THE SOCIAL FUNCTION OF SCIENCE By J. D. BERNAL, F.R.S. Birkbeck College, University of London LONDON GEORGE ROUTLEDGE & SONS LTD. Baoapway House: 68-74 Carter Lanz, 1.C.4Furst published 1939 Repninted - - 1940 Repmnted - - 1942 Repnnted - - 1943 Reprinted ~~ 1944 Reprinted ~~ 1046 PRINTED IX GREAT BRITAIN BY LOWE AND BRYDONE PRISTERS LOXTED, LONDON, N w.10CONTENTS Prerace . e 5 . . . PART I: WHAT SCIENCE DOES ‘CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY+ ‘Tue Cuauence To Scrence: The impact of events; should science be suppressed ?; the revolt from reason “Tue hrenacrion oF Sctexce ax SocirTr: Science as pure thoughts science as powers disillusion; escape; the social importance of science; the scientist as workers science for ee fhe institution of sciences can science survive?. a. CHAPTER II. HISTORICAL Science, Learninc anp Crart: Primitive science; agriculture and civilization; the town and the craftsman; the fatal separation of priest and craftsman; astronomy; medicine; the Greeks and science; science under the philosophers Hellenistic Revi Islam; the Middle Ages . ‘Tue Bratu or Mopern Sexewce—Scrence AND Trape: The com- bination of ingenuity and learningp technical advances scence built on craft knowledges Italy and the first scientific societies; Holland, England, and the Royat Society; the discoveries anf? navigation; the first scientists; the Newtonian era . . Sciencr any Manuracture: The steam-engines science and evolu: tion—the Lunar Society; the great age of French sciences the pneumatic revolution and chemicgl industry; the nineteenth century—science becomes a necessity; Germany enters the fields science as an institution—the idea of pure scienge . oe Science anp Imperian Expansion: The War; collaboration of scientists; state science; the post-war period and the crisis . Science axp Soctatism . . . . CHAPTER III. THE EXISTING ORGANIZATION OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN BRITAIN University, Government and Industrial Research Restarcu in THe Universirans: Research workers; nature of research done; research in engineering; research in physics and chemistry; resarch in medial eubjeci; an unbalanced programme of research =. an é y PAGE xiii 24 29 32 35 36vi THE SOCIAL FUNCTION OF SCIENCE Pace Screwrierc’ Socterses: The Roya] Society; the British Association 4 Govemwmenrat Scienriric Reszarcu: The Department of Scientific and Industrial Researcl'—the National Physical Laboratory; fuel research; food. investigation; foret products and buildings research associations; research grants. : 42 Mrorcat Resrancu: The Medical Résearch Councils prime ine research, st 48 Acrigurroran Resrarcn 4 50 Scinrcx uv ivpusrar: expenditures chatecter of work. =. = 55 Tue Fiance or Reszarc: Endowment; government grants; administration; Treasury control; the character of research finance; the character of research expenditure =» ss 57 Tur Bupcer or Scence st CHAPTER IV. SCIENCE IN EDUCATION Preenomarintiy 5 5 9 6 6 oo pf ScumceamScrouss 0 00g og Science iw THE Universities: The lecture system; specialization; the curriculum; examinations; medical education; engineering. 75 Tue Tranmo or tHe Research Worxer: Financial difficulties; opportunites for research; the problem of geting ons the profession of research. : 82 Porurr Scene: ‘The current influence of scence; the itolaton of scence; scientifc superstition; the prevcientife attitudes the need for science and its suppression. . 86 genre V. ‘THE EFFICIENCY OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH bree aims for science psychological, rational, and social . =. 94 ‘Tan Inet or Pure Scietice: Science as escapes science and cynicism 95 ‘Tre Tecumicar Inerricencr or Science: Bad orgenizations labormtony wate of skills fle economies; slate of scent workers, , Le 8 Screntiric Inerrrures: University Inboratones; effects of enddir- ments; government laboratories. 5 ty Researce 1x Inpustry: Secrecy; lack of freedoms ced 4 107 Scientific Insrruments: Mass production; high prices 9. 9.11 Lack oF Co-orpiwation or Reseancu: Informal methods; lack of integration of different sciences; the Geroncoeracys need science” be orgaaized ? 6 6 8 : 113CONTENTS Scienriric Pustications: The burying gf published work; the cost of publications personal communication and travel . ‘Tus Evracts of Ingrricient Oxcantzation: Stience yy danger” CHAPTER VI. THE APPLICATsON OF SCIENCE ‘The interaction of science and technics; tht infiltration of scieneé int8 industry; the~ime lag in the application of science .