Organ-Systems

Asst. Prof. Claire A. Salera, PTRP, MPH

INTEGUMENTARY
SYSTEM
 THE SKIN

• Largest organ of the body in surface area and weight

• Coverage: 2 square meters
• Weights: 4.5-5 kg (10-11lbs)
• 16% of total body weight
• Thickness:
• 0.5 mm (eyelids) to 4.0 mm (heels)
• average: 1-2 mm
 Word Parts:
• cutane/o skin • onych/o fingernail or toenail
• derm/o, dermat/o skin • pil/i, pil/o hair
• hidr/o sweat • py/o pus
• hirsut/o hairy, rough • rhytid/o wrinkle
• kerat/o horny, hard • seb/o sebum
• lip/o fat, lipid • urtic/o rash, hives
• melan/o black, dark • xer/o dry
• myc/o fungus
 THE STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN
The Epidermis
• The epidermis (ep-ih-DER-mis),
which is the outermost layer of the
skin, is made up of several specialized
epithelial tissues (epi- means above or
upon, derm means skin, and -is is a
noun ending).
• dependent on lower layers for
nourishment.
• Keratin (KER-ah-tin) is a fibrous, water-repellent protein.
Soft keratin is a primary component of the epidermis. Hard
keratin is found in the hair and nails.
• Melanocytes (MEL-ah-noh-sights) are special cells that are
also found in the basal cell layer. These cells produce and
contain a dark brown to black pigment known as melanin.
• Melanin (MEL-ah-nin) is the pigment that determines the
color of the skin, which depends upon the type and amount
of this pigment that is present.
• also produces spots of color such as freckles and age spots; has the
important function of protecting the skin against some of the
harmful ultraviolet rays
 THE DERMIS
• (DER-mis), also known as the corium, is the thick layer of living
tissue directly below the epidermis
• contains connective tissue, blood and lymph vessels, and nerve
fibers
• (+) found in the dermis are the hair follicles, sebaceous glands,
and sweat glands
• (+)Sensory nerve endings in the dermis are the sensory receptors
for stimuli such as touch, temperature, pain, and pressure
DECUBITUS ULCER
 Subcutaneous Layer
• Consist of lose connective and adipose tissues
• Collagenous and elastic fibers are continuous with the
dermis
• No sharp boundary separates the dermis and the
subcutaneous layer
• Contains the major blood vessels that supply skin and
underlying adipose tissue
 THE STRUCTURAL BASIS OF SKIN
COLOR
• Three pigments responsible for color:
• Melanin
• Pale yellow to tan to black
• Carotene
• With melanin, skin appears translucent
• Hemoglobin
• Pink to red
THE STRUCTURAL BASIS OF SKIN
COLOR
• MELANIN
• All people have same number of melanocytes
• Differences result:
• amount of pigment melanin that melanocytes produce
• distribution and the size of the pigment granules
• Mostly genetically determined

• Freckles
• Accumulation of melanin in patches
• Liver (age) spots
• Flat skin patches from light brown to black
FRECKLES
LIVER (AGE) SPOTS
 THE ALBINISM

• Inherited inability of a person to produce melanin

• Melanin is missing from hair, eyes, and skin
 FACTORS THAT CAN INFLUENCE SKIN
COLOR
• Environment (sunlight)
• Amount of Oxygen
• Physiological factors (Diet)
• Biochemical imbalances (newborn-jaundice)
SKIN COLOR AS A DIAGNOSTIC CLUE
• Bluish cyanotic (skin, nail beds)
• Poor blood oxygenation
• Due to oxygen-depleted hemoglobin (deep, purplish blue)
• Yellow to the whites of the eyes and skin
• Build up of bilirubin in the blood
• Indicates liver disease
• Skin redness (Erythema)
• Capillary engorgement with blood in the dermis due to skin
injury, heat exposure, infection, inflammation, or allergic
reaction
 ACCESSORY STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN

• Hair and nails

• Protect the body

• Sweat glands
• Helps regulate of body temperature
 THE HAIR AND ASSOCIATED
STRUCTURES

