RTEP 1: IMAGE PRODUCTION

AND EVALUATION (PT.3)

Prepared by: Leandro O. Dayao Jr., RRT
Radiographic Quality

• Refers to the fidelity with which

the anatomical structures being
examined are imaged on the
radiograph.
• Three main factors:
• Film Factors
• Geometric Factors
• Subject Factors
RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY
Characteristics of Radiographic Quality

• Resolution - ability to image two

separate objects and visually distinguish
one from the other.
• Spatial Resolution
• Contrast Resolution
• Noise
• Artifacts
Spatial Resolution
• Refers to the ability to image small
objects that have high subject contrast
(ex. bone-soft tissue interface, a breast
microcalcification, or a calcified lung
nodule)

• Conventional Radiology has excellent

spatial resolution

• Increases when there is decreased:

• Screen blur
• Motion blur
• Geometric blur
Contrast Resolution
• The ability to distinguish
structures with similar subject
contrast such as liver-spleen,
fat-muscle

• CT and MRI have excellent

contrast resolution
Noise
• is an undesirable fluctuation in
optical density of the image
• Lower noise results in a better
radiographic image because it
improves contrast resolution
• Two major types:
• Film graininess
• uncontrolled by RT
• Quantum mottle
• controlled by RT
Film Graininess
• Refers to the distribution in size and space of
the silver halide crystals in the film emulsion

• Similar to structure mottle that refers to the size

and shape of the phosphors of the radiographic
intensifying screens

• Contribute very little to radiographic noise

• Uncontrolled by RT
Quantum Mottle
• Refers to the random nature by which x-
rays interact with the image receptor

• Principal contributor to radiographic noise

• Image produced with few x-rays will have

higher QM than images produced from
large number of x-rays, use of very fast
intensifying screens also results in
increased QM

• The use of high mAs, low kVp, and slow

image receptors reduces quantum mottle
Speed
• Resolution and noise are
intimately connected with
speed

• While the speed of the

image receptor is not
apparent on the image, it
influences both resolution
and noise.
Radiographic Quality Rules
• Fast IR’s = Low Spatial and Contrast Resolution; High Noise

• Slow IR’s = High Spatial and Contrast Resolution; Low Noise

• Low noise accompanies slow IR’s with high spatial and contrast
resolution
Film Factors of Quality
• Characteristic Curve
• Density
• Contrast
• Latitude

• Processing
• Time
• Temperature
Sensitometry
• A study of the relationship b/n the
intensity of the exposure of the film
and the blackness after the film is
processed.
• Two principles involved:
• Exposure of the film
• The percentage of light transmitted
through the processed film
Characteristic Curve
• The graphic
relationship between
OD and radiation
exposure

• Also termed as H & D

curve (Hurter and
Driffield)
Parts of Characteristic Curve
• Toe
• Low exposure level

• Shoulder
• High exposure level

• Straight-line
• Intermediate region in which a
properly exposed radiograph
appears.
• Area where very small changes in
exposure results in large changes in
density
Optical Density
• a measure of the degree of
film darkening
• Formula:
• OD = log10 I o / I t
• I o = level of light incident on a
processed film
• I t = level of light transmitted
through the film
Optical Density Range
• The optical density range is from 0.0 to 4.0
corresponding to clear and absolute black
respectively.
• Useful range in general radiography is from 0.25 to
2.5
• Most radiographs, however show image patterns in
the range of 0.5 - 1.25 OD
Fog Density and Base Density
• Unexposed films = 0.1 OD ; 79% x-ray transmission
• Exposed films = 0.3 OD ; 50% x-ray transmission

• Base Density
• Inherent in the base of the film due to the composition of
the base and the tint added to it.
• Approx. 0.1

• Fog Density
• Results from inadvertent exposure of film during storage,
undesirable chemical contamination, improper processing,
a a number of other influences.
• Should not exceed to 0.1
Base plus Fog Density
• Range is from 0.1 to 0.3
• Should be never above 0.3
• Most is 0.21 OD
Contrast
• The variations in the
OD in the radiograph
• Marked Differences in
OD = High Contrast
radiograph
• OD differences are
small = Low Contrast
radiograph
GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES
RTEP
IMAGE PRODUCTION AND
EVALUATION (IPE)
Prepared by: Leandro O. Dayao Jr., RRT

Topics:
- Processing of the Latent Image
- Automatic Processor
- Image Artifacts
FILM PROCESSING
FILM PROCESSING