« ‘Tue Prorrtannuivy on Sciznce: Difficulties in financidg restarch;” the conditions for practical success; the problem of scale; waste and frustration of inventions constructive and remedial applications Inpustrtat ComPEtition ap Restarch : Monopoty anp Reszarcu: Lack of incentive; obsolescence ‘Tue Sririne of Reseancn: ‘Patents i. Co-operative Inpustatat Researcu: foter- industrial competition Economic Nationatism anp Reszaxcu: Secrecy; international monopolies rn toe ea Distortion oF Inpusrriat ResEARcu « e awe sup Elina Wensaan: Technologitl vsemplapments he impossibility of plenty : CHAPTER VII. SCIENCE AND WAR * Scrence anp War in History: Gungowders artillery and the Renais~ sance; war and the Industrial Revolution; the nmeteenth century science in the Great Wars war creates state-orgenized science . War Resgarcu To-pay: What is war research ?; the mechanization of war. : Seexce ano Amwantenrs: Heavy industry; aeroplane produtins the chemical industry; explosives and poison gs. ‘ Nariowat Foo Surruizs *. 506 Tus Divension of Reszatcn 10 Wan Uses: Military research; the scent in wars totlaian war preparation; ait raid defence; 4 protection of the civil population : ae GciuwrisT races THz Promax or Wan: Scientists organize for Peace. . 8. ee CHAPTER VIII. INTERNATIONAL SCIENCE Sciexce ayo Cunruae in THE Past: Internauonal science to-day ‘Tre Prosiem or Lancvack. 5 . oe PAGE ia 120 126 131 136 138 140 149 153 155 192viii THE SOCIAL FUNCTION OF SCIENCE of ‘Tue Scienciric Wortp anv 1Ts Divisions: National characteristics inscience . 6 we 6 68 0 Screncf ivetHe Oxper Iypusrarat Counzes English science; science in pre-Dlazi Germany; science in Frances science in Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and Scandinavia; science in Austria and Czecho-Slovakiay science in Poland, Hungary, and the Balkans; science in Spain and Latin America SciencBin Tee Unrrzp Staves ¢ Scuence in THe Eagr: Science in Indias science in in Jepaniaience | Citina; science"in Islamic countries Scrence anp Fascism: Science in Fascist Ttalys Nasi science; the persecution of the Jews; the dragooning of science; all science for war; the distortion of science; science in danger Science anp Sociatism: Science in the Soviet Union; science before the Revolution; early struggles; the scale of Soviet sciences _ planning science organization; how the system works; science in “education and popular culture character of Soviet sciences dialectical materialism and science . . . . PART Ik: WHAT SCIENCE COULD DO CHAPTER IX. THE TRAINING OF THE SCIENTIST ‘Tue Reoncantzaion or Scrence: ‘The need for expansion; organiza- tion and the preservation of freedom; the recruitment of scientists; vocational selection; a wide entry into scientific research; a directing authority for entrants ©. ee Cuancic THe Tzacuinc of Scrence ¢ : Science 1 Scuoozs: A living curriculum; science se for all Scrence 1 Untvensrrizs: Research as a teaching method; science and cultures vocational teaching ?s specalnton: higher universities; research and teaching . Reviaixc THe CurnicuLum: Physics; chemistry; astronomy end geology; biology; meficine; the social sciences. PAGE 194 196 204 207 210 24t 245 246 248 252 CHAPTER X. THE REORGANIZATION OF RESEARCH First Parncretes: Science as an occupation Speciatization: The control of specialization : Lazonatorr Oncanrzation: ‘The laboratory as basic unit; co operative enterprise; the laboratory as a training centre; labora- tory democracy; the director; the administrator} the repre- sentatives the raising of money; librarian; curator; mechanic and storekeeper; laboratory council; research programmes; dangers of organization; provision for growths initiative in research; organization and freedom. foo 261 262 265Tue CONTENTS ENERAL ORGANIZATION OF SCIENCI Horizontal and vertical divisions in research; the place of the diversities; the complexity of science; schemes of interconnection. = Acapemizs: Functions; guarantees of capacity; mode Of election « Trenmico-Sciewmiric Institutes: Two-way communication be- tween sciefice and industry; the Inpustaiat Laporarorizs ano Frep Stations: "eprint ac ° of obsolescence the itfstitutes aad new production; personnél; physical and chemical sectors} biological store sociological institutes and planning tories; field stations; the character of applied esearch; the control ‘Tue Appiication oF Sctence uNDER CAPITALISM? Socilisn and the condition of the advance of science CHAPTER XI. possibilities SCIENTIFIC COMMUNICATION ‘Tue Fonction or