• Hair
• Hair follicle
• Arrector pili muscle
 THE HAIR

• Present in most skin surfaces except:

• Palms
• Palmar surfaces of the digits
• Soles
• Lips
• Nipples
• Parts of the external genitalia
 THE ERECTOR PILI MUSCLE
• Smooth muscle that
connects each hair follicle
to the papillary layer of the
dermis
• Contracts pulling the
slanted hair to upright and
dimpling the skin surface
with “goose bumps”
• Exerts pressure to
sebaceous glands resulting
to release of sebum
 HAIR COLOR

• Genes determine hair color

• Abundance of melanin – dark
• Intermediate – blond
• (-) pigment – white
• Mixture of pigmented/ unpigmented - gray
 HAIR FUNCTION

• Helps guard scalp from injury and sun’s rays

• Decreases heat loss from scalp
• Protect eyes(eyebrows and eyelashes), ears, nose from foreign
particles
• Sense light touch (receptors associated with hair follicles)
 FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN

• Thermoregulation
• Protection
• Cutaneous sensation
• Excretion and absorption
• Vitamin D synthesis
 THERMOREGULATION
• Two ways:
• Liberating sweat at skin surface
• Sweating reduces body temperature
• No sweating, heat conservation

• Adjusting blood flow in the dermis

• 8-10% blood flowing in the dermis
• Shunting of blood during exercise reduces heat loss
 PROTECTION

• Provides chemical, physical, biological barriers:

• Abrasion
• Keratinocytes resist invasion from microbes
• Oily sebum protects skin and hairs from drying and kills surface bacteria
• Melanin protects skin from UVR damaging effects
 CUTANEOUS SENSATION

• Provides impending tissue damage

• Tactile sensation
• Touch
• Pressure
• Vibration
• Tickling
• Thermal
EXCRETION AND ABSORPTION
• Excretion
• 400mL of water evaporates daily
• Salts, CO2, ammonia, urea

• Absorption
• Fat-soluble vitamins:
• A, D, E, K
• O2, CO2
 VITAMIN D SYNTHESIS

• UVR activates Vit. D precursor molecule Producing CALCITRIOL

(most active form of Vit. D)
• Calcitriol helps absorption of calcium in foods from GIT into the
blood
SKIN CANCERS
BASAL CELL CARCINOMA
MALIGNANT MELANOMA
SKELETAL SYSTEM
 Word Parts
• ankyl/o crooked, bent, stiff • -um singular noun ending
• arthr/o joint
• lord/o curve, swayback, bent
• chondr/i, chondr/o cartilage
• cost/o rib & crani/o skull • -lysis loosening or setting free
• -desis to bind, tie together • myel/o spinal cord, bone marrow
• kyph/o bent, hump • oss/e, oss/i, ost/o, oste/o bone
• spondyl/o vertebrae, vertebral column,
backbone • scoli/o curved, bent
• synovi/o, synov/o synovial membrane, synovial
fluid
 Structure & Function of the Skeletal System

• Bones act as the framework of the body

• Bones support and protect the internal organs
• Joints work in conjunction with muscles, ligaments, and tendons, making possible
the wide variety of body movements
• Calcium, which is required for normal nerve and muscle function, is stored in bones
• Red bone marrow, which has an imp’t function in the formation of blood cells, is
located within spongy bone
 Bone Structure
• Parts of a long bone
Epiphyses at each end are covered with articular cartilage and articulate
with other bones.
The shaft of the bone is called the diaphysis.
The Tissues of Bone
 Bone Marrow
• Red bone marrow - located within the spongy bone, is a
hemopoietic tissue that manufactures red blood cells,
hemoglobin, white blood cells, and thrombocytes
• Hemopoietic (hee-moh-poy-ET-ick) - means pertaining to the
formation of blood cells (hem/o means blood, and -poietic
means pertaining to formation). This term is also spelled
hematopoietic
• Yellow bone marrow functions as a fat storage area. It is
composed chiefly of fat cells and is located in the medullary
cavity of long bones.
 Cartilage
• Cartilage - smooth, rubbery, blue-white connective tissue that
acts as a shock absorber between bones. Cartilage, which is more
elastic than bone, also makes up the flexible parts of the skeleton
such as the outer ear and the tip of the nose
• Articular cartilage - covers the surfaces of bones where they
come together to form joints
• The meniscus - the curved fibrous cartilage found in some joints,
such as the knee and the temporomandibular joint of the jaw
 The Skeleton:
• Axial - consists of the 80 bones of the head and body that are
organized into five parts
• bones of the skull, ossicles (bones) of the middle ear, the hyoid bone,
located on the throat between the chin and the thyroid, rib cage, and
vertebral column

