CHAPTER THREE

ASSESSING STUDENTS FOR INSTRUCTION

Assessing Students for Instruction

* The basic goal of assessment practices is to collect data to determine the
effectiveness of instruction so that appropriate instructional modifications can be
made.

* To aid instructional programming, assessment should provide information in two

areas.
* First, information is needed to help the teacher select what to teach the
individual student.
* Second, information is needed to help the teacher determine how to teach
the student.

Formal and Informal Evaluation

* Categorized according to four specific assessment purposes:
* Screening
* Diagnosis
* Progress monitoring
* Evaluating student outcomes

Individualized Programming
* Individualized programming refers to an instructional program that enables the
student to work on appropriate tasks or content over time under conditions that
motivate.
* Seatwork
* Small groups
* Peer teaching
* Large groups

*The teacher matches the learner, the task, and instructional interventions to
ensure optimal student growth.
* RTI (Response to Intervention)

Response to Intervention
* Response to intervention (RTI) models have received substantial attention since
the reauthorization of IDEA in 2004. The law states that a local education agency
is not required to use discrepancy formulae to identify a student with a learning
disability, but may use, instead, a process that determines if the student responds
to interventions that typically are effective (i.e., scientifically based methods and
strategies) (Mercer & Pullen, 2009).
 * Tier 1 includes quality instruction in the general education classroom.
* Tier 2 is designed to provide more intensive support and ongoing progress
monitoring.
* General education classroom teacher provides instruction in a small-group
setting.
* In Tier 3, students receive intensive intervention, often in a one-on-one format.

Four Steps of Individualized Programming

* Assess to identify target skill or content
● Determine score and sequence of skills or content to be taught, task analysis,
enabling behaviors, temporal levels, developmental sequence
● Decide what behavior to assess
● Select an evaluation activity
● Administer the evaluation device
* Determine factors likely to facilitate learning
* Plan instruction
* Begin daily data-managed instruction
● Repeating the same instructions
● Modifying the instructional procedures
● introducing a new teaching strategy
● Changing to an easier task

Stages of Learning
* Acquisition Stage- learner performance ranges from 0% accuracy to a 90%-
100% accuracy. Instructional goals focus on helping students perform skill
accurately. (physical guidance, shaping, demonstration)
* Proficiency Stage- learner attempts to learn skill at an almost automatic level to
perform skill accurately and quickly (goal setting, teacher expectations, rationales
for increasing rate)
* Maintenance Stage- goal is to maintain a high level of performance. Expected to
retain both accuracy and fluency with the skill once instruction has been removed.
(overlearning, mnemonic techniques, social reinforcement)
* Generalization Stage- learner performs skill in different times and situations.
Student demonstrates proficiency in skill in different settings (acquisition,
proficiency, maintenance are prerequisites)
* Adaption Stage- learner applies previously learned skill in new area of
application without direct instruction/guidance (problem solving)

Monitoring Student Performance for Determining What to Teach

* Data-based instruction, a major principle of RTI

* Curriculum-based assessment (CBA)

* Curriculum-based measurement (CBM)

Curriculum-Based Assessment
* CBA refers to any approach that uses direct observation and recording of a
student’s performance in the school curriculum as a basis for obtaining information
to make instructional decisions (Deno, 1987).

Using Curriculum-Based Measurement

* CBM is used to establish performance standards, measures are developed from
the school curriculum and administered to all the students in a target group (e.g.,
all fourth graders in a school or district).

* Components:
* material selection
* test administration
* performance display and interpretation
* decision-making framework (Tindal & Marston, 1990).

Test Administration
* Administration procedures include using standardized formats and scoring
performance in terms of rate correct per minute.

* Sample reading administration format:

* Randomly select a passage from the goal-level material.
* Place it in front of and facing the student.
* Keep a copy for the examiner.
* Provide directions.
* Have the student read orally for 1 minute.
* Score the student’s performance in terms of number of words read correctly,
and note errors for instructional purposes.

**It is helpful to administer two or three passages and record the average score.

Individually Referenced Data Systems

* Direct Measurement
* Focuses on relevant classroom behaviors (e.g., oral reading rate or math
computation rate).
* Repeated Measurement
* Requires that a behavior be counted and recorded over a period of time.
 Observational Recording Techniques
* event recording- record each observed occurrence of a behavior (count number
of times a student finished assignments over a 5 day period)

* interval recording- divide specified observation period into equal intervals that
are 30 secs or less. Record whether the behavior occurred (+) or not (-) during
the interval. (record if student was ‘attending’ to seatwork material during the
interval)

* time sampling, divide observation period into intervals. Observe at the END of
interval and record if behavior occurred or not. (record whether a student
was/wasn’t ‘on task’ at the END of every 5 minutes during a 40 minute period.)

