Sulfate Attack
on Concrete:
Separating Myths From Reality
by P. Kumar Mehta
everal multimillion-dollar lawsuits filed recently on
S behalf of homeowners in California have drawn con-
siderable attention from the construction industry.
Frequently in these lawsuits, it appears that surface scaling
of concrete due to the physical salt-weathering attack is be-
ing confused with the chemical sulfate attack. Salt weather-
ing is purely a physical phenomenon that occurs under cer-
tain environmental conditions when any porous solid, such
as brick, stone, or poor-quality concrete, is exposed to alkali
salt solutions including sulfates (but not necessarily limited
to sulfates). Moreover, in lawsuits involving damage to heat-
cured concrete products (namely, railway ties), it has been
alleged that an internal sulfate attack due to delayed ettringite
formation (DEF) is responsible for expansion and cracking.
From the mechanisms proposed to explain expansion and
cracking associated with DEF, an impression is being given
that this phenomenon is fundamentally different from the
classical sulfate attack.
The controversies and confusion created by available lit-
erature on sulfate attack, both published and unpublished,
have caused anxiety in the public mind. How serious is the
problem of concrete damage due to sulfate attack? Can it
lead to structural failure? In regard to sulfate attack mecha-
nisms being proposed for DEF-related damage, are they fun-
damentally different from those encountered in the case of
external sulfate attack? To address those questions, a critical
examination of state of the art as well as new research infor-
mation is necessary. To provide some background, this ar-
ticle begins with a brief historical perspective before pre-
senting a short review of selected publications that attempt
to provide some answers to the above-mentioned questions.
A historical perspective
In one of the U.S. Bureau of Standard’s technological pa-
pers published in 1915, Wig and Williams stated that since
1900, the disintegration of concrete exposed to alkali sur-
face soils and water in arid regions of the western U. S. had
been a subject of discussion by engineers and users of con-
crete.1 The authors observed: “There are many concrete struc-
tures in these districts that do not appear to be affected by
the salts, but there are some which show indication of being
attacked. The concrete user has a tendency to attribute all fail-
ures occurring in these districts to alkali visible in the surround-
ing soil. Therefore, such failures as occur in eastern parts of
the U. S., due to poor materials or improper fabrication, are
often excused in the West.”
August 2000
To support their argument, Wig and Williams cited sev-
eral examples from field experience. They noted that one
portion of a concrete structure from an irrigation project in
sodium sulfate-rich soil remained in excellent condition af-
ter 7 years of exposure. Meanwhile, another portion of the
structure had completely disintegrated such that the concrete
could be manually torn apart; also, the concrete’s pores were
filled with salt. From field tests on concrete drainage tiles
exposed to water soluble sulfate from soil with 0.1% alkali
sulfate concentration or more, the authors drew the follow-
ing conclusions:2
• Porous tiles, due to the use of lean concrete mixtures of
relatively dry consistency, were subject to disintegra-
tion; and
• The disintegration resulted from expansion caused by
salt crystallization in the pores and from concrete dete-
rioration by the chemical attack of the solution on ce-
ment constituents.
Thus, as far back as the beginning of the twentieth cen-
tury, researchers already knew many essential features of
sulfate attack on concrete exposed to alkali-sulfate environ-
ments. It was also known that all portland-cement concrete
was not subject to attack but that only those concrete mix-
tures that were poorly proportioned and poorly processed so
as to produce highly permeable concrete, when exposed to
certain adverse microclimates, were susceptible to sul-
fate attack. It was known that deterioration of porous con-
crete could result from both a purely physical phenomenon
of alkali-sulfate salt crystallizing in the pores and a chemi-
cal phenomenon involving decomposition of the cement
paste by the penetrating sulfate solution. Researchers also
knew that the physical attack associated with salt crystalli-
zation was not limited to alkali-sulfate solutions; for example,
it occurs with alkali carbonate solution and with other po-
rous materials such as natural stone and masonry.