Scientiric Puszications: Categories of publica tion units; the problem of distribution; distribution service to supersede periodicals; photostet reproduction; how’ the system would work; absicts; reports; contol of sbutesy immediate Tur InreRwaTionaL Prostext scientific language? . ‘Tre Importance oF PersonaL Contacts? Deeentaliatons a seconty Facilitation of travel Popuran Scrence: Science and the Prees; science through radio and * cinemas "books on scence; world encyclopedias poplar pe ticipation in science CHAPTER XII. Sciencr anp Economic Systems: elasticity and security ‘THE FINANCE OF SCIENCE Financial neags of science— Scsexcr 1 4 Puanven Econonrr: Determination of the budgets internal distribution; the financing of laboratories; building up science; the utilization of ability; the status of the scientific workers no external limitation of funds; optimum expenditure . Financic Science nA Carrranisr Economy: Need for greater understanding between science and industry; the endowment of science; offical objections; private benevolence; could science pay its way? economic nationalism and planned science . ‘Tar Faproox or Screce: Frustrations science needs orgesizations scientists and the people PAGE 278 280 283 286 289 292 jor 303 304 309 310 316 garTHE SOCIAL FUNCTION OF SCIENCE CHAPTER XIII, THE STRATEGY OF SCIENTIFIC ADVANCE Caw Sctence ae Praxwep?: Flexibility; advance along the lines sticking points; widening the front; consolidating advances; the importance of theory? permarient revision; balance of fund mentél.and applied researc ‘Tue Finsr Stace: A Survey oF Scrence: “The worldof naturefand ‘the world of'man; need for effective social science . . ‘Tue Prospscts or Science: Tasks left undone . Puysics: The structure of matters geophysics Comrray: Metals; reactions; the reconstruction of chemstys colloids and proteins Brovocy: Biochefaistrys biophysics; embryology; the nucleus and genetics; ecology; animal beHfaviours animal societies Socrat Science anp Psycuorocy ‘Tue Future or Science: Interactions PAGE 325 —e 331 332 335 337 34 343 CHAPTER XIV. SCIENCE IN THE SERVICE OF MAN Homan Nezps: Primary needs—physiological and social Foop: New agriculture; bacterial and chemical food 4 production distribution; cookery. Cortina: Supersession of textiles «, Housinc: New materials; internal climate; es convenience; the city of the futures town and country; planning. Hearn: Control of disease; diseases of old age and deaths popuiin control; 4 great increase under good social conditions Wor: The worker, not profit, as a prime’considerations aschney to remove, not credie, drudgery; work as pleasure . Pray: Remaking the world Propucrion: Integration of industries in a cal society Miixc: Sxpenenion of wnderground works melting —the new metals . a5 Powss Propucrion: Capital saving; new generators; power storage; the application of power; hydrodynamics—rocket Aight : Exomzerinc: Rational mechani; inteligent machinery; cv engineering . 7 Cuzaticaz Inpusray: Planning substances for needs; food production; drugs; cosmetics; wastes; new materials; new processes « 345 346 349 35° 353 356 358 359 361 363 366 367CONTENTS x PAGE ‘Transport: Air transport; comfort in, travels goods transports farther) pose bilities ees een es eee 373 Disrarzution: Food; commodities . fe hoe + 375 Comuxtcation: Elimination of designs automatism =... 376 Apministration AND ConTRo 378 Gewenat Berects of Science: Man’s major eSilss the falélmept of science or its frustration; the rejection éf utBpias; # new citiliza? ‘tionfreedomend struggles faith in Man. 379 ence eee Goer peter eg sas CHAPTER XV. SCIENCE AND SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION Soctat Conprriows anp SctENcE 385 How Science cxaxors Socirfr: Induence on produce methods; consciousness of frustration : 385 ‘Tun Sciewrivic Wonnan or To-par: Economic dependence; the tendency to conform; the scientific bent; science and religions narrowness of vision; the gerontocracy of science , 387 “Tan Scrawsier aa Cratzex: The impact of events; the crsits the Five-Year Plan; Marxism and the History of Sciences the coming of Fascism; the scientists’ reaction; preparation for war. =. 39 Sociat Consciousess: The scientist as ruler? . 397 ‘Tue Oncanizarion oF Scientists: Thegecognition of social cen bility; Associations of Scientific Workers. 