Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors 1.

Nature of the learning process The learning of a complex subject

matter is most effective when It is an intentional process of contructing meaning from information and
experience.

There are different types of learning processes: for example, habit

formation in motor learning and learning that involves the generation

of knowledge u cognitive skills and learning strategies

Learning a schools emphasizes the use of intentional posses that

students can use to construct meaning from informatica, capricus

and their own thoughts and beliefs,

Sucedid learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating and assum

personal responsibility for contributing to their own leaming

2. Goals of the learning process

The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional

guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of

The strategic nature of learning requires students so be praldicomed

Ta constant uglel representations of knowledge so inquire the thinking and learning strategies necessary
for continued learning success run the life span, students must generate and pursue personally relevant
goals. Initially, students' short-term goals and

learning may be sketchy in an area, but over time their understanding

cm be refined by filling gas, olving inconsistacies and decocaing their understanding of the subject
matter sa that they can reach longer-term goals dusussist learners in creating meaningful leaming goals
that are asistent with boils personal and edil spirions and

3. Construction of knowledge

The successful learner can link new information with existing

knowledge in meaningful ways.

Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build

links between new information and vaputicoees win their existing

owledge base. The nature of those links can take a variety of form,

such as adding to, modifying, or reorganizing existing knowledge or

skills. How these links me made or developed may vary in different

subject areas, end among students with varying talents, interes and

abilities. However, unless new knowledge bemes integnited with

the learner's prior knowledge and understanding, this new knowledge

remains isolated, cannot be used most effectively in new tasks and

does not transfer readily to new simations.

Educators can assist mors in acquiring and rating

wowledge

by oubor of strategies that have been shown to be effective with leuren of varying abilities, such as
concept maging and thei organization or categorizing,

4. Strategic thinking The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and running
strategies to achieve complex learning goal Successful learners use strategic thinking in their appach to
Jenming reasoning, problem solving and concept learning. They understand and can use a variety of
strategies to help them reach learning and performance goals, and to apply their knowledg They also
continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by effecting on the methods they use to see which
work well for them, by receiving guided instruction and feedback, and by observing o isracting with
appropriale models. Learning outcomes con bo enhanced if educators assis: learners in

12 eloping, applying and assessing their strategic learning skills.

5. Thinking about thinking

Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental

operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.

Successful leamers can reflect on how they think and loam, set
reasonable learning or performance goals; select potentially appropriate

leaming strategic or methods, and monitor their progress toward these

In addition, successful learner's know what we do if a problem occurs

if they are not making sufficient or timely progress toward it

goal They can generate slternative methods to reach their goal (or russess the appropriatimess and
utility of the goal). Instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop these higher order
toothoognitive) strategies can enhance student learning 13 and personal responsibility for leaming

6. Context of learning

Learning in influenced by environmental factors, including

cine, technology and instructional practices.

Lemming does not occur in a vacuum Teachers play a major interactive

role with both the learner and the learning environment,

led or group influences on students en impact many educationally

levant variables, such as motivation, orientation toward learning and

ways of thinking.

Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for

leumers' level of prior knowledge, cognitive abilities and their lessing

and thinking strategies.

The classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it is turing or cot, can also have significant
impacts on student learning 14 Motivational and Affective Fectors 7. Motivational and emotional
inuener un learning What and how much is turned to influenced by the hear on to learn, to see is influed
by the indus sta helief interests and goals, and hub of thinking

The l world we thaughne, beliefs, goal and expetitione

ss or use contace or union with the lasmar'r qual

of thinking and Informatics prog

Srudens belles alem volvo Learners and the nature of

learning have a marked i motivation. Motivational umi

emotional factors also influence both the quality of thinking and

Information processing as well as an individual's motivazion Positive wine, such as curiosity, generally
enhance metrics, and facttars learning and perience. Mild anxay can locate caring and performance by
focusing the eare's fecies on particular tack. However, inteuse negative emolom (gasty, punje, rage,
inity) and related rangan (.p. worrying abou shoutre, fearing shment, ridicule, or stigmatizing Inbein
perrally detract from motivace, interfere with

leming, and mribute to Wu petorace.