In regard to chemical sulfate attack, it was generally known
as far back as 1892 that the formation of ettringite from cal-
cium- and alumnia-bearing phases of portland-cement paste
was somehow responsible for expansion and cracking. In
well-hydrated pastes or normal portland cement, the pri-
mary alumnia-bearing phases are calcium monosulphate hy-
drate and calcium aluminate hydrate — and both are un-
stable in sulfate solutions. Some researchers also reported
gypsum formation from sulfate attack on the principal cal-
cium-bearing phases. Several mechanisms were proposed by
which ettringite and gypsum formation caused expansion,
cracking, and loss of strength and adhesion in concrete. In
57
1990, Cohen and Mather3 identified the two hypotheses that
were favored by the researchers. According to one hypoth-
esis, crystal growth pressure associated with ettringite for-
mation is the cause of expansion; according to the other, the
microcrystallization
of ettringite ex-
posed to a high-
pH environ-
ment is able to “The controversies and confusion
cause expansion
and cracking. by available literature on sulfate attack, both
In 1992,
Mehta pub- published and unpublished, have caused
lished a brief re-
view of the past anxiety in the public mind.”
60 years of field
experience with
sulfate attack. 4
From several
case histories of
concrete structures subjected to long-term sulfate exposure
it was concluded that the primary manifestation of chemical
sulfate attack is loss of adhesion and strength associated with
ettringite and gypsum formation, both resulting from chemi-
cal decomposition of the principal products of cement hy-
dration (namely calcium hydroxide and calcium silicate hy-
drate). It was pointed out that only ettringite-related expan-
sion was being addressed by laboratory test methods.
Publications in the last decade
Selected papers published in the last 10 years dealing with
physical sulfate attack, chemical sulfate attack, both exter-
nal and internal DEF, and a holistic approach to the sulfate
attack problems are reviewed herein.
Physical sulfate attack
In 1989, Novak and Colville reported the results of an investi-
gation on floor slabs from 20- to 30-year old homes in southern
5
California. The soils and groundwater in this area contain a
high salt content, mostly composed of sodium sulfate and
chloride. The deteriorated concrete exhibited features of
chemical sulfate attack that are typically found in laboratory
tests; however, analysis of concrete samples showed that the
characteristic products of chemical sulfate attack, namely
ettringite and gypsum, were absent. Instead, large amounts
of white crystalline deposits of thenardite (Na 2 SO 4 ) and
mirabilite (Na 2 SO4 • 10H2 O) were found at crack sites in the
concrete. The authors proposed that in a permeable concrete
exposed to drying conditions, salt-bearing solutions rise to
the surface by capillary action.
Subsequently, as a result of surface evaporation, the solu-
tion phase becomes supersaturated and salt crystallization
occurs, generating pressures large enough to cause crack-
ing. This case study clearly shows that the quality of origi-
nal concrete and the microclimate to which the structure is
exposed influence the type of sulfate attack. The presence of
high concentrations of sulfate in soil or water should not
lead anyone to conclude that the concrete deterioration must
have been caused by chemical sulfate attack.
Haynes, O’Neill, and Mehta6 have also observed that physi-
cal attack on concrete by crystallization of sulfate salts in
pores has received little attention. This is because it appears
that the problem is often wrongly identified as chemical sul-
58
fate attack. Both from field experience and laboratory stud-
ies, the authors concluded that the physical damage to con-
crete from salt crystallization manifests itself in the form of
surface scaling.
Moreover, in poor
quality concrete the
progressive loss of
mass from the sur-
created face can be substan-
tial. However, this
should not lead to
structural failure.
From their inves-
tigation of mecha-
nisms of masonry
decay due to salt
crystallization,
Binda and Baronio 7
discussed the mi-
croclimatic conditions under which salt crystallization can
occur, either with or without causing damage. According to
the authors, decay depends on the site of salt crystallization,
which is determined by a dynamic balance between the rate
of evaporation of water from the exposed surface of the
material and the rate of resupply of the salt solution to that
site. When the rate of evaporation is lower than the rate of
replenishment of water from inside the concrete (or masonry),
the salt crystallization takes place on the external surface.
