CONTENT

 INTRODUCTION
 PETROPLANTS
 TYPES OF HYDROCARBON PLANTS
 Jatropha curcas
I. Introduction
II. Scientific classification
III. Botanical features
IV. Cultivation
V. Propagation
VI. Gallery
VII. Bio fuel
VIII. Food for human consumption
IX. Other uses
 Jatropha biodiesel in India
I. Jatropha incentives in
India
II. Implementation
 Calatropis procera
I. Classification
II. Common
names
III. Origen

1
 IV. Cultivation
V. Naturalised
distribution VI. Habit &
habitat
VII. Distinguishing features
VIII. Stems & leaves
IX. Flower & fruits
X. Reproduction & dispersal
XI. Chemical properties
 WORK CARRIED OUT IN INDIA
 LIST OF OIL REFINERIES IN INDIA
 THE PETRO PROJECT
 ECONOMIC ADVANTAGES
 EONOMIC DISADVANTAGES
 CONCLUSION
 REFERENCE.

2
INTRODUCTION

3
 Hydrocarbon Plant (Petro Plants)

Hydrocarbon plants are plants that follow certain metabolic pathways that produce hydrocarbon
products similar to petroleum. These hydrocarbon products are called terpenoids. The plants that
produce terpenoids in large enough quantities to be harvested can be as big as trees or as small as
single cell algae. The Euphorbiaceae family has been studied in details by Dr. Particular tree, the
Hevea tree, or more commonly known as the rubber tree, is probably the most famous
hydrocarbon plant, supplying an estimated one third of the world’s rubber, which is why it does
not occupy a larger portion of the market. The Hevea tree naturally produces a latex substance
which can tapped by cutting into the tree, and the latex can then be processed into rubber.
Most hydrocarbon plants are not trees, however, so this technique of tapping the tree is no longer
feasible. Instead of tapping the tree, the hydrocarbons are extracted using various organic
solvents. This process is especially useful with single-cell algae, such as Botryococcus braunii.
This algae has two forms, both of which live in brackish water. The first form is a red algae that
produces odd numbered carbon chains roughly 25-31 atoms in length. These carbon chains
usually do not possess a large number of double bonds. The second type of botryococcus braunii
is green and produces even-numbered carbon chains that are between 34 & 38 carbons long,
with many double bonds present. While cause of this difference is not well studied, the two
different algae can be used for discrete purposes.
Dr. Calvin began his studies of hydrocarbon plants in 1977 by looking at yields of Euphorbia
lathyris over two years. While his results were limited, due to growing season complications, he
did find there to be a substantial amount of hydrocarbon products. Once the plant samples were
separated using adsorption chromatography and column chromatography, they were analyzed
via mass spectrometry, IR spectroscopy, UV spectroscopy, can gas chromatography. 31-and-34-
carbon-long alkane chains were found to be present in the hexane layer of the adsorption
chromatography.

4
What are Petrocops?

Petroplants are the plants which provide liquid hydrocarbons as a substitute of liquid fuels. The
hydrocarbons present in these plants can be converted to petroleum hydrocarbons. Petroplants
include the members Euphorbiaceae, Apocyanaceae, Urticaceae, Asclepiaceae.

FIGURE NO—1 SHOWING PETRO CROPS

5
TYPES OF HYDROCARBON PLANTS

6
 Plants Production Hydrocarbon

Plant group families Common name Botanical name

Algae (Chlorophyta) - Botrycoccus sp.

Euphobiaceae I. Physic nut, Barbados Jatropha curcas

nut
II. Hevea rubber
III. Rubber plant Hevea barsiliensis
IV. sehund
Euphorbia abyssinig

E. tirucalli

Comppsitae I. Guayule Parthenium argentatum

II. Russuian Taxaxucum koksaghyz
III. Danddehon

Asclepiadaccae Aak Calotropic procera

Leguminoseae I. Samprani Hard wikia

Dipterocarpaceae Gurgun Dipterocarpus turbinatus

7
Jatropha curcas

8
 FIGURE NO-2 Jatropha curcas

Jatropha curcas is a species of flowering plant in the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, that is
native to the American tropics, most likely Mexico and Central America.[It is originally native to
the tropical areas of the Americas from Mexico to Argentina, and has been spread throughout the
world in tropical and subtropical regions around the world, becoming naturalized or invasive in
many areas. The specific epithet, "curcas", was first used by Portuguese doctor Garcia de Orta
more than 400 years ago. Common names in English include physic nut, Barbados nut, poison
nut, bubble bush or purging nut. In parts of Africa and areas in Asia such as India it is often
known as "castor oil plant" or "hedge castor oil plant", but it is not the same as the usual castor
oil plant, Ricinus communis (they are in the same family but different subfamilies).
J. curcas is a semi-evergreen shrub or small tree, reaching a height of 6 m (20 ft) or more. It is
resistant to a high degree of aridity, allowing it to grow in deserts. It contains phorbol esters,
which are considered toxic. However, edible (non-toxic) provenances native to Mexico also
exist, known by the local population as piñón manso, xuta, chuta, aishte, among others. J. curcas
also contains compounds such as trypsin inhibitors, phytate, saponins and a type of lectin known
as curcin.

9
Scientific classification

Kingdom: Plantae

Clade: Angiiosperms

Clade: Eudicots

Order: Rosids

Family: Euphorbiaceae

Genus: Jatropha

Species: J. crucas

Botanical name
Jatropha curcas

Botanical features

 Leaves: The leaves have significant variability in their morphology. In general, the leaves are
green to pale green, alternate to subopposite, and three- to five-lobed with a spiral
phyllotaxis.
 Flowers: male and female flowers are produced on the same inflorescence, averaging 20
male flowers to each female flower, or 10 male flowers to each female flower.The
inflorescence can be formed in the leaf axil. Plants occasionally present hermaphroditic
flowers.
 Fruits : fruits are produced in winter, or there may be several crops during the year if soil
moisture is good and temperatures are sufficiently high. Most fruit production is
concentrated from midsummer to late fall with variations in production peaks where some
plants have two or three harvests and some produce continuously through the season.
 Seeds: the seeds are mature when the capsule changes from green to yellow. The seeds
contain around 20% saturated fatty acids and 80% unsaturated fatty acids, and they yield 25–
40% oil by weight. In addition, the seeds contain other chemical compounds, such as
saccharose, raffinose, stachyose, glucose, fructose, galactose, and protein. The oil is largely

10
 made up of oleic and linoleic acids. Furthermore, the plant also contains curcasin, arachidic,
myristic, palmitic, and stearic acids and curcin
 Genome: the whole genome was sequenced by Kazusa DNA Research Institute, Chiba
Japan in October 2010.