*duration recording- record amount of time a student is engaged in activity

during observation period. Turn the stopwatch on when activity starts and turn off
when activity ends. (record amount of engagement during a math assignment)

* latency recording - record time it takes for a student to begin an activity once
antecedent stimulus has been provided. Turn the stopwatch on after the signal
and turn off after the student starts activity. (record time it took for student to get
their reading book and joint group after being instructed)

*anecdotal recording- record behaviors of students during a time period. (record

behaviors during a science lab)

* permanent product recording- collect assignments and provide feedback for

correct/incorrect responses. (collect spelling papers and return with percentage
correct)

Graphing Data
* Creating a visual display so that raw data can be analyzed
* line graph, bar graph, ratio graph

* Kerr and Nelson (2010) report that graphs serve three important purposes:
* (1) they summarize data in a manner that leads to daily decision making,
* (2) they communicate intervention effects, and
* (3) they provide feedback and reinforcement to the learner and teacher.
* Data must be converted into a form that allows for consistent graphing.
Basically, this involves reporting three types of data:
* number correct
* percentage (the number of correct responses divided by the total number of
responses and then multiplied by 100)
* or rate (the number correct divided by the time).
 Individually Referenced Data Systems
* Direct measurement- an important feature of data-based instruction is emphasis
on direct, continuous, and precise measurement of behavior. Entails focusing on
relevant classroom behaviors (oral reading rate or math computation rate)
* Repeated measurement- requires that behavior is counted and recorded over a
period of time. When more than one performance is recorded, the teacher can tell
whether the student is progressing or not. (record session by session, daily,
weekly, biweekly, or monthly)

* Graphing data- for data to be useful, information must be displayed in easy to

ready format. Create a visual display so raw data can be analyzed. Graphing is the
most common method of presenting data. (line graphs, bar graphs, ratio graph)

* Long-range goal performance monitoring, display progress toward long range

instructional goal. Measurement occurs twice weekly from a random sample of a
pool of items that measure skill. (CBM procedure)

*Short-range goal performance monitoring, used to monitor progress on

successive short term goals. When a student masters a short term goal, a new
goal is established and monitoring continues. (mastery monitoring chart)

* Data analysis- instructional aims/goals provide students and teachers with a

framework to analyze data and evaluate progress. Analysis is enhanced when it is
charted to display both baseline data and intervention data. This helps the teacher
make accurate decisions about teaching strategies. (looking at data, determine
goal level)

* Instructional decisions- combination of CBM, and use of teacher self-monitoring

procedure to guide teachers in analyzing student progress and instructional plan
enhances teacher’s discussion for instructional changes for their student. (refer to
data on their level of performance, the rate of change, the inconsistency of
performance, and look at commonalities).

Monitoring Student Performance

* Instruction is most successful when:
* The teacher initially counts only priority behaviors.
* The teacher identifies strategies to facilitate timing and recording behaviors.
* The teacher evaluates the recorded data frequently.
* The teacher uses probes or curriculum-referenced testing.
* The system remains a tool for teaching rather than a “cause” and is only
used as long as it helps the student.

Strategies to Facilitate Timing and Recording Behaviors

* The teacher can take group timings, especially on written activities. Some
teachers, for example, time 1-minute handwriting samples, 1-minute math fact
sheets, and 1-minute spelling activities.
* Students can record time stopped and started. This can be done easily with a
rubber stamp of a clock on the students’ worksheets.
* A kitchen timer or prerecorded tape can be used to time sessions.
* Students can work together and time and record data for one another. This
works well with flash-card drills.
* Students can read into a tape recorder or computer to create an audio file.
Teachers later can document correct and error rates for either samples of behavior
or the total session.
* Mechanical counters can be used. Single-and dual-tally counters as well as beads
and golf score counters are available.
* Counting should be done for a fixed period of time each day. Counting for
different intervals confuses the data pattern because such factors as endurance,
boredom, and latency of response may enter into the data analysis.
* One-minute timings can be used because they are easy to chart and no rate
plotter is necessary.
* Aides, peers, student teachers, and volunteers can be trained to help develop
materials and to count and record behaviors.

Assessment for Determining

How to Teach
* Formats: ABC stands for antecedent behavior consequences
* Systematic observation- important to record more than a specific behavior.
Observe antecedent and consequent events as well. (select behavior to
observe, select method of recording behavior, record frequency, describe
conditions of observation)

* Formal assessment- are administered only once and repeated observations

are needed to analyze the effects of various factors on behavior (tests and
quizzes)

* Criterion tests- primarily assess what to teach. Also are useful in determining
how to teach. (give criterion test on spelling to compare student’s
performances and make decision on effectiveness)

* Rating scale- series of statements or questions that require judgment about

degree or frequency of behavior or characteristics. (scale of 1-5)

* Numerical scale- has the individual select a number that best describes them
(1. Always, 2. Often, 3. Occasionally, 4. Rarely, 5. Almost never)
* Graphic scale- individuals selects place on the line that best described them.
 (Always Often Occasionally Rarely Almost never)

* Charting- a student’s daily performance on a probe sheet is recorded on a

graph. This provides a measure of student progress over time. (creates a
seating arrangement and see if the student makes progress based off of
where they are sitting)

* Alternative assessment- represents some changes in what is assessed and

how that assessment takes place. (student has to give an oral report on a
topic instead of writing about it)

Assessment Areas for Determining How to Teach

* The first step in determining how to teach is to identify the major areas of
assessment.
* expectation factors- refers to an individual’s orientation to learning situation.
2 types of generalized expectations are recognized: expectation of
consequence, and whether a person perceives a situation as being similar to
past situations. (learner expectations, teacher expectations, peer
expectations, parental expectation)

* stimulus events- antecedent events include an array of materials,

instructional methods, and classroom settings that set stage for student to
respond. (physical setting, instructional arrangements/techniques/materials).