Evidently, this phenomenon, called efflorescence, should
not cause any damage (because in damp conditions, foot-
ings and foundations made of low-grade concrete are often
covered with efflorescence but show no damage). Only when
the rate of migration of the salt solution through the pores of
the material is lower than the rate of evaporation does the
drying zone form beneath the surface. The subsequent salt
crystallization that occurs in the pores causes expansion, flak-
ing, and spalling.
Binda and Baronio 7 observed that masonry scaling due to
salt crystallization and crystal growth pressure can be more
severe when the salts contained in the solution are hydratable.
For instance, anhydrous sodium sulfate and anhydous so-
dium carbonate form corresponding salts containing 10 mol-
ecules of water. Due to large differences in the density (for
example, Na 2 SO4 and Na 2 SO4 • 10H2 O have densities of 2.66
and 1.44 cm3 /g, respectively), the transformation of the an-
hydrous salt to its hydrated form is accompanied by a large
volume increase. Folliard and Sandberg 8 have shown experi-
mentally that the phase transformation associated with the
structural change from Na 2 SO 4 (thenardite) to Na2 SO4 •
10H2 O (mirabilite) involved significant volumetric expan-
sion. Thenardite converts to mirabilite at 20 C (68 F) when
the relative humidity is 71% or more, and at 30 C (86 F)
when the relative humidity is 81% or more. Interestingly,
sodium carbonate is another salt that exhibits a similar be-
havior. As the temperature and humidity conditions are within
the range of everyday environmental changes in many areas
of the world, it is obvious that frequent temperature/humid-
ity cycles would have a cumulative effect, causing the dete-
rioration of a porous material — irrespective of whether
or not the material is concrete or a fired-clay product, or
whether the salt is sodium sulfate or sodium carbonate.
Evidently, it is not the crystal growth pressure but the
thenardite-mirabilite phase transformation that is the real
Concrete International
cause of expansion and cracking.
In a recent review paper, Hime and Mather9 reiterated that
concrete exposed to sulfate salts may exhibit distress that is
unrelated to sulfate attack and is, therefore, independent of
the cement type used. Citing the results from a long-term
test by the Portland Cement Association (reported by Stark10 ),
which evaluated concrete prisms exposed to soils contain-
ing sodium or magnesium sulfate, Hime and Mather9 ob-
served that only the above-ground level samples showed
severe distress. The below-ground test specimens —
which were directly in contact with the sulfate soil — did
not show any distress. Also, companion prisms that were
completely immersed in 10% solution of the salt did not
show any evidence of distress. As no significant amounts
of ettringite or gypsum were found in the deteriorated
concrete, the distress cannot be attributed to the chemical
sulfate attack.
According to Hime and Mather, 9 this case represents the
type of physical attack in which the crystallization of salt
from its permeating solution can lead to distress under cer-
tain conditions. However, with hydratable salts such as so-
dium sulfate, which undergo reversible phase change on
slight variations in ambient humidity and temperature con-
ditions, it seems that other disruptive mechanisms are also
at work.
Chemical sulfate attack
In chemical sulfate attack, sulfate ions enter into chemical
interactions with the constituents of the cement paste. From
a critical review of experience with many field structures
exposed to sulfate soils, the author has made the following
observations in an earlier paper:4
• It is difficult to find case histories where expansion and
cracking of concrete structures can be attributed solely
to sulfate attack (although these phenomena are com-
monly observed in laboratory sulfate-immersion tests).
Field experience shows that in long-term exposure of
permeable concrete to sulfate water, the sulfate attack
generally manifests itself in the form of loss of adhe-
sion and strength associated with the chemical decom-
position of cement hydration products and the forma-
tion of ettringite, gypsum, and thaumasite.