FIGURE NO-3 SHOWING LEAVES, SEADS, FRUIT OF Jetropha curcus

11
 Cultivation

Cultivation is uncomplicated. Jatropha curcas grows in tropical and subtropical regions.[The

plant can grow in wastelands and grows on almost any terrain, even on gravelly, sandy and saline
soils. It can thrive in poor and stony soils, although new research suggests that the plant's ability
to adapt to these poor soils is not as extensive as had been previously stated. Complete
germination is achieved within 9 days. Adding manure during the germination has negative
effects during that phase, but is favorable if applied after germination is achieved. It can be
propagated by cuttings, which yields faster results than multiplication by seeds.
The flowers only develop terminally (at the end of a stem), so a good ramification (plants
presenting many branches) produces the greatest amount of fruits. The plants are self-
compatible. Another productivity factor is the ratio between female and male flowers within an
inflorescence, more female flowers mean more fruits. Jatropha curcas thrives on a mere 250 mm
(10 in) of rain a year, and only during its first two years does it need to be watered in the closing
days of the dry season. Ploughing and planting are not needed regularly, as this shrub has a life
expectancy of approximately forty years. The use of pesticides is not necessary, due to the
pesticidal and fungicidal properties of the plant. It is used in rural Bengal for dhobi itch (a
common fungal infection of the skin).
While Jatropha curcas starts yielding from 9–12 months time, the best yields are obtained only
after 2–3 years time. The seed production is around 3.5 tons per hectare (seed production ranges
from about 0.4 t/ha in the first year to over 5 t/ha after 3 years). If planted in hedges, the reported
productivity of Jatropha is from 0.8 to 1.0 kg of seed per meter of live fence.

12
FIGURE NO-4 SHOWING CULTIVATION
 Propagation

Jatropha curcas can easily be propagated by both seed or cuttings. Some people recommend
propagation by seed for establishment of long-lived plantations. When jatropha plants develop
from cuttings, they produce many branches but yield fewer seeds and do not have enough time to
develop their taproot, which makes them sensitive to wind erosion. The seeds exhibit orthodox
storage behaviour and under normal treatment and storage will maintain viability at high
percentages for eight months to a year. Propagation through seed (sexual propagation) leads to a
lot of genetic variability in terms of growth, biomass, seed yield and oil content. Clonal
techniques can help in overcoming these problems. Vegetative propagation has been achieved by
stem cuttings, grafting, budding as well as by air layering techniques. Cuttings should be taken
preferably from juvenile plants and treated with 200 micro gram per litre of IBA (rooting
hormone) to ensure the highest level of rooting in stem cuttings. Cuttings strike root easily stuck
in the ground without use of hormones

Gallery

FIGURE NO-5 SHOWING GALLERY ( CRUDE OIL)