398 Science anp Pouirics: Neutrality impbssble; the popular opinion of sciences science and democracy: the Popolar Brontt how the scientist can help . : ee 402 CHAPTER XVI. THE SOCIAL FUNCTION OF SCIENCE ‘Tu Major Transronmarions of History: Sociey and civilization; the Scientific Revolution«-the réle of Capitalism; the social implications of sciences the tasks of science in the transition periods preventible evils; discovery and satisfactuon of needs =. =. 408 “Science an Cutrurs.. : | at “Tus Traveronnearion ov Scusnce: The problem ‘ofthe origin of new things; dialectical materialism; the extension of rationality; the trend of the future; science as Communism . =... 42xii THE SOCIAL FUNCTION OF SCIENCE APPENDICES I. Ficurss conezaniné Uyrversities anp Screntiric Socrertes « (2) Number and Distribution of Posts between—Arts, Science, Medicine, and Technology (8) Number of Teaching Stef in different Grades, and “. Average Income (€) Number and Distribution of Advanced Students” (2) Inceme of Universities () Number of Scientists belonging to the chief Scientific Societies : 3 TL. Government Arp Reszarct * (2) Governmental Scientific Research Expedia 1937 - (2) DSLR. Expenditure. (6) Income of the Research Associations | (2) Total Government Grant and Industrial’ Contribution to the Research Associations TIL. Inpusraat Researck . (2) Namber of Large and Small Factories (8) Number of Scientific Papers from Academic, Govern ment, and Industrial Sources. . (0) Expenditure of Firms on Industrial Research TV. WaR Reszarce Exrenpituat : V. Revorr or PaRtiaMenTary Scjence ComMITTEE VI. Tue Orcanization oF Science iv France VIL. Sctence in rae USSR. VIII. Proyecr ror Screxrivic Pusiication AnD BrsuocRaPHy « IX. Report oF tue Inrennarionat Peace Camparcn Science Sup-Comanissyen at THE Brussazs ConrEREnce, 1936 X. Associations of Scientiric Workers" . 5 se (4) British (8) American Inpex CHARTS 1. ORGANIZATION oF ScrENcE 2, Trcumicat Propucrion . an 3- ORcANIZaTION oF ScrENce IN THE Sower Union 1 1937 458 461 461 464, 469 , 360 448PREFACE Tue events of the past few years have led to a critical examination of the function of science in society. It used to be believed that thé results of scientific investigatién would lead to continuous pro- gressive ishprovements in conditions of lifes but first the War and then the economic crisis have shown that science, can be used as easily for destructive and wasteful purposes, and voices have -been raised demanding thé cessation of scientific research as the only means of preserving a tolerable civilization. Scientists themselves, faced with these criticisms, have been forced to consider, effectively for the first time, how the work they are doing is connected with the social and economic developments which are occurring around them. This book is an attempt to analyse thi connection; to investigate how far scientists, individually and collectively, are responsible for this state of- affairs, and to suggest what possible steps could be taken which would lead to a fruitful and not to a destructive utilization of science. It is necessary, to begin with, to consider the social function of science not absolutely, but as something which has grown up im- perceptibly with the growth of science. Science has ceased to be the occupation of curious gentlemen or of ingenious minds supported by wealthy patrons, and has become an industry supported! by large industrial monopolies and by the State. Imperceptibly this has altered the character of science ftom an individual to a collective basis, and has enhanced the importance of apparatus and administra- tion. But as these developments have proceeded in an uncoordinated and haphazard manner, the result at the present day is a structure of appalling inefficiency both as to its internal organization and as to the means of application to problems of production or of welfare. If science is to be of full use to society it must fifst put its own house in. order. This is a task of*extraordinary difficulty, because of the danger of any organization of science destroying that originality and spontaneity which are essential to its progress. Science can never be administered as part of a civil service, but recent developments both here and abroad, particularly in the U.S.S.R., point to the possibility of combining freedom and efficiency in scientific organiza~ tion. ‘The application of science furnishes other problems. Here the tendency in the past has been almost exclusively that of directing science towards improvements in material production primarily through lowering the cost and towards the development of the iiixiv THE SOCIAL FUNCTION OF SCIENCE instrumtyts of war. This has led