• The permeability of concrete rather than cement chem-
istry appears to be the most important factor in sulfate
attack. Microstructural examination of samples of dete-
riorated concrete from structures exposed to severe envi-
ronmental conditions show that microcracking and a sub-
sequent increase in the permeability of concrete — as well
as the presence of moisture in the environment — seem to
be the necessary prerequisites for sulfate attack.
• Sulfate attack is seldom found to be the sole phenom-
enon responsible for the deterioration of concrete struc-
tures. Therefore, a holistic approach to concrete dete-
rioration must consider other causes of cracking and
microcracking, such as exposure to cycles of tempera-
ture and humidity extremes, salt crystallization, frost
action, alkali-silica reaction (ASR), and the corrosion
of reinforcing steel.
• The volume of ettringite formed is controlled by the
amount of reactive alumina in portland cement; how-
ever, there is no direct relation between ettringite and
expansion. In an environment saturated with calcium
and hydroxyl ions, ettringite precipitates as fine crys-
August 2000
tals that, due to poor intercrystalline bonding alone, can
swell by water adsorption. Significant expansion asso-
ciated with the swelling of ettringite takes place only
when the strength or restraining ability of the hardened
cement paste has been reduced by partial or complete
decomposition of calcium hydroxide and calcium-sili-
cate hydrate by sulfate attack and carbonation.
• From experimental evidence and theoretical considerations,
as discussed above, it does not seem that the crystal-growth
mechanism is responsible for the ettringite-generated ex-
pansion in chemical sulfate attack. In fact, the presence of
ettringite and gypsum may be looked upon as symptoms
rather than primary causes of distress, which has to do with
the destruction of the original microstructure.
In the earlier publication,4 the author cited Reardon’s data11
to explain the process by which progressive decalcification
of hydrated portland-cement paste occurs when it is subjected
to sulfate attack. During this process, there is a gradual de-
crease in pH. In the 11.6 to 10.6 pH range, ettringite decom-
poses and gypsum is formed. When the buffering cations of
solid calcium hydroxide are no longer available, the decal-
cification of calcium-silicate hydrate begins with the Ca-Si
ratio decreasing from about 2.1 to 0.5 at a pH of 9 or below,
after which calcium silicate hydrate decomposes completely.
The above conclusions from field studies are generally
supported by recent research on sulfate attack. According to
Taylor and Gollop,12 expansion and cracking are probably
caused, directly or indirectly, by ettringite formation, while
softening and disintegration are caused by destruction of
calcium-silicate hydrate. The authors 12 agree that the latter
processes appear to be at least as important in practice as
expansion and cracking. Decomposition or decalcification
of calcium-silicate hydrate begins when calcium from the
calcium hydroxide in the cement paste is no longer avail-
able. Expansion and cracking occurs nearer the surface in
the zone of gypsum formation, but, more probably, the dam-
age is associated with ettringite formation by a mechanism
of water uptake by ettringite.
Thaulow and Jakobsen13 point out that occurrence of
ettringite needles in voids and cracks is common in every
mature water-exposed concrete. Therefore, the presence of
ettringite by itself is not a diagnostic feature of sulfate at-
tack. To diagnose sulfate attack, near-surface paste expansion
that forms surface-parallel cracks, filled or partly filled with
gypsum, must be present. Formation of sulfate phases such
as gypsum takes place through the dissolution of the cement
paste. The microscopic evidence of this phenomenon is given
by the disappearance of calcium hydroxide crystals and de-
calcification of the calcium-silicate hydrate in the cement
paste attacked by sulfate.
Delayed ettringite formation
This is a case of chemical sulfate attack when the source of
sulfate ions happens to be internal (within the concrete) rather
than external. The phenomenon is not new; it occurs when
either a gypsum-contaminated aggregate or a cement con-
taining unusually large sulfate content is used in the con-
crete production. Recently, the phenomenon has been re-
ported in steam-cured concrete products containing cements
made from grinding clinkers of high sulfate content. Ettringite
is not a stable phase above 65 C (149 F), therefore it decom-
poses when steam-curing temperatures higher than 65 C are
59
used in the manufacturing process. The sulfate ions thus re-
leased are absorbed by calcium-silicate hydrate. Later, dur-
ing the service life of concrete structures when sulfate ions
are desorbed, the re-formation of ettringite causes expan-
sion and cracking.