 Biofuel

FIGURE NO-6 METHODS OF PRODUCING BIO FUEL

When jatropha seeds are crushed, the resulting jatropha oil can be processed to produce a high-
quality biofuel or biodiesel that can be used in a standard diesel car or further processed into jet
fuel, while the residue (press cake) can also be used as biomass feedstock to power electricity
plants, used as fertilizer (it contains nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium). The cake can also be
used as feed in digesters and gasifiers to produce biogas.
There are several forms of biofuel, often manufactured using sedimentation, centrifugation, and
filtration. The fats and oils are turned into esters while separating the glycerin. At the end of the
process, the glycerin settles and the biofuel floats. The process through which the glycerin is
separated from the biodiesel is known as transesterification. Glycerin is another by-product from
Jatropha oil processing that can add value to the crop. Transesterification is a simple chemical
reaction that neutralizes the free fatty acids present in any fatty substances in Jatropha. A
chemical exchange takes place between the alkoxy groups of an ester compound by an alcohol.
Usually, methanol and ethanol are used for the purpose. The reaction occurs by the presence of a
catalyst, usually sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or caustic soda and potassium hydroxide (KOH),
which forms fatty esters (e.g., methyl or ethyl esters), commonly known as biodiesel. It takes
approximately 10% of methyl alcohol by weight of the fatty substance to start the
transesterification process.
Estimates of Jatropha seed yield vary widely, due to a lack of research data, the genetic diversity
of the crop, the range of environments in which it is grown,
and Jatropha's perennial life cycle. Seed yields under cultivation can range from 1,500 to 2,000
kilograms per hectare, corresponding to extractable oil yields of 540 to
680 litres per hectare (58 to 73 US gallons per acre). In 2009 Time magazine cited the potential
for as much as 1,600 gallons of diesel fuel per acre per year. The plant may yield more than four
times as much fuel per hectare as soybean, and more than ten times that of maize (corn), but at
the same time it requires five times as much water per unit of energy produced as does corn (see
below). A hectare of jatropha has been claimed to produce 1,892 litres of fuel. However, as it has
not yet been domesticated or improved by plant breeders, yields are variable.
In 2007 Goldman Sachs cited Jatropha curcas as one of the best candidates for future biodiesel
production. However, despite its abundance and use as an oil and reclamation plant, none of the
Jatropha species has been properly domesticated and, as a result, its productivity is variable, and
the long-term impact of its large-scale use on soil quality and the environment is unknown.
In 2008 researchers at Daimler Chrysler Research explored the use of jatropha oil for automotive
use, concluding that although jatropha oil as fuel "has not yet reached optimal quality, it already
fulfills the EU norm for biodiesel quality". Archer Daniels
Midland Company, Bayer CropScience and Daimler AG have a joint project to develop jatropha
as a biofuel. Three Mercedes cars powered by Jatropha diesel have already put some 30,000
kilometres behind them. The project is supported by DaimlerChrysler and by the German
Association for Investment and Development (Deutschen Investitions- und
Entwicklungsgesellschaft, DEG).
Jet Fuel
Aviation fuels may be more widely replaced by biofuels such as jatropha oil than fuels for other
forms of transportation. There are fewer planes than cars or trucks and far fewer jet fueling
stations to convert than gas stations.] To fulfil the yearly demand for aviation fuel, based on
demand in 2008 (fuel use has since grown), an area of farmland twice the size of France would
need to be planted with jatropha, based on average yields of mature plantations on reasonably
good, irrigated land.
On December 30, 2008, Air New Zealand flew the first successful test flight from Auckland
with a Boeing 747 running one of its four Rolls-Royce engines on a 50:50 blend of jatropha oil
and jet A-1 fuel. In the same press release, Air New Zealand announced plans to use the new fuel
for 10% of its needs by 2013. At the time of this test, jatropha oil was much cheaper than crude
oil, costing an estimated $43 a barrel or about one-third of the June 4, 2008 closing price of
$122.30 for a barrel of crude oil.
On January 7, 2009 Continental Airlines successfully completed a test flight from Houston,
Texas using a 50/50 mixture of algae/jatropha-oil-derived biofuel and Jet A in one of the two
CFM56 engines of a Boeing 737-800 Next Generation jet. The two-hour test flight could mark
another promising step for the airline industry to find cheaper and more environmentally friendly
alternatives to fossil fuel.
On April 1, 2011 Interjet completed the first Mexican aviation biofuels test flight on an Airbus
A320. The fuel was a 70:30 traditional jet fuel biojet blend produced from Jatropha oil provided
by three Mexican producers, Global Energías Renovables (a wholly owned subsidiary of U.S.-
based Global Clean Energy Holdings), Bencafser S.A. and Energy JH S.A. Honeywell's UOP
processed the oil into Bio-SPK (Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene). Global Energías Renovables
operates the largest Jatropha farm in the Americas.
On October 28, 2011 Air China completed the first successful demonstration flight by a Chinese
airline that used jatropha-based biofuel. The mixture was a 50:50 mix of conventional jet fuel
blended with jatropha oil from China National Petroleum Corp. The 747-400 powered one of its
four engines on the fuel mixture during the 1-hour flight around Beijing airport.
On August 27, 2018 SpiceJet completed the first successful test flight by an Indian airline which
used jatorpha based biofuel. The ratio of conventional jet fuel to jatropha oil was 25:75.
Carbon dioxide sequestration
According to a 2013 study published by the European Geosciences Union, the jatropha tree may
have applications in the absorption of carbon dioxide, whose sequestration is important in
combating climate change. This small tree is very resistant to aridity so it can be planted in hot
and dry land in soil unsuitable for food production. The plant does need water to grow though, so
coastal areas where desalinated seawater can be made available are ideal.
Food for human consumption
Xuta, chuta, aishte or piñón manso (among others) are some of the names given in Mexico to
edible non-toxic Jatropha curcas. It is grown in house gardens or other small areas. Although it
is known as a toxic plant due to the presence of diterpenes named phorbol esters, the existence of
edible non-toxic J. curcas without phorbol esters content has been demonstrated. It is also
similarly reported that Jatropha seeds are edible once the embryo has been removed. The
process for analysis of phorbol ester contents in J. curcas is done through high-performance
liquid chromatography (HPLC).
Xuta is traditionally prepared for local celebrations or popular parties. The kernels are roasted
and eaten as a snack or roasted and ground to prepare different dishes, such as tamales, soups
and sauces like “pipian”. The seeds in the zone around Misantla, Veracruz are very appreciated
by the population as food once they have been boiled and roasted. Root ashes are used as a salt
substitute. HCN and rotenone are present.
Other uses
Flowers
The species is listed as a honey plant.[ Hydrogen cyanide is present.
Nuts can be strued for home cooking fuel in briquette form replacing charcoalized timber as in
Haiti.
They can be burned like candlenuts when strung on grass.[ HCN is present.[ Used as a
contraceptive in South Sudan.
Jatropha biodiesel in India
 FIGURE NO-7 SHOWING METHODS OF PRODUCING BIO DIESEL FUEL