* response factors- tasks usually require students to make a motor/verbal

response. Selecting the type of response for an instructional activity can be
crucial in the activity’s design. (pointing, making gestures, writing)

* subsequent events- consequences influence behavior and can be used to

motivate students and manage their behavior. To use consequent events
most effectively, the teacher must consider timing, amount, and ratio of
reinforcement. (social praise, special activities, awards, tokens, tangible
objects)
Expectation Factors
* Expectation refers to an individual’s orientation to the learning situation
* Learner Expectations
* Teacher Expectations
* Peer Expectations
* Parental Expectations
Stimulus Events
* Stimulus (or antecedent) events include an array of materials, instructional
methods, and classroom settings that set the stage for the student to respond.
* Physical setting
* Instructional Arrangements, Techniques, and Materials  
 *
Response Factors
* Tasks usually require students to make a motor or verbal response, or both.
* Selecting the type of response (such as pointing, making gestures, or writing) for
an instructional activity can be crucial in the activity’s design.
* Response time also deserves attention.
Subsequent Events
* Consequences greatly influence behavior and can be used to motivate students
and manage their behavior.
* Some positive consequences frequently used to reinforce, and thus influence,
student behavior:
* Social praise
* special activities and privileges
* evaluation marks
* positive physical expression
* awards, tokens, and tangible objects

Grading
* Results of a national survey of classroom grading practices of general education
teachers indicate that teachers find certain grading adaptations (such as pass/fail
grades, portfolios, multiple grades, and grading for effort) to be helpful for
students both with and without disabilities (Bursuck et al., 1996).
* The following types of grading alternatives have been used to accommodate the
special needs of students in inclusion classes (DeBoer, 1994; Salend, 2008; Wood,
2006):

* Individualized educational program grading approach- determines grades on

basis of student’s progress on goals and objectives specified on IEP.

* Pass/fail systems- establishes criteria for passing or failing. (achievement of

minimum course work earns a P grade, failure to achieve minimum results in
F grade)

* Mastery level/criterion systems- mastery is achieved when a student reaches

criterion level on specified subcomponent. (sequence: pretest, instruction,
posttest)

* Point systems- points are assigned to various activities. Point totals students
earn correspond to specific grades, and minimum number of points are
 needed to pass.

* Contract grading- teacher and student sign a contract that specifies the work
to be completed, how grade is determined, and timeline for completion.
(student and teacher sign contract for how math homework will be done and
how it will be graded)

* Multiple grading- teacher grades student in several areas including ability,

effort, and achievement. Ability grade is based on student’s progress. Effort
is grades on time and energy. Achievement respects mastery of material to a
specified criterion. (used for tests, quizzes, projects, homework, and
participation)

* Shared grading- two or more teachers work together to teach a student they
collaborate to assign a grade. Grade is based on observations of progress
according to established guidelines. (between special education teachers,
Title 1, or general ed teachers)

* Student self-comparison- teachers and students meet to determine

appropriate instructional goals within curriculum. Progress is monitored by
students and teachers and grade is assigned according to amount of
progress.

* Level grading- grading is individualized by using a subscripted to note level

of difficulty on which students’ grades are based. (grade B indicated B-range
work, 1 2 or 3 indicate difficulty level B1 means B work on above grade level
material)

* Descriptive grading- teachers write descriptive comments regarding student’s

performance (attitude, effort, learning preferences) (student portfolios)

Guidelines for Developing an Effective Grading System

* Determine grades on the basis of course objectives
* Use multiple evaluation methods
* Teach students to understand the grading system
* Monitor the performance of students frequently and give feedback
* Remember that an effective grading system is a motivational tool
* Determine whether district-wide grading procedures exist
* Use alternative grading systems for students with learning problems.

Testing Modifications for Teacher-Made Tests Standardized Tests

Accommodations, Modifications, Adaptations
* Presentation format—Braille editions of test, use of magnifying equipment, large-
print edition of test, oral reading of directions, signing of directions, and
interpretation of directions

*Setting of test—alone in a test carrel, with small groups, at home, and in special
education class

* Response format—mark response in test book, use template for responding,

point to response, give response orally, give response in sign language, use
typewriter for responding, use computer for responding, and receive assistance
and interpretation with responses

* Timing of test—extended time, more breaks during testing, and extending

testing sessions over several days

Recordkeeping
* BENEFITS:
* Students often enjoy participating in recording their progress.
* Teachers can gain satisfaction from having documented student progress.
* Teachers can target learning difficulties and make timely interventions.
* Teachers can share the progress of students with parents, principals, and
other school personnel.
* The data can be used to help make program and placement decisions.