Q Key Points ‘A. Angles of a Triangle + In the figure, + Inthe figure, at+b+c= 180°. on c=atb. y, (Reference: £ sum of A) [Reference: ext. 2 of 41 B, Congruent Triangles + If AABC = AXYZ, then A (i) their corresponding angles are equal, ie, 2A = ZX, ZB= ZYand 2C= 22; (li) their corresponding sides are equal, ie. AB = XY, Bi BC = YZand CA = ZX. + Conditions for two triangles to be congruent: Zs LN aa LS| CNIS 1 (i) their corresponding angles are equal, ie. ZA = ZX, 4B= ZYand ZC= 2Z; B c (ii) their corresponding sides are proportional, AB _ BC _ CA ie a” 2: * Conditions for AABC and AXYZ to be similar: eo ean eat eae‘ 63 ‘More on Deductive Geometry D. Isosceles Triangles * IFAB = AC, then 2B = 2. A (Reference: base Zs, isos. A} + In ABC with AB = AC and D is a point on BC, 4 if any one of the conditions below is true, then the other two conditions must also be true (i) ZBAD= 4CAD (i) BD = Dc (ili) ADL Bc (Reference: property of isos. A] + If }+ 4 cm} Find the unknown(s) in each of the following figures. [Nos. 4-6] 4. ACAB = AQPR 5. AABC ~ AEDF 6. ADME = ADMF D zB 2 a Bos c BR @ A Se Ne 4 . A Pp c P we jesse Aaa thetic ion + §MB07R ACD SAShapleoumMany] Using the Deductive Approach to Solve | In the isu, AD Il BC an Geometric Problems on Triangles Prove that AB = CD. We can use the properties or conditions tk D of congruent triangles, similar triangles and isosceles triangles 0 prove geometric /e statements using the deductive approach. B In AABC and ACDA, ZABC = 2CDA siven ZACB = CAD att. 25, AD If BC AC=CA common side *. AABC = ACDA | Aas corr. sides, = OS Special Lines in Triangles (a) Angle bisector z ‘An angle bisector is a straight line which i angle bisector bisects an interior angle of a triangle. 428 ° (b) Perpendicular bisector ‘A perpendicular bisector is a straight line which is perpendicular to and bisects one side of a triangle. (c) Median ‘A median is a line segment which joins a vertex of a triangle to the mid-point of its opposite side. (a) Altitude An altitude is a perpendicular line segment drawn from a vertex of a triangle to its opposite side.<4. Fe Nae Triangle Inequality The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle must be greater than the length of the third side. ie. In the figure, a + b>ec, We can use the above inequality to determine whether three line segments can form a triangle when their lengths are given, More on Deductive Geomelry ©" ieee It is given that the lengths of three line segments are 7, 3 and 11 7 347<11 ive. The sum of the lengths of the two shorter line segments is less than that of the longest one. The three line segments not form a triangle. Centres of ingles (a) In-centre @ The in-centre is the point of intersection of the three angle bisectors of a triangle. It is always inside the triangle. (il) The in-centre of a triangle is the centre of its inscribed circle. (b) Circumcentre () The circumcentre is the point of itersection of the three perpendicular bisectors of a triangle. It may lie inside, outside, or on a side of the triangle, The circumcentre of a triangle is the (ii) centre of its circumcircle. {c) Centroid () The centroid is the point of intersection of the three medians of a triangle. It is always inside the triangle. (ii) The centroid of a triangle divides each median in the ratio 2 : 1 (@) Orthocentre The orthocentre is the point of intersection of the three altitudes of a triangle. It may lie inside, outside, or on a vertex of the triangle. B y \R in-contre a 7 c ‘The cirele PQR is an inscribed circle ‘ 2 ircumeentre - c ‘The circle ABC is a circumcircle A contraid 8 R cS fs AG: GP = BG: GQ= CG: GR=2:1 ¢ de ane a RVAY Pre-Learning Q Key Points A Angles Relating to Parallel Lines Daemons nin cn | In the figure, if AB // CD, In the figure, if AB // CD, In the figure, if AB // CD, then a +b = 180° | then a = 6. then a =. a a . A = B A _—— A > G o D c: D | | ¢ D | | | [Reference: corr. £s, AB I CD] [Reference: alt. 2s, AB /! CD] [Reference: int. 2s, AB {/ CD] B. Conditions for Parallel Lines Corresponding