India's total biodiesel requirement is projected to grow to 3.6 million tonnes in 2011–12, with
the positive performance of the domestic automobile industry. Analysis from Frost & Sullivan,
Strategic Analysis of the Indian Biofuels Industry, reveals that the market is an emerging one
and has a long way to go before it catches up with global competitors.
The Government is currently implementing an ethanol-blending program and considering
initiatives in the form of mandates for biodiesel. Due to these strategies, the rising population,
and the growing energy demand from the transport sector, biofuels can be assured of a
significant market in India. On 12 September 2008, the Indian Government announced its
'National Biofuel Policy'. It aims to meet 20% of India's diesel demand with fuel derived from
plants. That will mean setting aside 140,000 square kilometres of land. Presently fuel yielding
plants cover less than 5,000 square kilometres.
 Jetropha incentive in India
Jatropha incentives in India is a part of India's goal to achieve energy independence by the year
2018. Jatropha oil is produced from the seeds of the Jatropha curcas, a plant that can grow in
wastelandsacross India, and the oil is considered to be an excellent source of bio-diesel. India is
keen on reducing its dependence on coal and petroleum to meet its increasing energy demand
and encouraging Jatropha cultivation is a crucial component of its energy policy. However, in
recent times the bio-fuel policy has come under critical review, on the way it has been
promoted.
Large plots of waste land have been selected for Jatropha cultivation and will provide much
needed employment to the rural poor of India. Businesses are also seeing the planting of
Jatropha as a good business opportunity.[4] The Government of India has identified 400,000
square kilometres (98 million acres) of land where Jatropha can be grown, hoping it will replace
20% of India's diesel consumption by 2011. Life-cycle analysis studies have shown favourable
energy balance for production of jatropha-based biodiesel in India and also a potential GHG
emission saving of 33-42% compared to fossil-based diesel.
Implementation
The Ex-President of India,Late Dr. Abdul Kalam, is one of the strong advocaters of jatropha
cultivation for production of bio-diesel. In his recent speech, the Former President said that out
of the 600,000 km² of wasteland that is available in India over 300,000 km² are suitable for
Jatropha cultivation. Once this plant is grown the plant has a useful lifespan of several decades.
During its life, Jatropha requires very little water when compared to other cash crops.
Recently, the State Bank of India provided a boost to the cultivation of Jatropha in India by
signing a Memorandum of Understanding with D1 Mohan, a joint venture of D1 Oils plc, to
give loans to the tune of 1.3 billion rupees to local farmers in India. Farmers will also be able to
pay back the loan with the money that D1 Mohan pays for the Jatropha seeds.
Indian Railways
The Indian Railways has started to use the oil (blended with diesel fuel in various ratios) from
the Jatropha plant to power its diesel engines with great success. Currently the diesel
locomotives that run from Thanjavur to Nagore section and Tiruchirapalli to Lalgudi, Dindigul
and Karur sections in Tamil Nadu run on a blend of Jatropha and diesel oil.
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh has entered into a formal agreement with Reliance Industries for Jatropha
planting. The company has selected 200 acres (0.81 km2) of land at Kakinada to grow jatropha
for high quality bio-diesel fuel. Kerala is planning a massive Jatropha planting campaign.
Chhattisgarh
Chhattisgarh has decided to plant 160 million saplings of jatropha in all its 16 districts during
2006 with the aim of becoming a bio-fuel self-reliant state by 2015. Chhattisgarh plans to earn
Rs. 40 billion annually by selling seeds after 2010. The central government has provided Rs. 135
million to Chhattisgarh in 2013 for developing jatropha nursery facilities.
Eastern India
D1 Williamson Magor Bio Fuel Limited was a joint venture company between D1 Oils plc, UK
and Williamson Magor group. This biodiesel initiative was incorporated in July 2006.
Advocating the creation of energy from renewable resources, the company had promoted
Jatropha Plantations on the wasteland possessed by the farmers in the North Eastern States,
Orissa and Jharkhand. The Company had a comprehensive network to manufacture bio-diesel
from the oilseeds harvested by the farmers.
Calotropis procera
 Introduction

Green globes are hollow but the flesh contains a toxic milky sap that is extremely bitter and turns
into a gluey coating resistant to soap. Calotropis procera is a species
of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae that is native to North Africa, Tropical Africa,
Western Asia, South Asia, and Indochina. The green globes are hollow but the flesh contains a
toxic milky sap that is extremely bitter and turns into a gluey coating resistant to soap.

FIGURE NO-8 SHOWING Calatropis procera

Scientific classification
Kindom: Plantae

Order: Gentianales

Family: Apocynaceae

Genus: Calotropic

Species: C. procera

Common names
Apple of Sodom, auricula tree, cabbage tree, calotrope, calotropis, Dead Sea apple, giant
milkweed, Indian milkweed, kapok tree, King Edward's crown, king's crown, king's crown
kapok, Prince of Wales' crown, rubber bush, rubber plant, rubber tree, rubberbush, small crown
flower, small crownflower, Sodom apple, Sodom's milkweed, swallowwort
Origin
Native to northern Africa (i.e. Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia,
Sudan, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea-
Bissau, Mauritania, Nigeria, Senegal and Sierra Leone), the Arabian Peninsula (i.e. Saudi
Arabia, Oman and Yemen), the Middle East, and southern Asia (i.e. Afghanistan, Pakistan,
Nepal, India, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam).
Cultivation
This species was cultivated as a garden plant (i.e. ornamental) in the past, but it is now out of
favour because it is poisonous and generally regarded as a weed.
Naturalised Distribution
This species is widespread in the drier northern parts of Australia. It is mostly found in northern
Queensland, north-western Western Australia and in the northern parts of the Northern
Territory. Also present in other parts of the Northern Territory, and recorded in South Australia
and New South Wales.
It has also become naturalised in parts of Central America, northern South America, the
Caribbean, south-western USA (i.e. California) and in Hawaii.
Habitat & Habit
Found mostly in semi-arid and arid inland areas, as well as in the drier parts of tropical and sub-
tropical regions. A weed of disturbed sites, roadsides, waste areas, near inland watercourses,
coastal sand dunes, grasslands, open woodlands and pastures. An upright (i.e. erect) shrub or
small tree usually growing 1-4 m tall.

Distinguishing Features
 A large shrub with waxy stems and leaves that contain a milky sap.
 Its relatively large greyish-green leaves (5-20 cm long and 4-10 cm wide) are borne in
pairs and are stem-clasping.
 Its flowers (20-30 mm across) have five petals that are white with purplish-coloured tips
and a purplish crown-like centre.
 Its fruit is a large (8-12 cm long) bladdery 'pod' that is greyish-green in colour.
 This fruit splits open at maturity to release numerous seeds, each topped with a tuft of
long, white, silky hairs.
Stems and Leaves
The stems and leaves have a waxy appearance and contain a milky white sap (i.e. latex).
Branching occurs from the base of the plant upwards. Younger stems are greyish-green in colour,
smooth in texture, and have a covering of whitish coloured hairs (i.e. they are hoary).
Mature stems have a deeply fissured, cork-like, bark that is light brown in colour. The large,
relatively thick, leaves (5-30 cm long and 4-15 cm wide) are also greyish-green in colour and
have entire margins. They are oppositely arranged and have stem-clasping bases (i.e. they are
sessile) or very short stalks (i.e. petioles) 3-4 mm long. These leaves are rounded (i.e. orbicular)
or egg-shaped in outline (i.e. ovate) with shortly-pointed tips (i.e. acute apices). Their upper
surfaces are mostly hairless (i.e. glabrous), while their undersides may be densely covered in tiny
white hairs or have a tuft of stiff hairs at the base of the central vein (i.e. midrib).