The delayed ettringite formation phenomenon in steam-
cured concrete products is being projected by some research-
ers as something new and mysterious. The absorption of sul-
fate ions by calcium-silicate hydrate and the in-place pre-
cipitation of ettringite within the earlier hydration products
are being proposed as necessary conditions for DEF-related
expansion. In recent work, researchers including Yang et al.14
and Collepardi15 proved that virtually no evidence exists in sup-
port of DEF being a unique phenomenon. In fact, Famy et
al.16 reported that absorption of sulfate is not a sufficient
condition for the expansion to occur, and that DEF does not
always lead to expansion. Microstructural data by these research-
ers have confirmed that the expansion is associated with the
formation of small crystals of ettringite within the pores of outer
hydration products in the cement paste, and note that this oc-
curred under moist-curing conditions.
Although the DEF phenomenon in internal sulfate attack
has been reported mostly for steam-cured railway ties made
with cements containing
a high sulfate content,
Collepardi15 found that
DEF-induced damage
was the same whether the
concrete ties were steam-
“So how serious is the
cured or not. After a re-
view of several contro-
threat of structural failures
versial hypotheses on
sulfate attack mecha-
due to sulfate attack? It
nisms involving DEF-re- seems to be even less of
lated damage in concrete,
Collepardi15 proposed the a threat than alkali-silica
following hypothesis: a)
microcracks are caused reaction.”
by the manufacturing
process, by alkali-silica
reaction, or by other
causes such as late sulfate
release from the cement clinker particles or other sources;
b) ionic migration in pores facilitated by exposure to water;
c) deposition of ettringite inside existing microcracks; and
d) crack propagation by ettringite swelling or by crystal
growth.
From Collepardi’s holistic approach to sulfate attack, it is
obvious that the fundamental mechanisms underlying the
DEF phenomenon are not different from those encountered
in external sulfate attack.
Holistic approach to sulfate attack
In a 1994 paper, Mehta17 proposed that only a holistic ap-
proach can satisfactorily address the causes and control of
concrete deterioration from frost action, corrosion of rein-
forcing steel, alkali-aggregate reaction, and sulfate attack.
All of them are expansive phenomena, and the mechanisms
of expansion and cracking require the presence of water in
every case. Experience with field structures confirms that
most durability problems arise only when water is able to
penetrate into the concrete. A well-made and well-cured con-
crete is water-tight; however, the water-tightness of a con-
60
crete would be lost when, due to weathering and loading or
some other effects, the microcracks propogate and interlink
with each other and with the voids present.
As discussed earlier, Collepardi15 used the holistic approach
to analyze DEF-related damage in concrete. Separating myths
from reality, Collepardi showed why the presence of ettringite
or the use of oversulfated cements in steam-cured concrete
products was insufficient to cause damage. Microcracking
of concrete related to an improper manufacturing process or
other causes, and the presence of water in concrete were es-
sential features in all the cases of expansion and cracking
due to DEF.
In the case of normally cured portland-cement concrete, it
is well known that the first formation of ettringite is observed
as soon as water is added to the concrete mixture. As long as
concrete remains in an unhardened state, the formation of
ettringite will not cause any expansion. In young hardened
concrete made with cements containing unusually large
amounts of reactive alumina and sulfate, ettringite forma-
tion under uniform restraining conditions has been usefully
exploited for developing a chemical prestress. If for any rea-
son, whether related to external or internal sulfate attack,
the formation of ettringite happens at later stages during the
service life when the con-
crete is more stiff, the ex-
pansion associated with
ettringite can cause
cracking and spalling.
Thus, every case of
ettringite-related crack-
ing is due to DEF. It is,
therefore, incorrect and
inappropriate to imply
that DEF occurs exclu-
sively with steam-cured
concrete products made
with over-sulfated ce-
ments. This tends to pro-
mote a myth that, evi-
dently, is not reality.