Intrinsic merivation to earn The learns creedtety, wigher order thinking, and natural carlost all
contribute to motivation in fearn. Intimate motivatin It by ash of optimal nevelty and difficulty, relevant
to personal interests, and preventing for persunt choice and control Curiosity, deble stanghal dunking,
and ervativity are mater

dicators of les moition to learn, which in

lurge puri action of mening binde needs in be pand

Inele motivation is citituted on luaka that izama percave

intering and personally relevant and cuminpful, approrials in complexity and diffenty in the les utilities,
and am which they Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated in task that are congonhite o real-world
situations and meet needs for chence and col

Educators con coccomge and support Jones' aurul curiony und

bctivation to learn by ading to divide differences in len

16perceptions of optimal sovelty and difficulty, relevance, and penal

choice and control. 9. Effects of motivation on effort

Acquisition of complex knowledge skills requires extended

learner effort and guided practice. Without learners motivation to

learn, the willing to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.

E is ether major indicator of motivation to learn. The

acquisition of complex knowledge and skills demands the investiment

of considerable learner energy and strategic effort, along with

pemistence aver time

Educators need to be camerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that enhance Journer effort
and commitment to learning and to achieving high standards of comprehension and understanding Etive
strategies include purposeful learning activities, guided by practices that enhance positive emotions and
latrinae motivation to arn, and methods that increase learners' perceptions that a task is 17sting and
personally relevant. Developmental and Social Factors

Are mere fries and

Drengslen of daytime-ch kyk in cox a

inly remaal nodig, and the

atch and in a here the da

dren wit and with consequal, physival intellectual

18

11. Social influences on learning Learning in influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relatio and
communication with others. ⚫sting can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity

interact and to collaborate with others on instructional tasks.

Learning settings that allow for social interactions and that reser
19

diversity emerge flexible thinking and social competence.

In intensive and collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have

opportunity for perspective taking and redesive dicking dat musy

lead to higher levels of cognitive, social and mond depenent, w

well as self-esteem,

Quality personal relationships that provide stability, trast and caring

can increase learners' sense of belonging, self-respect and self

acceptance, and provide a poctivé climate for learning

Family influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in

self motivation strategis can offset facters that interfere with optimal

learning such as negative beliefs about competence in a particular

subject, high levels of test anxiety, negative sex rate expectations, and

oduc pressure to perform well.

Positive learning climates can also belp to establish the context for
healthier levels of thinking, feeling and having. Such contexts help:

20mers feel safe to share ideas, actively participate in the min

boss, and create a losing community

dividual Diffarances Factor

2. Idividual difpence in teac

Lerners have genul musiques, approacher and captains for inning action of experience and hervic Trials
are ham wit and develop ir own spahimes and In scenen, pl lemming and solue Huron, they have
acquired the nwn prefe.caves fr how they to to lear and the at which they wa Howe, always Bus
netelpamine ei luming proces

and epsodify them, if netais

The action huwen Tunc diferenous und richt

Seviremmental conditions in another key factor affect earning Educabies and to ce scalive to individual
feces, in al They alreed to almoorer parceus of the deg

21 which copied unit cepted by varying nalrational whore zudu

13. Learning and diversity Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguist cultural and
social hackgrounds are taken into account.

The same basic principles of learning, motivation and effective instruction apply to all leamers. However,
longangs, ethnicity, race, bclics and socioeconomic status all van influence leaming. Careful attention to
these factors in the instructional setting enhances the
possibilities for designing and implementing appropriate environments. When learners perceive that
their individual differences in abilities.

learning

beckgrounds, cultures and experiences are valued, respected and

22

Sure and ment

Sening appropriately high and challenging undards and

ning the leger as tus ruruie programs including

gerade assentare integral parts of the Konkles ingreat foon uit the leer and Eve leaming lases pack when
lants apply in poate sure, of heter thewa, as well as cerere knowledge and ills, is not for the velen of coal
mi f degree of limetty Ongoing acrament of trondinstanding of the lar Level back both lee and mathe

and the king

peel of tons men te win

andre avulst one of one ste Per mens as provide the arces of in about act of wring spiest skills and anal
anal kumi Alexander and Murs gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled them into five seas: I.
The knowledge base, One's existing knowledge serves

23
Foundation of all future learning. The leamsar's previ

kuwwledge will influence new lesing specifically on how h

represents new inition, makes ssociations and floors w

experiences.

2. Strategic processing and control. Las com develop skills to refect and regulate their Doughts and
behaviers in order to lo mere effectively (metacognition. 3. Motivation and affect Factors such as
intrinsic motivation (feer within), reasons for wanting to learn, personal goals and njoyment of learning
tasks all have a mis role in the learning 4. Development and Individual Differences. Learning is unique

Joey for each person casa cach leamer has his own

combination of genetic and enronmental factors that influence

24 Situation ur cuntext. Learning happens in the context of

society as well as within an individual.