FIGURE NO-9 SHOWING STEMS & LEAVES

Flowers and Fruit

The flowers (15-25 mm across) are borne in clusters, each containing 3-15 flowers, in the forks
of the uppermost leaves (i.e. in axillary inflorescences). The main stalk of these flower clusters
(i.e. peduncle) is 20-55 mm long and each flower has a stalk (i.e. pedicel) about 15-25 long.
These flowers have five spreading petals (7-10 mm long and 6-10 mm wide) that are white or
pinkish in colour, with much darker purple or purplish-brown tips, and a crown-like centre (i.e.
corona) that is also purplish in colour. They also have five sepals (about 5 mm long and 3 mm
wide) that are oval (i.e. elliptic) or egg-shaped in outline (i.e. ovate) and five stamens. Flowering
occurs mostly during winter.
The fruit is a large (6-12 cm long and 3-7 cm wide) bladdery 'pod' (i.e. follicle) that is greyish-
green in colour and rounded (i.e. sub-globose) to somewhat egg-shaped (i.e. obliquely ovoid).
These fruit have thick and spongy skins which split open at maturity. Each fruit contains
numerous brown, flattened seeds (about 6 mm long and 4 mm wide) that are topped with a tuft
(i.e. coma) of long, white, silky hairs (35-50 mm long).

FIGURE NO-10 SHOWIG FRUIT & FLOWERS

Reproduction and Dispersal
This plant reproduces mainly by seeds, though local increase in the size and density of
populations also occurs via suckering from the roots.
The seeds can be spread long distances by wind and water and can also be dispersed in mud that
becomes attached to animals and vehicles.
Chemical Properties
The milky sap contains a complex mix of chemicals, some of which are steroidal heart poisons
known as "cardiac aglycones". These belong to the same chemical family as similar chemicals
found in foxgloves (Digitalis purpurea). The steroidal component includes an hydroxyl group in
the C3β position, a second attached to the C14 carbon, a C/D-cis ring junction and an α,β-
unsaturated-γ-lactone in the C17 position. In the plants, the steroidal component is commonly
attached via a glycosidic link to a 2-desoxy or a 2,6-didesoxy sugar molecule. The features
described are those required for toxicity but in addition there can be other substitutions into the
steroid nucleus. These can be a C19-aldehyde in place of the more usual methyl group in this
position as well as additional hydroxyl functions and sometimes epoxide structures.
In the case of the Calotropis glycosides, their names are calotropin, calotoxin, calactin,
uscharidin and voruscharin (the latter two involve rare sugars with nitrogen and sulphur in the
structures). The steroidal moiety (known as "calotropagenin", formula C23H32O6) has one of the
more unusual structures. The C-19 formyl (CHO) group is present and there is an additional
secondary alcohol as well as the common C3 and D15 hydroxyl functions. The position of this
third hydroxyl function remains in some doubt. It was apparently established by the Swiss group
under Thadeus Reichstein[8] as being in the C2 position with an equatorial configuration.
However, this assignment does not explain some of the known features and behaviours of this
molecule, in particular the absence of spin-spin coupling of the two axial protons associated with
their geminal hydroxyl groups and the failure to react with iodate in a cleavage reaction which
the presence of such a viscinal 1,2-diol would require.
Work carried out in India
Euphorbiaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Apocynacea, Urticaceae, Concolvulaceae, Sapotaceae were
studied for their suitability as petrocrops by various workers (45,69-75). Bio-crude potential was
determined by preservation and coagulation of latex in case of species amendable to latex
tapping. In rest of the species, the dried biomass was extracted with hexane-methanol. Bio-crude
potential varied from 26-29%, whereas for other species like Euhprbia antisyphilitica, 8.46%.
This study resulted in the indentification of 17 ptential petrocrops.
A new genus Capaifere was also evaluated as a source of fuel oil. Capaifera lingsdorfil and
Capaifera multijuga are trees in which a hoel is drilled at a height of 90 cm from the ground to
tap oil. The wood has a system of canals, which contain oil. It was claimed that this oil could be
used directly in an engine without further processing of purification. A single tree yields 20-301
of oil in 2-3h in a single tapping and could be tapped twice a year. Capaiba oil, as it is called,
consists of 25 different compounds of which each compound is a C15 sequiterpene. Because of
its mw and volatility, the material could be used directly in diesel engines (45,69).
Aleurites moluccana was identified as a source of commercially produced lumping oil (76). The
prospects are bright for developing a large industry for processing lumping oil. Dipterocarpus
laevis, a species of plant that is comparable to Capaiba, is famous all over eastern India on
account of its this liquid balsam commonly called wood oil. The Property of Capaiba is similar
to that of D. laevis oil.
Marimuthu et al. (77) also studied 29 laticiferous taxa of different families for their suitability as
alternative sources of renewable energy, rubber and other phytochemicals and selected the most
promising ones for large-scale cultivation. They found that the majority of the species under
investigation might be considered for large-scale cultivation as an alternative source of rubber,
intermediate energy and other chemicals.
Another plant, Pedilanthus tithymaloides, was found to be a potential petrocrop with high
biomass and hydrocarbon yields. In Indai, it is cultivated as ornamental or hedge plant or even
grown in marginal wastelands. Plant species like P. tithymaloides var. cuculatus, P.
tithymaloides var. verigatus and P. tithymaloides (proper) were found to be the promising
varieties for development as petrocrop.
LIST OF OIL REFINERIES IN INDIA
FIGURE NO-11 SHOWING OIL REFINERY IN INDIA
 Reliance
1 Jamnagar Refinery Private Gujarat Jamnagar(SEZ) 33
Industries Limited