not only to technological unem- ployment but to an almost cqmplete neglect of those applications which would be of more immediate value to human welfare, in par- ticular to health and domestic life. The result has been an extra~ ordinary disproportion in the development of different sciences, the biological and still more the sociological sciences having been starved at the expense of the more inimediately profitable physical and chemieal scjences. . Any discussion of the application of science necessarily involves questions ef economics, and we are driven to enquire how far the various economic systems now existing or proposed can give the opportunity for the maximum application of science for human welfare. Further, economics cannot be separated from politics. The advent of Fascism, the sequence of wars now raging in the world and the universal preparations for a more general and terrible war have affected scientists not only as citizens, but also through their work. Science itself, for the first time since the Renaissance, seems in danger. ‘The scientist has begun to realize his social responsibility, but if science is to fulfil the function which its tradition demands, and to avoid the dangers which threaten it, we require an increased appreciation, both on the part of scientists and of the general public, of the intricate relations between science and contemporary life. ‘To make an analysis of modern science itself has become a task far beyond the means of a single mind; indeed, there is as yet no such survéy even in the form ofa composite work. It is even more difficult to analyse the complex relations which have grown up in the cofirse of centuries between science, industry, Government, and general culture. Such a task would need not only a general grasp of the whole of science but the techniques and the knowledge of an economist, a historian, and a sociologist. These general statements must stand in part as an excuse*for the character of this book. I am aware, and aware now far more acutely than when I began to write, of my lack of tie ability, the knowledge, or the time which it needed. As a working scientist immersed in a special field, and having besides many other duties and occupations, I could never complete even the bibliographic research which the subject demanded nor give it concentrated attention for more than a few days at a time. Accuracy both statistically and in detail sliould be a cardinal necessity in any general survey, but such accuracy is either not attainable at all owing to the scantiness of some of the records, or, owing to the superabundance and confusion of others, only obtainable with’ immense effort. No one knows, for instance, how many scientists there are in any country, except perhaps in the U.S.S.R.,PREFACE xv and how much is spent on them and by whom. What they are doing should be ascertainable, as it appears in the numbers of the thirty thousand odd scientific periodicals, but nowhere is it,possible to find how and why they do it. = In describing and criticizing the conduct of scientific work I have had to depend primarily on personal experience. This is open to a*double disadvantage: the expetience may have been unrepre- sentative or* the conclusions biassed. Ag to,the first, the, result of many conversations with scientists of every category in many fields . convinces me that much of what I have experienced can beematched almost anywhere else in‘science. As to the second, it must be frankly admitted that I am biassed. I have resented the inefficiency, the frustration and the diversion of scientific effort to base ends, and indeed it was on account of this that I came to consider the relation of science to society and to attempt this book. If in detail bias may seem to lead to harsh judgments, it cannot be denied tfat the existence, of a resentment which is widespread among scientists is itself a proof that all is not well with science. Unfortunately it is not possible in any published book to speak freely and precisely about the way science is run. The law of libel, reasons of State, and still more the unwritten code of the scientific fraternity itself forbid particular examples being held up alike for praise or blame. Charges must be general and to that degree unconvincing and lacking in substantiation. ‘Yet if the general thesis is correct, scientists will be able to supply their own examples, while non-sciegtists can check the tltimate results of science by their own experience and appreciate to what extent