angles Nea came In the figure, if a= b, In the figure, if a= In the figure, if a + b = 180°, then AB // CD. then AB // CD. then AB // CD. | “a B | A B | A B "a @ b c Dp | oc: D | Cc: D [Reference: corr. Zs equal] [Reference: alt. 2s equal] [Reference: int. 2s supp.) © Warm-up Exercise Find the unknowns in each of the following. [Nos. 1-3] 1. AED and BEC are straight lines, twParallelograms (a) Definition A parallelogram is a quadrilateral. with two pairs of parallel opposite sides. @. (b) Properties of parallelograms (Inthe figure, AB = DC and AD = BC. >. ce a ‘a [Reference: opp. sides of lIgram| (ii) In the figure, 2A = 2C and 2B= 2D. 2 [Reference: opp. 28 of Hgram} (iii) In the figure, AE = EC and BE = ED. ¢ a In the figure, ABCD is parallelogram. 2. c poy In the figure, PORS is a’parallelogram. PR and QS intersect at 7. Find a and b. fit yn SSE, (opp. sides of !Igram) (diagonals of ligram) bel In the figure, ABCD is a parallelogram. It is given that AB = AE. Find x. D _/ \ In AABE, AB =AE (given) ZABE = ZAEB = 66° (base 2s, isos. A) = ZABC = 66° (opp. £5 of ligram) (Reference: diagonals of //gram]Nas (c)_ Tests for parallelograms (i) If AB = DC and AD = BC, then ABCD is a parallelogram, > c (Reference: opp. sides equal (i) If 4A= 2Cand 2B = ZD, then ABCD is a parallelogram, DB c [Reference: opp. Zs equal If AE = EC and BE = ED, then ABCD is a parallelogram. LJ [Reference: diags. bisect each other] (iv) If AB // DC and AB = DC, then ABCD is a parallelogram. 2 e (Reference: 2 sides equal and //] a [Seu () In the figure, APOR = ARSP. Prove that PORS is a parallelogram. s p fe @ APOR = ARSP | given PQ=RS corr. sides OR = SP corr. sides, PORS isa parallelogram. opp. sides equal (i) In the figure, ABCD is a parallelogram. It is given that BC // EF and AD = EF. Prove that BCFE is a parallelogram, A > EB F a6 ABCD is a parallelogram. | given AD = BC pp. sides of HI gram AD = EF siven * BC=EF BC |] EF siven “. BCFEisa parallelogr: 2 sides equal and 2. | Rhombuses ) Definition A thombus is a quadrilateral with four qual sides. In the figure, ABCD is a rhombus. D7.58 Chopter7 (b) Properties of rhombuses (i All properties of a parallelogram (ii) Diagonals are perpendicular to each other. i) Each interior angle is bisected by a a) In the figure, PORS is a rhombus. Find x and y. P wR diagonal. = 90° (property of rhombus) [Reference: property of rhombus] y= 73° (property of rhombus) Rectangles (a) Definition ‘A rectangle is a quadrilateral with four equal interior angles. (b) Properties of rectangles (i) All properties of a parallelogram. (ii) All the interior angles are right angles. ii) Diagonals are equal. (iv) Diagonals bisect each other into four equal line segments. [Reference: property of rectangle] In the figure, ABCD is a rectangle. D, c a B In the figure, PORS is a rectangle. PR and QS intersect at T. Find x. In ASTR, TR = TS (property of rectangle) 25° (base Zs, isos. A) Squares (a) Definition ‘A square is a quadrilateral with four equal sides and four equal interior angles. (b) Properties of squares (i) All properties of a rectangle. (ii) All properties of a rhombus, (iii) Angle between a side and a diagonal is 45°. [Reference: property of square] In the figure, ABCD is a square. D In the figure, EFGH is a square. Find x. « F 28 FI le ZEGH = 45° (property of square) “w+ 28° = 45° qMid-point Theorem In ABC, if AM = MB and AN = NC, then A B c (@) MN JI BC, ra (be) MN = 4BC. [Reference: mid-pt. theorem) Intercept Theorem (a) In the figure, if AB // CD // EF and AC = CE, then BD = DF. (Reference: intercept theorem) (b) In AABC, if AM = MB and MN /I BC, then AN = NC, 4 B fc [Reference: intercept theorem] Quadrilaterals 7.59 Ba i in In the figure, $ and T are the mid-points of PO and PR respectively, Find x. i ae A ‘Ss @ “S PS= SO and PT=TR. (given) “. ST If OR \(mid-pt. theorem) 4PST = ZPOR (corr, 4s, ST if QR) In the figure, DGF and EHF are straight lines. Itis given that GH // DE and FG = GD. Find GH. zB g In ADEF, ‘) FG= GD and GH I! DE. (given) FH = HE (intercept theorem) ‘. FG= GD