Reliance
2 Jamnagar Refinery Private Gujarat Jamnagar(DTA) 27
Industries Limited

Nayara Energy
3 Essar Refinery Private Gujarat Vadinar 20
Limited

Bharat Petroleum
4 Kochi Refinery Corporation Public Kerala Kochi 15.5
Limited

Mangalore
ONGC Mangalore
Refinery and
5 Petrochemicals Public Karnataka Mangalore 15
Petrochemicals
Limited
Limited

Indian Oil
6 Paradip Refinery Corporation Public Odisha Paradip 15
Limited

Indian Oil
7 Panipat Refinery Public Haryana Panipat 15
Corporation Li
THE PETRO PROJECT
The PETRO project is a program started in 2011 that has tried to address creating petroleum
products using plants. The program is made of 10 projects that are all aiming to extract
petroleum directly from plants without affecting the U.S. food supply. The goal of the program
is to make more oil per acre than what we have now, and with less processing before it gets to
the pump. This results in a process that is cleaner, uses less energy, and is more sustainable than
the system we have in place presently.
The ten PETRO projects include:
1. Harvesting the sugar from sorghum and processing it into farnesene, which is an additive
in diesel fuels.
2. Designing carbon fixation pathways to produce pyruvic acid.
3. Manipulating the oil producing plant Camelina so that it is drought and cold resistant,
making it possible to grow in harsh environments.
4. Making photosynthesis more effective by changing chemical pathways.
5. Turning sugarcane and sorghum into an oil-producing crop.
6. Engineering Camelina so that the topmost leaves reflect light onto the lower part of the
plant, thereby increasing the overall efficiency of the plant.
7. Modifying Camelina so that it produces copious terpenes and modified oils.
8. Engineering tobacco so that it produces fuel molecules in ts leaves.
9. Increasing the turpentine harvest in pine trees.
10. Developing plants that produce vegetable oil in their leaves and stems as opposed to their
seeds.
All of these efforts are funded through the ARPA-E program available through the U.S.
Department of Energy. The program, headed by Jonathan Burbaum, has received over
$37,000,000 dollars of funding since its initial acceptance into the ARPA-E program.
ECONOMIC ADVANTAGES
 Growers can sustain their own clean-fuel needs.
 Growers will have long-term sustainable income in emerging clean-fuel markets.
 Many oleaginous crop like Jatropha offer multiple profit center through various by-
products with commercial, industrial and cosmetic applications.
 The planting of agro-fuel crops that perform well in marginal soils allows for the use of
unproductive land at little or no cost to the grower\ green investor.
 The use of clean-fuels in transportation results in fewer pollutants-particulate matter,
sulfates, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and other breathable toxins.
 The robust, drought resistant demeanor of plants like Jatropha curcas allows for
tremendous cost savings via the lack of any need for fertilizers, pesticides or irrigation.
 Most oleaginous plant species involve relatively low-input systems, including the
planting, maintenance.

FIGURE NO-12 SHOWIG ECONOMICAL VALUES

ECONOMIC DISADVANTAGES
 Variation in quality of biodiesel
 Not suitable for use in low temperatures
 Food shortage
 Increased use of fertilizers
 Clogging in engine
 Regional suitability
 Water shortage
 Slight increase in nitrogen oxide emissions
CONCLUSION
 It is clear from the discussion that an increase in our dependence on petroleum products
as projected will impose unusually heavy burden on the economic development in the
future.
 While every effort has to be made to conserve and to utilize petroleum efficiency in the
Indian economy, it s essential to launch a major effect in exploring and developing
substitute supplies of hydrocarbon.
 Therefore approach for maximizing biomass productivity and increasing bio-crude
content with quality product should be adopted which will help to alleviate the scarcity of
petroleum products as well as create healthy environment.
REFERENCES
[1] Calvin M. Chem Eng News 1978;20:31–6.
[2] Frick GA. Cactus Succulent J 1938;10(9):60.
[3] Steinhell P. Rev Gen Caoutch 1941;18(2):54–6.
[4] Nemethy EK, Otvos JW, Calvin M. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1979;55:957–60.
[5] Nemethy EK, Otvos JW, Calvin M. Pure Appl Chem 1981;53:1101–8.
[6] Nemethy EK, Calvin M. Phytochemistry 1982;21:2981–2.
[7] Nemethy EK. CRC Crit Rev Plant Sci 1984;2:117–29.
[8] Buchanan RA, Cull IM, Otey FH, Russell CR. Econ Bot 1978;32:131–5.
[9] Buchanan RA, Otey FH, Russel CR, Cull IM. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1978;55:657–62.
[10] Buchanan RA, Cull IM, Otey FH, Russell CR. Econ Bot 1978;32:146–53.
[11] Buchanan RA, Otey FH, Russel CR. Bioresour Dig 1979;1:176–202.
[12] Buchanan RA, Swanson CL, Weisleder D, Cull IM. Phytochemistry 1979;18(6):1069–71.
[13] Buchanan RA, Otey FH, Bagby MO. In: Wain TS, Kleiman R, editors. The resource
potential in phytochemistry. New York, London: Plenum Press; 1980. p. 1–22.
[14] Abbott TP, Patterson RE, Tjark LW, Palmer DM, Bogby MO. Econ Bot 1990;44:278–84.
[15] Bagby MO, Buchanan RA, Otey FH. In: Klass DL, editor. Biomass as a non fossil fuel
source. AC Symposium. Series, vol. 144. 1981. p. 125–36.
[16] Campbell TA. Econ Bot 1983;37:174–80.
[17] Carr ME, Bagby MO, Roth WB. J Amer Oil Chem Soc 1986;63:1460–4.
[18] Carr ME, Bagby MO. Econ Bot 1987;41:78–85.
[19] Seiler GJ, Carr ME, Bagby MO. Econ Bot 1991;45:4–14.
[20] Augustus GDPS, Jayabalan M, Rajarathinam K, Ray AK, Seiler GJ. Biomass
Bioenergy 2002;23(3):165–9.
[21] Augustus GDPS, Jayabalan M, Seiler GJ. Biomass Bioenergy 2003;24(6):437–44.
[22] Adams RP. In: Klass DL, editor. Energy from biomass and wastes. 1982. p. 1113–128.
[23] Adams RP, Balandrin MF, Hogge L, Craig W, Price S. J Am Oil Chem Soc
1983;60:1315.
[24] Adams RP, Mcchesney JD. Econ Bot 1983;37:207–15.
[25] Adams RP, Balandrin MF, Martineau JR. Biomass 1984;4:81.
[26] Adams RP, Baladrin MF, Martinean JR. Biomass 1984;4:87.
[27] Adams RP, Baladrin MF, Brown KJ, Stone GA, Gruel SM, Bagby MO.
Biomass 1986;9:255–92.
[28] Emon JV, Seiber JN. Econ Bot 1984;39:47–55.
[29] Woodson RE. Ann M Bot Gard 1954;41:1–211.
[30] Mclaughlin SP, Hoffmann JJ. Econ Bot 1982;36:323–39.
[31] Roth WB, Cull IM, Buchanan RA, Bagby MO. Trans Ill State Acad Sci 1982;75:217–31.
[32] Roth WB, Carr ME, Cull IM, Phillips BS, Bagby MO. Econ Bot 1984;38:358–64.
[33] Roth WB, Carr ME, Davis EA, Bagby MO. Phytochemistry 1985;24:183–94.
[34] Carruther IB, Griffiths DJ, Home V, Williums IR. Biomass 1984;4(4):275–82 [Chem
Abstr 1984;101:40947Z].