the thesis of this book provitles an explanation of how* this occurs. For those who have once seen it, the frustration of science is a very bitter thing, It shows itself’ as disease, enforced stupidity, misery, thankless toil, and prematureedeath for the great majority, and an anxious, grasping, and’ futile life for the remainder. Science can change all this, but only science working with those social forces which understand its functiors and which march to the same ends, ‘Against this grim but hopeful reality, the traditional piety of a pure unworldly science seems at best a phantastic escape, at worst a shameful hypocrisy. ‘That, nevertheless, is the picture that we have been taught to make of science, while the one here presented will be unfamiliar to-many and seem blasphemy to some. This book will, however, have served its purpose if it succeeds in showing that there is a problem and that on the proper relation of science and society depends the welfare of both. Tn writing this book I have had the help of more people than I can name here. I owe very much to the criticisms and suggestionsxvi THE SOCIAL FUNCTION OF SCIENCE of mj- friends and colleagues, particularly H. D. Dickinson, I. Fankuchen, Julian Huxley, Joseph Needham, John Pilley and §. Zuckerman. For much of the material, particularly the statistical material, I am-indebted to the work of Mrs. Brenda Ryerson, M. V. H. Wilkins and Dr. Ruhemann, who also contributed an appendix on science in the U.S.$.R. Finally, my special thanks are due to Miss P. S. Miller for her revision of the manuscript. BIRKBECK COLLEGE, September 1938.Parr J WHAT SCIENCE DOESCHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY Tue Cuatence 1b Sérence Wuar is the social fynction of science? A hundred orteven*fifty years ago this would have seemed a strange, almost meaningless, question even to the scientist himself, far more so to the administrator or the plain citizen. If science had any function at all, which few stopped to consider, it would have been assumed to be one of universal beneficence. Science was at once the noblest floyer of the human mind and the most promising source of material benefactions. While it might be doubted whether it furntshed as good a liberal education as the study of the classics, there could be no doubt that its practical activities were the main basis of Progress. Now we have a very different picture. The trdubles of our times seem themselves to be a consequence of that very progress. The new methods of production which science has brought into being lead to unemployment and glut without serving to relieve the poverty and want which are as widespread in the world as ever before. At the same time, the weapons devised by the application of science have made warfare a far more immediate and more terrible risk, and have diminished almost to vanishing point that pérsonal security which was one of the chief triumphs of civilization. Of course, all these evils and disharmonies cannot be blamed exclusively ‘on science, but there is no denying that they would not occur in their present form if it had pot been for science, and for that reason the value of science to civilization has been and is being called into question. As long as the results of science appeared, at least to the more respectable classes, as unmixed blessings, the social function of science was so much taken for granted as not to need examination. Now that science appears in a destructive as well as a constructive réle, its social function must be examined because its very right to exist is being challenged. ‘The scientists, and with them a number of progressively minded people, may feel that there is no case to answer and that it is only through an abuse of science that the world is in its present state. But this defence can no longer be considered to be self-evident; science must submit to examination before it can clear itself of these accusations. The Impact of Events.