• Appendicular - consists of 126 bones that are organized into:

• UE(shoulders, arms, forearms, wrists, and hands)
• LE (hips, thighs, legs, ankles, and feet). An appendage is anything that is
attached to a major part of the body and the term appendicular means
referring to an appendage. An extremity is the terminal end of a body part
such as an arm or leg
• Bones of the
Axial Skeleton
• The appendicular Skeleton
The Bones of the Cranium
Muscular System
Functions of the muscular system
• Muscles hold the body erect and make movement
possible
• Muscle movement generates nearly 85% of the heat
that keeps the body warm
• Muscles move food through the digestive system
• Muscle movements, such as walking, aid the flow of
blood through veins as it returns to the heart
• Muscle action moves fluids through the ducts and
tubes associated with other body systems
 Types of Muscle Tissue
• Skeletal Muscle - are attached to the bones of the skeleton and
make body motions possible
• Smooth Muscle - are located in the walls of internal organs such
as the digestive tract, blood vessels, and ducts leading from glands.
Their function is to move and control the flow of fluids through
these structures.
• Cardiac Muscle - form the muscular walls of the heart (my/o
means muscle, cardi means heart)
FASCIA = a layer of connective tissue
• Separate an individual skeletal muscle from adjacent muscles

TENDON = a narrow band of nonelastic, dense, fibrous connective tissue that

attaches a muscle to a bone
• LIGAMENTS = are bands of fibrous tissue that form joints by connecting one
bone to another bone
Muscle Innervation:
• is the stimulation of a muscle by an impulse transmitted by a motor nerve

• Motor nerves enable the brain to stimulate a muscle to contract. When the
stimulation stops, the muscle relaxes.
 Skeletal Muscle Actions
The type of movement a skeletal muscle produces depends on the way the
muscle attaches on either side of a joint

• Insertion = movable end of skeletal muscle

• Origin = immovable end of skeletal muscle
• Some muscles have more than one origin
 Interaction of skeletal muscles

• Prime mover – responsible for most of the movement

• Synergists – aid prime movers
• Antagonists – resist the action of a prime mover
 Major Skeletal Muscles
1. Muscles of facial expression
• Lie beneath the skin of the face and scalp and
are used to communicate feelings through
facial expression
• Orbicularis oculi, orbicularis oris, buccinator, zygomaticus
2. Muscles of mastication:
-Attached to the mandible and are used in chewing
- temporalis and masseter
3. Muscles that move the head
- muscles in the neck and upper back move the head
- sternocleidomastoid, splenius capitis, and semispinalis capitis
4. Muscles that move the pectoral girdle:
• Connect the scapula to nearby bones and closely associate with
muscles that move the arm
• Trapezius, rhomboideus major, levator scapulae, serratus
anterior, pectoralis minor
5. Muscles that move the arm:
• Connect the humerus to various regions of the pectoral
girdle, ribs, and vertebral column