The following areas of biomass

resource-based energy programme are
specifically
suggested for detailed investigation:
(I) Adoption of massive afforestation
energy plantation projects in the areas
not used for
conventional agriculture.
(II) Conversion of non-edible oils to
diesel substitutes and large-scale trials
of such a
possibility.
(III) Bio-conversion of ligno-
cellulosic biomass to ethanol in an
integrated system
incorporating the production of bio-
gas, bio-fertilizer and sugar for
industrial
applications.
(IV) Large-scale and organized
production of aquatic biomass species
like algae, water
hyacinth, etc. for integrated
development of an energy–food–
ecology system.
(V) Thermochemical and chemical
conversion of biomass in small- and
large-scale sectors
to production of gaseous and liquid
fuels and chemical feedstocks.
References
[1] Calvin M. Chem Eng News 1978;20:31–6.
[2] Frick GA. Cactus Succulent J 1938;10(9):60.
[3] Steinhell P. Rev Gen Caoutch
1941;18(2):54–6.
[4] Nemethy EK, Otvos JW, Calvin M. J Am
Oil Chem Soc 1979;55:957–60.
[5] Nemethy EK, Otvos JW, Calvin M. Pure
Appl Chem 1981;53:1101–8.
[6] Nemethy EK, Calvin M. Phytochemistry
1982;21:2981–2.
[7] Nemethy EK. CRC Crit Rev Plant Sci
1984;2:117–29.
[8] Buchanan RA, Cull IM, Otey FH, Russell
CR. Econ Bot 1978;32:131–5.
[9] Buchanan RA, Otey FH, Russel CR, Cull
IM. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1978;55:657–62.
[10] Buchanan RA, Cull IM, Otey FH, Russell
CR. Econ Bot 1978;32:146–53.
[11] Buchanan RA, Otey FH, Russel CR.
Bioresour Dig 1979;1:176–202.
[12] Buchanan RA, Swanson CL, Weisleder D,
Cull IM. Phytochemistry 1979;18(6):1069–71.
[13] Buchanan RA, Otey FH, Bagby MO. In:
Wain TS, Kleiman R, editors. The resource
potential in
phytochemistry. New York, London: Plenum
Press; 1980. p. 1–22.
[14] Abbott TP, Patterson RE, Tjark LW,
Palmer DM, Bogby MO. Econ Bot
1990;44:278–84.
[15] Bagby MO, Buchanan RA, Otey FH. In:
Klass DL, editor. Biomass as a non fossil fuel
source. ACS
Symposium. Series, vol. 144. 1981. p. 125–36.
[16] Campbell TA. Econ Bot 1983;37:174–80.
[17] Carr ME, Bagby MO, Roth WB. J Amer
Oil Chem Soc 1986;63:1460–4.
[18] Carr ME, Bagby MO. Econ Bot
1987;41:78–85.
[19] Seiler GJ, Carr ME, Bagby MO. Econ Bot
1991;45:4–14.
[20] Augustus GDPS, Jayabalan M,
Rajarathinam K, Ray AK, Seiler GJ. Biomass
Bioenergy 2002;23(3):165–9.
[21] Augustus GDPS, Jayabalan M, Seiler GJ.
Biomass Bioenergy 2003;24(6):437–44.
[22] Adams RP. In: Klass DL, editor. Energy
from biomass and wastes. 1982. p. 1113–128.
[23] Adams RP, Balandrin MF, Hogge L, Craig
W, Price S. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1983;60:1315.
[24] Adams RP, Mcchesney JD. Econ Bot
1983;37:207–15.
[25] Adams RP, Balandrin MF, Martineau JR.
Biomass 1984;4:81.
[26] Adams RP, Baladrin MF, Martinean JR.
Biomass 1984;4:87.
[27] Adams RP, Baladrin MF, Brown KJ, Stone
GA, Gruel SM, Bagby MO. Biomass
1986;9:255–92.
[28] Emon JV, Seiber JN. Econ Bot
1984;39:47–55.
[29] Woodson RE. Ann M Bot Gard 1954;41:1–
211.
[30] Mclaughlin SP, Hoffmann JJ. Econ Bot
1982;36:323–39.
[31] Roth WB, Cull IM, Buchanan RA, Bagby
MO. Trans Ill State Acad Sci 1982;75:217–31.
[32] Roth WB, Carr ME, Cull IM, Phillips BS,
Bagby MO. Econ Bot 1984;38:358–64.
[33] Roth WB, Carr ME, Davis EA, Bagby MO.
Phytochemistry 1985;24:183–94.
[34] Carruther IB, Griffiths DJ, Home V,
Williums IR. Biomass 1984;4(4):275–82 [Chem
Abstr 1984;101:40947Z].
ARTICLE IN PRESS
D. Kalita / Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 12 (2008) 455–471 469
[35] Simionescu CI, Cascaval CN, Rosu D,
Rusan V. Cellul Chem Technol 1987;21:77–83.
[36] Simionescu CI, Rusan V, Cascaval CN,
Rosu D. Cellul Chem Technol 1987;21:84–9.
[37] Maxwell JR, Doughlas AG, Eglinton G,
Mccormick A. Phytoche