—The events of the last twenty years have 12 INTRODUCTORY done rhere than cause a different attitude towards science by people at large; they have profoundly changed the attitudes of scientists themselves towards science and have even entered the fabric of scientific thought,, With what appears to be a strange coincidence, the disturbing events of the Great War, the Russian revolution, the economic crisis, the rise of Fascism, and the preparation for newer and more terrible wars have been faralleled inside the field of scierice by the, greatest changes in theory and in general outlook that it has undergone in thg past three centuries. The basis of mathematics has itself been shaken by the controversies on axiomatics and logistics. The physical world of Newton and Maxwelf has been completely overturned in favour of relativity and quantum mechanics, which still remain half-understood and paradoxical theories. Biology has been revolutionized by the development of bio-chemistry and genetics. All these developments, following quickly one after another in the life- time of individual scientists, have forced them to consider, far more deeply than in preceding centuries, the fundamental basis of their beliefs. Nor have they been spared the impact of external forces. ‘The war, for scientists of all countries, meant using their knowledge for direct military’ purposes. The crisis affected them immediately, blocking scientific advance in many countries and threatening it in others. Finally, Fascism showed that even the centre of modern science could be affected by superstitions and barbarities which were thought to have been outgrown by the end of the Middle Ages. Should ‘Science be suppressed ?--~The result of all these shocks has been, not unnaturally, a state of great confusion both for the scientists themsélves and for the estimation of science. Voices have been raised—and raised in such an unexpected place as the British Associa~ tion—for the suppression of science, or at least for the suppression of the application of its discoveries. The Bishop of Ripon preaching the British Association sermon ih 1927 said: “... Dare I even suggest, at the risk of being lynched by some of my hearers, that the sum of human happiness outside scientific circles would not necessarily be reduced if for ten years every physical and chemical laboratory were closed and the patient and resourceful energy in them transferred to recovering the lost art of getting on together and finding the formula of making both ends meet in the scale of human life. . . ."—From The Times of sth September 1927, p. 15. The Revolt from Reason.—Not only have the material results of science been objected to, but the value of scientific thought itself has been called in question. Anti~intellectualism began to appear as the result of the impending difficulties of the social system towards the end of the nineteenth century, and found expression in the Philosophies of Sorelaand Bergson. Instinct and intuition came to be‘THE INTERACTION OF SCIENCE AND SOCIETY, 3 rated as more important than reason. To a certain extent if was the philosophers and the metaphysical seientists themselves that paved the way for the justification of the Fascist, ideology of baute “force under mystically inspired leadership. In the words of Mr. Woolf : “We are living through one of these periods of struggle and decivili- zation, and, the well-known symptoms of intellectual quackery can be observedyall about us invading metaphysical tRought. "The symptoms are always the same, though superficially they may differ. Rediontis de- throned as old- fashioned, and the man who asks for prapf of a fact before: he will believe it is magisterially dismissed to the bottom of the forsft and told to write out soo times: ‘I must not ask for proof.” The Meletoses accuse the Socrateses and Anaxagorases of blasphemous atheism. The Roman intellectual throws away his Lucretius and Greek philosophy in order to learn the truth about the universe revealed to Levantine magicians. Books and sometimes their authors are burned because they ask for proof or question the truth of sSmeone’s intuition about ‘the nature of the universe. The mysteries of Dionysus, the abracadabra of Isis or Osiris, the worship of the sun or a sacred” bull, the wisdom to be obtained by staring at your own navel or by making yourself sick before break- fast, the revelations to be obtained from the legs of tables or ectoplasm are some of the methods which at such periods havé proved efficacious for penetrating the nature of the universe and of God or the Absolute. ‘The intensity of a man’s belief having been adopted as the measure of truth, the ignoble creature who still tries, to use his reason, and is feeble enough to admit that he does not know what will happen to him when he dies, or why billions of stars are faming through space, or whether his spaniel has an immortal soul, or why‘there is evil in the world, or what the Almighty was doing before he crested the universe, and what be will be doing after the universe has come to an end—the stupid creature is hardly admitted into the society of intelligent men and decent philo~ sophers."