• Coracobrachialis, pectoralis major, teres major, latissimus

dorsi, supraspinatus, deltoid, subscapularis, infraspinatus,
teres minor
6. Muscles that move the FA
• Connect the radius and ulna to the humerus or pectoral girdle
• Biceps brachii, brachialis, brachioradialis, triceps brachii,
supinator, pronator teres, pronator quadratus
7. Muscles that move the hand:
• Arise from the distal end of the humerus and from the radius
and ulna
• Flexor carpi radialis, flexor carpi ularis, palmaris longus, FDP,
ECRL, ECRB, ECU, and extensor digitorum
8. Muscles of the abdominal wall
• Connect the ribcage and vertebral column to the pelvic girdle
• External oblique, internal oblique, transversus abdominis, and
rectus abdominis
9. Muscles of the pelvic outlet:
• These muscles form the floor of the pelvic cavity and fill the
space within the pubic arch
• Levator ani, superficial transversus perinei, bulbospongiosus,
and ischiocavernosus.
10. Muscles that move the thigh
• Attach to the femur and some part of the pelvic girdle
• Psoas major, iliacus, gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, gluteus
minimus, tensor fasciae latae, adductor longus, adductor
magnus, and gracilis
11. Muscles that move the leg:
• Connect the tibia or fibula to the femur or palvic girdle
• Biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus, sartorius,
and the quadriceps femoris group
12. Muscles that move the foot
• These muscles attach the femur, tibia, and fibula to bones of the foot
• Tibialis anterior, fibularis tertius, extensor digitorum longus,
gastrocnemius, soleus, flexor digitorum longus, tibialis posterior, and
fibularis longus.
 PATHOLOGY OF THE MUSCULAR
SYSTEM
Fibers, Fascia, and Tendons
• Fasciitis - inflammation of a fascia (fasci means fascia, and -itis means
inflammation)
• Fibromyalgia syndrome - is a debilitating chronic condition characterized by
fatigue; diffuse or specific muscle, joint, or bone pain
• Tenosynovitis - is an inflammation of the sheath surrounding a tendon.
(ten/o means tendon, synov means synovial membrane, and -itis means
inflammation)
• Tendinitis - sometimes spelled tendonitis, is an inflammation of the
tendons caused by excessive or unusual use of the joint (tendin means
tendon, and -itis means inflammation)
• The terms tenonitis and tenontitis also mean tendinitis
Muscle Disorders
• Adhesion - is a band of fibrous tissue that holds structures
together abnormally

• Frozen shoulder - adhesions forming in the capsule of

connective tissue in the shoulder, tightening around the shoulder
joint
• Atrophy of a muscle or muscles can be caused by
pathology or by disuse of the muscle over a long period
of time

• Myalgia - is tenderness or pain in the muscles (my means

muscle, and -algia means pain)

• A hernia - is the protrusion of a part of a structure

through the tissues normally containing it

• Myolysis - is the degeneration of muscle tissue (my/o

means muscle, and -lysis means destruction or breaking
down in disease).
• Degeneration means deterioration or breaking down
• Polymyositis - is a muscle disease characterized by the simultaneous
inflammation and weakening of voluntary muscles in many parts of the
body (poly- means many, myos means muscle, and -itis means
inflammation).
• Contracture - is the permanent tightening of fascia,
muscles, tendons, ligaments, or skin that occurs
when normally elastic connective tissues are replaced
with nonelastic fibrous tissues
• Spasm - a sudden, involuntary contraction of one
or more muscles. Also known as a charley horse,
especially when occurring in the leg
• Cramp - a painful localized muscle spasm often
named for its cause, such as menstrual cramps or
writer’s cramp.
 Repetitive Stress Disorders
• Overuse injuries - are minor tissue injuries that have not been
given time to heal. These injuries can be caused by spending
hours at the computer keyboard or by lengthy sports training
sessions
• Overuse tendinitis - also known as overuse tendinosis, is an
inflammation of tendons caused by excessive or unusual use of
a joint (tendin- means tendon, and -itis means inflammation).
• Myofascial pain syndrome - is a chronic pain disorder that affects
muscles and fascia throughout the body.
• Impingement syndrome - occurs when inflamed and swollen tendons are
caught in the narrow space between the bones within the shoulder joint
• Plantar fasciitis - is an inflammation of the plantar fascia on the sole of
the foot. This condition causes foot or heel pain when walking or running
End…