The following areas of biomass
resource-based energy programme are
specifically
suggested for detailed investigation:
(I) Adoption of massive afforestation
energy plantation projects in the areas
not used for
conventional agriculture.
(II) Conversion of non-edible oils to
diesel substitutes and large-scale trials
of such a
possibility.
(III) Bio-conversion of ligno-
cellulosic biomass to ethanol in an
integrated system
incorporating the production of bio-
gas, bio-fertilizer and sugar for
industrial
applications.
(IV) Large-scale and organized
production of aquatic biomass species
like algae, water
hyacinth, etc. for integrated
development of an energy–food–
ecology system.
(V) Thermochemical and chemical
conversion of biomass in small- and
large-scale sectors
to production of gaseous and liquid
fuels and chemical feedstocks.
References
[1] Calvin M. Chem Eng News 1978;20:31–6.
[2] Frick GA. Cactus Succulent J 1938;10(9):60.
[3] Steinhell P. Rev Gen Caoutch
1941;18(2):54–6.
[4] Nemethy EK, Otvos JW, Calvin M. J Am
Oil Chem Soc 1979;55:957–60.
[5] Nemethy EK, Otvos JW, Calvin M. Pure
Appl Chem 1981;53:1101–8.
[6] Nemethy EK, Calvin M. Phytochemistry
1982;21:2981–2.
[7] Nemethy EK. CRC Crit Rev Plant Sci
1984;2:117–29.
[8] Buchanan RA, Cull IM, Otey FH, Russell
CR. Econ Bot 1978;32:131–5.
[9] Buchanan RA, Otey FH, Russel CR, Cull
IM. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1978;55:657–62.
[10] Buchanan RA, Cull IM, Otey FH, Russell
CR. Econ Bot 1978;32:146–53.
[11] Buchanan RA, Otey FH, Russel CR.
Bioresour Dig 1979;1:176–202.
[12] Buchanan RA, Swanson CL, Weisleder D,
Cull IM. Phytochemistry 1979;18(6):1069–71.
[13] Buchanan RA, Otey FH, Bagby MO. In:
Wain TS, Kleiman R, editors. The resource
potential in
phytochemistry. New York, London: Plenum
Press; 1980. p. 1–22.
[14] Abbott TP, Patterson RE, Tjark LW,
Palmer DM, Bogby MO. Econ Bot
1990;44:278–84.
[15] Bagby MO, Buchanan RA, Otey FH. In:
Klass DL, editor. Biomass as a non fossil fuel
source. ACS
Symposium. Series, vol. 144. 1981. p. 125–36.
[16] Campbell TA. Econ Bot 1983;37:174–80.
[17] Carr ME, Bagby MO, Roth WB. J Amer
Oil Chem Soc 1986;63:1460–4.
[18] Carr ME, Bagby MO. Econ Bot
1987;41:78–85.
[19] Seiler GJ, Carr ME, Bagby MO. Econ Bot
1991;45:4–14.
[20] Augustus GDPS, Jayabalan M,
Rajarathinam K, Ray AK, Seiler GJ. Biomass
Bioenergy 2002;23(3):165–9.
[21] Augustus GDPS, Jayabalan M, Seiler GJ.
Biomass Bioenergy 2003;24(6):437–44.
[22] Adams RP. In: Klass DL, editor. Energy
from biomass and wastes. 1982. p. 1113–128.
[23] Adams RP, Balandrin MF, Hogge L, Craig
W, Price S. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1983;60:1315.
[24] Adams RP, Mcchesney JD. Econ Bot
1983;37:207–15.
[25] Adams RP, Balandrin MF, Martineau JR.
Biomass 1984;4:81.
[26] Adams RP, Baladrin MF, Martinean JR.
Biomass 1984;4:87.
[27] Adams RP, Baladrin MF, Brown KJ, Stone
GA, Gruel SM, Bagby MO. Biomass
1986;9:255–92.
[28] Emon JV, Seiber JN. Econ Bot
1984;39:47–55.
[29] Woodson RE. Ann M Bot Gard 1954;41:1–
211.
[30] Mclaughlin SP, Hoffmann JJ. Econ Bot
1982;36:323–39.
[31] Roth WB, Cull IM, Buchanan RA, Bagby
MO. Trans Ill State Acad Sci 1982;75:217–31.
[32] Roth WB, Carr ME, Cull IM, Phillips BS,
Bagby MO. Econ Bot 1984;38:358–64.
[33] Roth WB, Carr ME, Davis EA, Bagby MO.
Phytochemistry 1985;24:183–94.
[34] Carruther IB, Griffiths DJ, Home V,
Williums IR. Biomass 1984;4(4):275–82 [Chem
Abstr 1984;101:40947Z].
ARTICLE IN PRESS
D. Kalita / Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 12 (2008) 455–471 469
[35] Simionescu CI, Cascaval CN, Rosu D,
Rusan V. Cellul Chem Technol 1987;21:77–83.
[36] Simionescu CI, Rusan V, Cascaval CN,
Rosu D. Cellul Chem Technol 1987;21:84–9.
[37] Maxwell JR, Doughlas AG, Eglinton G,
Mccormick A. Phytoche