Conclusions
1. Highly permeable concrete exposed to sulfate soils or water
can deteriorate as a result of physical and chemical attack.
The physical phenomenon, commonly known as salt crys-
tallization, is not limited to sulfate salts. Nor is it limited to
concrete because any porous masonry can suffer from this
type of attack. Typical manifestations of this phenomenon
are surface erosion and spalling attributable either to crys-
tallization pressure or to phase transformation (in the case
of hydratable salts that show large volume changes when
subjected to normal cycles of temperature and humidity).
Only when adverse microclimatic conditions are present are
some portions of a concrete structure affected; however, com-
plete structural failures due to physical sulfate attack have
not been reported.
2. In laboratory immersion tests on mortar or concrete
specimens made with a high-C3A portland cement, the chemi-
cal phenomenon involving the interaction of sulfate ions with
the constituents of cement paste manifests itself in the form
of expansion and cracking that can be associated with
ettringite formation. However, in field structures made with
Concrete International
poor quality concrete and exposed to adverse climatic con-
ditions, the sulfate attack manifests itself in the form of a
gradual loss of adhesion and strength. This is caused by par-
tial or complete decomposition of the original products of
cement hydration. Thus, the formation of ettringite, gypsum
and thaumasite may be symptomatic and contributory and
not the primary cause of distress in sulfate attack.
3. Most of the reports on DEF are based on a reductionis-
tic approach and therefore are of limited value in field prac-
tice. Application of a holistic approach shows that funda-
mental mechanisms underlying DEF or internal sulfate at-
tack are not different from those for external sulfate attack.
Irrespective of the source of sulfate ions, the presence of
interconnected microcracks and water are necessary com-
ponents of any sulfate-related distress in concrete.
4. So how serious is the threat of structural failures due to
sulfate attack? It seems to be even less of a threat than that
caused by alkali-silica reaction. Regarding ASR, Idorn1 8
made the following observation after reviewing 60 years of
research: “It can be concluded that ASR occurs in field con-
crete all over the world. The majority of available aggregate
materials are alkali-reactive, nevertheless, the majority of
ASR occurring with field concrete is harmless.”
References
1. Wig, R. J., and Williams, G. M., “Investigations on the Durability of
Cement Drain Tiles in Alkali Soils,” Technological Papers of the Bureau
of Standards, No. 44, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.,
1915, 56 pp.
2. Wig, R. J.; Williams, G. M.; and Finn A. N., “Durability of Cement
Drain Tiles and Concrete in Alkali Soils,” Technological Papers of the
Bureau ofStandards, No. 95, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton, D.C., 1917, 95 pp.
3. Cohen, M. D., and Mather, B., “Sulfate Attack on Concrete-Research
Needs,” ACI Materials Journal, V. 88, No. 1, Jan.-Feb., 1991, pp. 62-69.
4. Mehta, P. K., “Sulfate Attack on Concrete — A Critical Review,”
Material Science of Concrete III, J. Skalny, ed., American Ceramic Soci-
ety, 1992, pp. 105-130.
5. Novak, G. A., and Colville, A. A., “Efflorescent Mineral Assem-
blages Associated with Cracked and Degraded Residential Foundations
in Southern California,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 19, 1989,
pp. 1-6.
6. Haynes, H.; O’Neill, R.; and Mehta, P. K., “Concrete Deterioration
from Physical Attack by Salts,” Concrete International, V. 18, No. 1, Jan.
1996.
7. Binda, L., and Baronio, G., “Mechanism of Concrete Deterioration
by Sodium Sulfate Crystallization,” Durability of Concrete — Third Inter-
national Conference, SP-145, V. M. Malhotra, ed., American Concrete In-
stitute, Farmington Hills, Mich., 1994, pp. 933-946.