—Quack Quack, p. 166. (1) ‘This mysticism and abandonment of rational thought is not only 2 sign of popular or political digquiets it penetrates far into the structure of science itself. The working scientist may, repudiate it as firmly as ever, but scientific theosies particularly those metaphysical and mystical theories which touch on the universe at large or the nature of life, which had been laughed out of court in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, are attempting to win their way back into scientific acceptance. ‘Tue Interaction or Science anp Society We can no longer be blind to the fact that science is both affecting and being affected by the social changes of our time, but in order to make this awareness in any way effective, the interaction of the two needs to be analysed far more closely than has yet been done. Before beginning this analysis, which is the main task of the book,4 INTRODUCTORY it is useful to consider the types of attitude now current as to what science is or ought to be. There are here two sharply distinct points of view «which might be called the ideal and the realist pictures of science. In the first picture science appears as concerned only with the discovery and contemplation of truth; its function, as distinct from that of mythical cosmologies, is to build up a world picture that fits the facts of exferience. If it is also of practical utility, so much thé better, as long‘as its true purpose is not lost. In the second picture utility predominates; truth appears as a means for useful action and can Be testéd only by such action. . Science as puré Thought.—These two views are extremes: each admits of a number of variations and there is considerable common ground between the two of them. Those who hold the first view would not admit that science has any practical social function, or would allow at post that the social function of science is a relatively Gnimportant and subordinate one. The most usual justification which they would give for science is that it is an end in itself, a pursuit of pure knowledge for its own sake. ‘This attitude has played a great and not altogether happy part in the history of science. It was a dominating view in classical times, and was expressed very finely in the words of Plato: “The question is, whether the larger and more advanced part of the study tends at all to facilitate our contemplation of the essential Form of Good., Now, according to us, this is the tendency of everything that compels the soul to transfer itself to that region in which is contained the most blissful part of that real existence, which it is of the highest im- portance for it to behold.” Republic, Book VII. (2) In its modern form this attitude towards science is not pressed as the sole, but as the main, justification of science. Science is taken as one means of finding the answer to the deepest questions which men may ask about the origin of the universe or of life, of death and the survival of the oul. The use of science for this purpose is paradoxical; what science “‘cannot” know rather than what it has established is made the basis of affirmations about the universe. Science cannot tell how the universe was made; therefore it must have been made by an intelligent creator. Science cannot synthesize life; therefore the origin of life is a miracle. The very indeter- minacy of quantum mechanics is made an argument for human free will. In this way, modern science is being made an ally of ancient religion, and even to a large extent a substitute for it. Through the work of Jeans, Eddington, Whitehead and J. S. Haldane, assisted by the Bishop of Birmingham and Dean Inge, a new scientific mythical religion is being built up, based on the idea of a continuous creation of absolute valuet'in an evolutionary process culminating in man.THE INTERACTION OF SCIENCE AND SOCIETY | 5 There is no doubt that this apologetic use of science is onté of its social functions in present society, but it cannot provide any justifica- tion of science as such, since equally satisfactory and equally unprovable solutions to cosmic problems can be found by the aid of simple intuition, Actually the use of science in modernist religion is an implicit admission of its importance jn general culture. No religious views could expect to hold their own in cuftured circles unless they were at least phrased in scientific termindlogy, and did not