Steps of Film Processing

STEP PURPOSE Manual P. Automatic P.
(time) (time)
WETTING Swells the emulsion for better 15 s -
chemical penetration
DEVELOPING Produces a visible image from 5 mins 22 s
the latent image
STOP BATH Terminates development and 30 s -
removes excess chemicals from
the emulsion

FIXING Removes remaining silver 15 mins 22 s

halide crystals and hardens the
emulsion
WASHING Removes excess chemicals 20 mins 20 s

DRYING Removes excess water and 30 mins 26 s

prepares radiograph for viewing
FILM PROCESSING
FILM PROCESSING

• First automatic processor

was introduced in 1942 by
Pako
• Process 120 films/hr
• Total cycle time for
processing one film was
approximately 40 minutes
FILM PROCESSING

• Produced by the Eastman

Kodak Company (1956)
• Used roller to transport a film
through development
• About 10 feet long
• In today’s dollars cost was
$350,000.
FILM PROCESSING

• In 1965, Eastman Kodak Company introduced the

90-second processor (standard processor)
• Capacity of 215 films/hr
• In 1987, Konica introduced the 45-second
automatic film processor
• Requires special films and chemicals
• Todays processors are available with processing
times from 45 s - 2 mins
FILM PROCESSING
FILM PROCESSING

Components of the Developer

COMPONENT CHEMICAL FUNCTION
Developing Agent Phenidone Reducing agent; produces shades of gray rapidly

Hydroquinone Reducing agent; produces black tones slowly

Activator Sodium Carbonate Helps swell gelatin; produces alkanity; controls pH

Restrainer Potassium Antifog agent; protects unexposed crystals from

bromide chemical attack
Preservative Sodium sulfite Controls oxidation; maintains balance among
developer components
Hardener Glutaraldehyde Controls emulsion swelling and enhances archival
quality
Sequestering Agent Chelates Removes metallic impurities; stabilizes developing
agent
Solvent Water Dissolves chemicals for use
FILM PROCESSING
FILM PROCESSING
FILM PROCESSING
FILM PROCESSING

Components of the Fixer

COMPONENT CHEMICAL FUNCTION

Activator Aceti Acid Neutralizes the developer and stops its action

Fixing Agent Ammonium thiosulfate Removes undeveloped silver bromine from

emulsion
Hardener Potassium alum Stiffens and shrinks emulsion

Preservative Sodium sulfide Maintains chemical balance

Buffer Acetate Maintains proper pH

Sequestering Agent Boric acids/ salts Removes aluminum ions

Solvent Water Dissolves other components

FILM PROCESSING
FILM PROCESSING

• In automatic processing, the

temperature of the wash water
should be maintained at
approximately 3 degrees
Celsius (5 degrees F) below
the developer temperature.
FILM PROCESSING
FILM PROCESSING
FILM PROCESSING

Automatic Processor
Principal Components:
• Transport System
• Temperature Control System
• Circulation System
• Replenishment System
• Dryer System
FILM PROCESSING
FILM PROCESSING
FILM PROCESSING
FILM PROCESSING
FILM PROCESSING
FILM PROCESSING
FILM PROCESSING
FILM PROCESSING
IMAGE ARTIFACTS

Radiographic Artifacts
• Any appearance/ opacity on a
radiograph which doesn’t represents
an actual anatomic structure within
the patient being radiographed.

• Degrades quality of radiograph and

affect interpretation

• Can lead to misrepresentations of

an actual anatomic structure.
IMAGE ARTIFACTS

TYPES OF ARTIFACTS IN RADIOGRAPHS

A. EXPOSURE ARTIFACTS

B. PROCESSING ARTIFACTS

C. HANDLING AND STORAGE ARTIFACTS

IMAGE ARTIFACTS

A. EXPOSURE ARTIFACTS
IMAGE ARTIFACTS
IMAGE ARTIFACTS
IMAGE ARTIFACTS
IMAGE ARTIFACTS
IMAGE ARTIFACTS
IMAGE ARTIFACTS
IMAGE ARTIFACTS
IMAGE ARTIFACTS
IMAGE ARTIFACTS

B. PROCESSING ARTIFACTS
IMAGE ARTIFACTS
IMAGE ARTIFACTS
IMAGE ARTIFACTS
IMAGE ARTIFACTS
FILM PROCESSING

Cause:
• Improper position or
springing of guideshoes in
turnaround assembly
FILM PROCESSING