8. Folliard, K. J., and Sandberg, P., “Mechanism of Concrete Dete-
rioration by Sodium Sulfate Crystallization,” Durability of Concrete —
Third International Conference, SP-145, V. M. Malhotra, ed., Ameri-
can Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich., 1994, pp. 933-946.
9. Hime, W. G., and Mather, B., “Sulfate Attack or Is It?” Cement and
Concrete Research, V. 29, 1999, pp. 789-791.
10. Stark, D., “Durability of Concrete in Sulfate-Rich Soils,” Research
and Development Bulletin RD 097, Portland Cement Association, Skokie,
Ill., 1989.
11. Reardon, E. J., “Ion Interaction Model for Determination of Chemi-
cal Equilibria in Cement-Water Systems,” Cement and Concrete Research,
V. 20, 1990, pp. 175-192.
12. Taylor, H. F. W., and Gollop, R. S., “Some Chemical and Micro-
structural Aspects of Concrete Durability,” Mechanisms of Chemical Deg-
radation of Cement-Based Systems, K. L. Scrivner and J. F. Young, eds.,
E&FN SPON, London, 1997, pp. 177-184.
13. Thaulow, N., and Jakobsen, U. H., “The Diagnosis of Chemical De-
terioration by Optical Microscopy,” ibid, pp. 3-13.
14. Yang, R.; Lawrence, C. D.; Lynsdale, C. J.; and Sharp, J. H., “Delayed
Ettringite Formation in Heat-Cured Portland Cement Mortars,” Cement
and Concrete Research, V. 21, No. 1, 1999, pp. 17-25.
15. Collepardi, M., “Damage by Delayed Ettringite Formation,” Con-
August 2000
crete International, V. 21, No. 1, Jan. 1999, pp. 69-74.
16. Famy, C.; Scrivener, K. L.; Brough, A. R; Atkimson, A.; and Lachowski,
E., “Characterization of Calcium-Silicate-Hydrate Products in Expansive and
Nonexpansive Heat-Cured Mortars — Electron Microscopy Study,” Durabil-
ity of Concrete, Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference, SP-192, V.
M. Malhotra, ed., American Concrete Institue, Farmington Hills, Mich., 2000,
pp. 385-402.
17. Mehta, P. K., “Concrete Technology at the Cross Roads — Problems
and Opportunities,” Concrete Technology: Past, Present, and Future, SP-144,
P. K. Mehta, ed., American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich. 1994,
pp. 5-31.
18. Idorn, G., Concrete Progress — From Antiquity to the Third Millen-
nium, Thomas Telford, London, 1997, 255 pp.
Received and reviewed under Institute publication policies.
P. Kumar Mehta is Professor
Emeritus in the Civil Engineering
department at the University of
California at Berkeley. A Fellow of
the American Ceramic Society
and the American Concrete Insti-
tute, he has received several
awards, including ACI’s Wason
Medal for materials research, the
CANMET/ACI award for outstand-
ing contributions to research on performance of con-
crete in the marine environment, and the Mohan
Malhotra Award for research on supplementary ce-
menting materials. He held the Roy Carlson Distin-
guished Professorship in Civil Engineering at Berke-
ley, and, upon his retirement, he received the high-
est campus honor, the Berkeley Citation, for excep-
tional contributions to his field and to the university.
Service-Life Prediction
365.1R-00
Ever been asked how long a concrete
structure will last but not been able to
give an authoritative answer?
Now you can.
This document outlines techniques for predicting how
long new and existing concrete structures will last.
From evaluating the condition of existing structures to
defining key physical properties and examples of real-
world applications, this 44-page document gives you
the best knowledge on the subject.
Critical information to help both building owners and
design professionals accurately assess how long a
concrete structure will stand is now available from ACI
International. To order your copy call (248) 848-3800
or buy it on line at www.aci-int.org.
Service-Life Prediction—State-of-the-Art Report
Order Code: 365100.CI8
Price: $30 (ACI members $18)
To Order: Call ACI at (248) 848-3800
Fax: (248) 848-3801 · Web: www.aci-int.org
61