and FH = HE. . GH= DE (mid-pt. theorem) 4.x 6emQ Key Points Reflectional Symmetry If a plane figure can be folded along a straight line and the two sides of the figure coincide completely, the figure is said to have reflectional symmetry. The straight line is called the axis of symmetry (or line of symmetry). Sas axis of symmetry axes ofeymmetey B. Rotational Symmetry If a plane figure coincides with its original figure n times (n > 1) when it is rotated through one complete revolution (ie. 360°) about a fixed point, then the figure is said to have rotational symmetry. The fixed point is called the centre of rotation and the order of rotational symmetry of the figure is eg. The figure on the right has rotational We can also say the figure has symmetry of order 3 O as the centre 3-fold rotational symmetry. of rotation. C. 2-D Representations of Solids A solid can be represented by a sketch of plane figure. eg. The figure on the right is a sketch of a prism. The hidden edges are represent by the dotted tines. f Q }D. Euler's Formula For a convex polyhedron with F faces, V vertices and E edges, we have FHV-E=2 eg. For a convex polyhedron with 8 vertices and 12 edges, we have F+8-12=2 F=6 ie. The polyhedron has 6 faces. @ Warm-up Exercise SS 4. Determine whether the figures below have reflectional symmetry. If so, draw all the axis/axes of symmetry. (@) (b) 2. Determine whether the figures below have rotational symmetry. If so, use the symbol “X’ to indicate the centre of rotation, Also, state the order of rotational symmetry. (a) ) (b) (c) | (a) 3. Refer to the sketch of a prism. (a) How many hidden edges are shown in the sketch? (b) How many faces are there in the prism? 4. A convex polyhedron has 14 faces and 12 vertices. How many edges does it have?ieee Tete ok | symmetry of 3-D Figures (a) Reflectional symmetry If an object can be divided by a plane into al parts and these parts are mirror images of each other, the object is said to have reflectional symmetry. The plane is called the plane of reflection two iden Rotational symmetry If an object coincides with its original figure n times (n > 1) in one complete revolution (i.e. 360°) about a straight line, the object is said to have rotational symmetry of order n. The line is called the axis of rotation. (b) ‘More about 3-0 Figures 8.49 A regular tetrahedron has 6 planes of reflection as follows: ay first second third fourth coincidence coincidence coincidence coincidence ‘360° @ is an axis of rotation of the above cube and the corresponding order of rotational symmetry is 4. Nets of 3-D Figures (a) A 3-D figure can be folded from different nets. (b) By considering the relative positions of the points, lines and faces of a given figure, we can determine whether it can be folded into a specified 3-D figure. Among the above figures, only A and B are nets of cube as they can be folded into a cube. Further Knowledge on 2-D Representations of 3-D Objects (2) We can observe a 3-D object from its front, its top or its side. The shapes we get from these views allow us to represent the object with the 2-D diagrams. For the object on the right, its front, top and side views are as follows: side & front ahe shape of a 3-D object, we In the figure, PP’ is the distance between the point P and the line @. ad —b—___1 P (b) Relationship between two straight lines In the figure, P is called the point of intersection and @ (8 < 90°) is the angle between & and 4. A Ly (c) Relationship between a point and a plane In the figure, (i) P’ is the projection of P on the plane Tt (ii) the length of PP’ is the distance between P and the plane =. < PPT LL, PP’ L La. les (b) To ides u top need to know its 2-D representations from fase ee | three different views: the front, top and »> side views. ea A front side fmt site Points, Straight Lines and Planes of 3-D r Figures P (a) Distance between a point and a straight ie if Line The figure shows a right prism with right- angled triangle POR as its base. We have: (a) PQ is the distance between P and