PI LINES
Cause:
• Dirt or chemical stains on
rollers
FILM PROCESSING

Cause:
• Inadequate washing
FILM PROCESSING

C. HANDLING AND STORAGE ARTIFACTS

IMAGE ARTIFACTS
IMAGE ARTIFACTS
IMAGE ARTIFACTS
IMAGE ARTIFACTS
IMAGE ARTIFACTS
IMAGE ARTIFACTS

END
RTEP
PART 3: IMAGE PRODUCTION
AND EVALUATION (IPE)
By: Leandro O. Dayao Jr., RRT

Topics:
• Radiographic Film
• Radiographic Intensifying Screens
• Formation of the Latent Image
IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION

X-RAY TUBE

PRIMARY X-RAYS

PATIENT

REMNANT X-RAYS

INTENSIFYING SCREEN

RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM

Radiographic Film

• Similar in construction and

characteristics to a
photographic film
• The film is sandwiched
between the radiographic
intensifying screens in a
protective cassette
• Contains 2 basic parts:
• Base
• Emulsion
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM

• Most films have 2 layers of

emulsion so these are referred
as Double emulsion film

• An adhesive layer attaches the

emulsion to the base

• The emulsion is enclosed in a

protective layer of gelatin called
the overcoat
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM

Film Base

• It serves as the foundation of the film

• Provides a surface and support for the
emulsion
• Must have strength, but should be flexible
• About 150-300 um thick
• Most film bases are composed of
polyester
• Can withstand higher temperatures,
and less flammable
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM

• During manufacturing, a dye is added

to the base to slightly tint the film blue.
• Reduces eyestrain and fatigue

• Dimensional stability
• A property of the base that maintains
its size and shape during use and
processing so that it does not
contribute to image distortion
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM

History of Radiographic Film Bases

• Glass Plates (X-ray plates)
• Original radiographic film bases

• Cellulose nitrate (1920s-1930s)

• Replaced the glass plates due to
unavailablity during WW1.
• Flammable.

• Cellulose triacetate (mid 1920s)

• “Safety base”
• Has same properties with cellulose nitrate
but less flammable.
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM

• Polyester (early 1960’s)

• Replaced cellulose triacetate base

• Film base of choice
• More resistant to warping and it is
stronger than cellulose triacetate
• Polyester bases are thinner than
triacetate bases (approx. 175 um)
but are just as strong.
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM

Emulsion

• The heart of the radiographic film

• The x-rays or light from the

intensifying screens interact with
the emulsion and transfer
information to the film

• A homogeneous mixture of
gelatin and silver halide crystals
(3-5 um thick)
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM

Gelatin
• The gelatin is clear, so that it transmits
the light to the silver halide crystals

• Primary function:
• To provide a support medium for the
silver halide crystals by holding them
in place
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM

Silver Halide Crystals

• The active ingredient of the

radiographic emulsion
• 98% Silver Bromide
• 2% Silver Iodide
• Tabular shape used most
commonly in radiography
• About 0.1 um thick for screen
film exposure
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
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RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
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RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
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RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
RADIOGRAPHIC INTENSIFYING SCREENS
RADIOGRAPHIC INTENSIFYING SCREENS

Radiographic Intensifying Screens

• Converts x-ray energy into visible light

spectrum
• First developed by Thomas Edison in
1897
• Initial screens used - CaWO4
• Advantages:
• Reduces patient dose
• Short exposure times - reduced motion
blur
RADIOGRAPHIC INTENSIFYING SCREENS
RADIOGRAPHIC INTENSIFYING SCREENS
RADIOGRAPHIC INTENSIFYING SCREENS
RADIOGRAPHIC INTENSIFYING SCREEN

Protective Coating

• The layer of the radiographic I.S closest to

the radiographic film
• About 10-20 um thick
• Function:
• Helps to eliminate the build up of static
electricity and provides a surface for
routine cleaning without disturbing the
active phosphor
RADIOGRAPHIC INTENSIFYING SCREEN

Phosphor

• The active layer of the radiographic I.S.

• Emits light during stimulation by x-rays
• About 50 - 300 um thick
• Crystalline calcium tungstate
• active substance of phosphors before
1980
• Rare earth elements
• Phosphor material in newer, faster
screens.
RADIOGRAPHIC INTENSIFYING SCREENS
RADIOGRAPHIC INTENSIFYING SCREENS
RADIOGRAPHIC INTENSIFYING SCREENS
RADIOGRAPHIC INTENSIFYING SCREENS
RADIOGRAPHIC INTENSIFYING SCREENS
RADIOGRAPHIC INTENSIFYING SCREENS
RADIOGRAPHIC INTENSIFYING SCREENS
RADIOGRAPHIC INTENSIFYING SCREENS
RADIOGRAPHIC INTENSIFYING SCREENS
RADIOGRAPHIC INTENSIFYING SCREENS

END