times
❖Ethylene can cause important changes in the
process of growth and maturation of agricultural
products.
❖Ethylene in plant can be classified as a hormone
that is active in the ripening process.
The Role of Ethylene in Fruits Ripening Process
❖Besides as the ripening initiator, ethylene also
accelerates its process.
❖For example: Ripening duration of avocado
Normal Atmosphere with 10 ppm
Atmosphere Ethylene 24 hours

11 Days 6 Days

❖On non-climacteric fruits, addition of ethylene in

high concentration causing a climacteric process,
like on oranges.
Color Changes: Chlorophyll Changes
 Color Changes
❖ Chloroplast disorganization
❖ Chlorophyll degradation
❖ Chlorophyllase enzyme is on maximum rate when
climacteric occur
❖ Carotenoid formation: Carotene, xanthophyll, and lycopene
❖ Color formation into yellow in ripening (synthesis of
carotenoids); the role of β -carotene enzymes.
❖ The enzyme activity is influenced by the content of
carotene, free mevalonic acid and free geraniol which are
precursors for the formation of carotene.
❖ The amount of carotene formed will increase with the
length of ripening duration, so that a yellow or orange color
will form in all parts of the fruit.
❖ The color changes from green into yellow or orange
Texture Changes; Pectin
❖Heteropolysaccharides
❖“Hydrocolloid” – water-binder
▪ Hydrophillic colloid: imbinding large quatities of
water
❖Fill intercellular spaces, middel lamella of plant
tissue
▪ Wide channels in young fruit tissue
Pectin Substances-Plant Gums
Pectin is a polymer of α-Galacturonic acid with a variable number
of methyl ester groups.

◼ Methylated ester of Polygalacturonic acid

◼ Chains of 300 to 1000 glalacturonic acid units

◼ Joined with 1α→4 linkages

◼ This structure shown here is three methyl ester forms (-

COOCH3) for every two carboxyl groups (-COOH)
◼ hence it is has a 60% degree of esterification, normally called a
DE-60 pectin
 Role of Pectin; Details (1)
❖In outer cell walls, closely associated with cellulose
– precursor of pectin: Protopectin
❖Absorb water and transfer it among cells
❖Responsible for firmness, texture (fruits & veggies)
❖Softening during ripening
❖Breakdown of colloidal stability in fruit juices
Role of Pectin; Details (2)
❖Changes during ripening
❖Protopectin in the middle of lamella between the
cell walls is converted into soluble pectin
❖Reduce cell wall thickness
❖Softening & Ripening
▪ Decrease the degree of esterification of carboxyl
groups with methyl alcohol
Texture Changes
❖ Become softer
❖ Chemical changes cause physical changes
▪ Water-insoluble protopectin turns into water-
soluble pectin
▪ Reduces cell wall cohesion that binds cells to
one another so that the fruit becomes soft
❖ Enzymes are active in the fruit ripening period
▪ Protopectinase converts protopectin into colloidal pectin
or water-soluble pectinic acid.
▪ Pectin methylesterase or pectase will break the methyl
ester from pectin and produce poly D-galacturonic acid
or pectic acid.
▪ It is further degraded to galacturonic acid due to the
activity of the polygalacturonase enzyme.
Attack of pectin molecules by various pectinases
Pectin Conditions on Texture Changes

Maturity Material Texture

Underripe Protopectin Hard

Ripe Pectin Tender-

crisp
Overripe Pectic acid Mushy
 Enzymatic Browning

❖ Catalyzed by the enzyme polyphenol oxidase which produces

a brown pigment (melanin).
❖ Enzyme: polyphenol oxidase
enzymes/phenolase/polyphenolase and oxygen to interact
with the substrate
❖ Substrate: polyphenol (Catechins derivatives, namely
tyrosine, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, and leukoantosianin)
❖ Occur when plant tissue is cut, peeled, and due to mechanical
damage.
 Enzymatic Browning

❖ Beneficial impact:
▪ Color and flavor in black tea, oolong tea, green tea,
▪ Polyphenol oxidase also responsible on the color which
is golden brown in dried fruits such as raisins, plums,
and figs.
❖ Disadvantage impact :
▪ Brown color in fruits sliced (apple, pear, etc.)
▪ Loss of nutritional value in food products and can damage
the flavor of the food itself.
 Enzymatic Browning

❖ Prevention
▪ The enzymatic browning reaction is controlled by:
• Freezing
• Chilling
• pH adjustment
• Dehydration
• Irradiation
• HPP (High Pressure Processing)
• Addition of inhibitor, ultrafiltration, and ultrasonication
Thank you