QU, while PR is the distance between P and RS. ZPTU is the angle between TU and PT, while ZUTS is the angle between TU and Ts. Q is the projection of R on the plane PQUT, while U is the projection of Q on the plane STU. (b) C———— Ga ee (d) Relationship between a straight line and a plane In the figure, () OO is the projection of OP on the plane x: (i) Bis the angle between the line @ and the plane = (ii) PQ is perpendicular to the plane x. Relationship between two planes In the figure, (O} (AB is the Line of intersection of the planes @ and ; (i) ZRPQ is the angle between the planes a and 8. R < POL AB, PRA AB. a Refer to the figure. (@) Consider BE and the plane GHEF. We have BG 1 GE. “+ GE is the projection of BE on the plane GHEF. “+ ZBEG is the angle between BE and the plane GHEF. (b) Consider the planes BDEG and BAFG. BG is the line of intersection of the planes BDEG and BAFG. BD L BG and AB 1. BG. +. ZDBA is the angle between the planes BDEG and BAFG. Knowledge on Regular Polyhedra (@) A regular polyhedron has the following Properties: (i) Each face is formed by identical regular polygons. (i) The same number of faces meet at each vertex. (®) Dual Polyhedra Two polyhedra A and B is a pair of dual Polyhedra if we can obtain B by joining the centres of adjacent faces of A, and Vise versa. Five different regular polyhedra: gular lar Regular ‘eirdron ——Hemdron—_Ortabedren (Cube) ar Regular a IeosahedronQ Key Points 'A.. Circles and Sectors Circle «Circumference = td or 27° + Area = 77° a + Arc length = go> % 2ar oxo 00 + Area of a sector | B. Prisms and Cylinders Prism Cylinder radius = 7 carved height=h + Curved surface area surface a * Total surface area | 2arh At Ph i + Total surface area se rather ee = 2nrh + 2nr? aa 5 =AXA * Volume = nr°h C. Similar Figures Two figures having the sau their corresponding sides are proportional. eg. (i) A pair of similar figures are shown below. © Warm-up Exercise me shape are called similar figures. In similar figures, the lengths of all (ii) AABC ~ AADE B D A = lo: AB _ BC _ CA AD ~ DE ~ EAaxes Gamay © ds Pyramids For a pyramid: 4 x base area * height (b) total surface area = total area of all lateral faces + (a) volume area of the base Isteral faces height fom, Sem Bem. Gem ‘The base is a square. Volume = = 48 cm? Total surface area = [4 x (4 = 96 cm? x 6 x 5) +6°| om? Circular Cones For a right circular cone: (a) volume = 377°h, (b) curved surface area = xré, (c) total surface area = nré + xr’, where r is the base radius, h is the height and is the slant height. Volume = 4 X xX 3° X 4m = 12m em* Curved surface area = = X 3X 5 cm? = 1S cm? Total surface area = (15m + = X 3°) cm? 2 = 24m om’ Spheres For a sphere: So (a) volume = 427°, (b) surface area = 4nr°, where r is the radius. Volume = 4 x x x 3° cm? = 36m om’ Surface area = 4 x x x 3 om? = 36x om?‘Area and Volume (111). 9.57 ee AO ar a 4. Dimensions of Length, Area and Volume (a) Linear measurement: It involves the lengths of line segments or curves, the sum or multiple of lengths. Its dimension is 1. (b) Quadratic measurement: It involves the product of two linear measurements. Its dimension is 2 (c) Cubic measurement: It involves the product of three linear measurements. Its dimension is 3. Consider a right circular cone. (a) Examples of linear measurement: (i) Base diameter d= 2r (i) Slant height ¢= Vi?+ 7 (b) Example of quadratic measurement: Curved surface area = nré (c)_ Example of cubic measurement: Volume = 4274 Similar Plane Figures and Similar Solids {a) For two similar plane figures: If Ay and Ap denote their areas, ¢, and ¢ denote any two corresponding lengths, then 4 (8 (a) x ay:- Qe : 7 If AABC ~ AXYZ, then ‘Area of AABC Area of AXYZ (b) For two similar solids: (b) x If V, and V2 denote their volumes, A; P and A; denote the areas of any two corresponding surfaces, ¢, and 2; denote a i any two corresponding lengths, then Lerees aE 5 A = 2 If circular cones A and B are similar solids, then sd wy 3 Curved surface area ¢ Curved surface area of B =() Volume of A Volume: