Control System (Unit-2)

Unit-2 Time Response Analysis 2.
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Unit
TIme Response Analysis
2 SIA GROUP
Part-A
Short Questions with Solutions
Q1. List the various types of standard test signals.
Ans:
The various types of standard test signals are as follows,
(i) Step signale
(ii) Unit step signal
(iii) Ramp signal
(iv) Unit ramp signal
(v) Parabolic signal
(vi) Unit parabolic signal
(vii) Impulse Signal
(viii) Sinusoidal signal.
Q2. Define step signal.
Ans: Model Paper-I, Q1(c)
It is a signal which represents the sudden application of an input at a particular instant of time. The value of the signal
changes suddenly from zero to a constant value k and remains constant for all t ≥ 0.
Mathematically, the signal can be defined as,
u(t) = k, t ≥ 0
= 0, t < 0
Figure: Step Signal

In s-domain, u(t) can be written as,
k
F(s) =
s
However, if k = 1, then the signal is referred as unit step signal and is given by,
u(t) = 1
1
F(s) =
s
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2.2 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
Q3. Define ramp signal. However, if k = 1, then the signal is called as unit
Ans: parabolic signal and is given by,
It is a signal whose value represents a constant rate t2
of change of input. It basically represents a velocity function r(t) =
2
as shown in figure. Here, the value of the signal is directly
proportional to time. Mathematically, the signal is given as, 1
F(s) = 3
r(t) = kt, t ≥ 0 s
= 0, t < 0 Q5. Define impulse signal.
In s-domain, r(t) is given by, Ans: The function (or) signal is said to be an impulse, if it has
k only one non-zero value with infinite magnitude i.e., it has zero
F(s) = magnitude for t > 0 and has infinite value at t = 0. It is denoted
s2 with δ(t). Mathematically, it in expressed as,
δ(t) = 1 ∀ t = 0
=0 ∀ t>0
The response of a system with input as impulse signal
is known as weighting function. The impulse signal is shown
in figure.
Figure: Ramp Signal

However, if k = 1, then the signal is called as unit ramp Figure: Impulse Signal
signal and is given by,
r(t) = t Q6. What is meant by time response? Explain about,
1 (i) Steady state response
F(s)=
s2 (ii) Transient response.
Q4. Define parabolic signal. Ans: Model Paper-II, Q1(c)
Ans: Time Response
It is a signal whose value is proportional to the square
Time response of a system is nothing but the behaviour
of time. It basically represents a uniform acceleration function
of the output with respect to time. In other words, time response
as shown in figure.
of the system is the response of the system as a function of
Mathematically, it is defined as,
time to the applied input. It is usually denoted by c(t). The time
r(t) = ,t≥0 response of a control system is divided into two parts namely,
the transient response and the steady state response.
= 0, t < 0 c(t) = ct(t) + css(t)
In s-domain, r(t) can be written as, Where,
k ct(t) = Transient response
R(s) =
s3 css(t) = Steady state response.
The complete time response of a control system to a unit
step input is as shown in figure.
Figure: Parabolic Signal Figure: Time Response of a System
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Unit-2 Time Response Analysis 2.3
(i) Steady State Response Q10. Define delay time.
Steady state response is the response of the system Ans:
as time approaches infinity. In other words, the steady state It is defined as the time taken for the response to reach
response of the system is that part of the time response which 50% of the constant steady state value (final value), for the first
remains after vanishing the transient response completely. The time.
steady state response of a system will be independent of time.
The expression for delay time is,
(ii) Transient Response
The transient response of a system is the response, when
there is a change in input from one state to another. In other
words, the output variation during the time it takes to achieve Where,
its final value is called as transient response.
z = Damping ratio
It is a response of system when time is zero. The
transient response of a system is a function of time. ωn= Undamped natural frequency.
Q7. Define the following, Q11. Define rise time.

(i) Time constant Ans: Model Paper-I, Q1(d)
(ii) Characteristic equation It is defined as the time taken for the response to raise
from 0 to 100% of the final value for underdamped systems.
(iii) Order of a system.
It is defined as the time taken for the response to raise
Ans: Model Paper-III, Q1(d) from 10 to 90% of final value for overdamped systems.
(i) Time Constant It is defined as the time taken for the response to raise
It is defined as the time required for a system output to from 5 to 95% of final value for critically damped system.
reach 63.2% of its final steady state value. The expression for the rise time is,
(ii) Characteristic Equation
An algebraic equation that gives insight about the
inherent nature of the linear time invariant system is known as
characteristic equation. Where,
(iii) Order of a System
θ = Damping angle in radians = tan–1
It is defined as the order of the differential equation
governing that system. Generally, it can be specified to both ωd = Damped frequency of oscillations
open loop and closed loop transfer functions.
= ωn
Q8. List the nature of system for different values of
damping ratios. Q12. Define peak time.
Ans: Ans:
For ζ = 0, the system is undamped and the response will It is defined as the time taken to reach the peak value
be oscillatory in nature. for the first time.
For 0 < ζ < 1, the system underdamped and the response The expression for the peak time is,
will be damped oscillatory.
For ζ =1, the system is critically damped and the
response will be exponentially raising.
Q13. Define peak overshoot.
For ζ > 1, the system is overdamped and the response
Ans:
will be exponentially raising with large raise time.
It is defined as the amount by which response of the
Q9. List various types of time domain specifications.
system overshoots from reference steady value (final value)
Ans: for the first time.
The various types of time domain specifications are, Peak overshoot is given as,
(i) Delay time c(t p ) − c(∞)
(ii) Rise time MP =
c (∞ )
(iii) Peak time Where,
(iv) Maximum overshoot c(tP) = Peak value
(v) Settling time. c( ) = Final value

Q14. Define settling time.
Ans: It is defined as the time taken by the response to reach and stay within specified percentage range of its final value (within
tolerable limits).
The expression for settling time (ts) is,

Q15. List various types of static error constants. Mention disadvantages of static error constants.
Ans: Model Paper-II, Q1(d)
The various types of static error constants are,

(i) Positional error constant (Kp)
(ii) Velocity error constant (Kv)
(iii) Acceleration error constant (Ka)
Disadvantages
1. These error constants introduce an additional stability problem.
2. If there is any conflict between the static velocity error constant and static acceleration error constant, then the latter may
be considered less important than the former.
Q16. Explain the significance of generalized error co-efficient.
Ans:
The following are the main significance of generalized error co-efficient,
1. The generalized error coefficient method is applicable to both the stable and unstable systems, where as the static error
coefficient method is not applicable to unstable systems.
2. Generalized error series gives an accurate value of error, but static error coefficient method fails to provide an accurate
value.
3. It provides the error value, even if the input is the combination of three standard test inputs (i.e., unit step, ramp and
parabolic).
4. It provides time for rate of change of error which is quite necessary for designing.
Q17. The closed loop transfer function of a second order system is . What is the type of
damping in the system?

Ans: (Dec.-15, (R13), Q1(c) | Model Paper-III, Q1(c))
Given closed loop transfer function is,
C ( s) 10
=
R( s ) s 2 + 6 s + 10

Comparing the above transfer function with standard form,

2
ωn = 10 ; 2zωn = 6
ωn = 10 2z × 3.16 = 6
6
ωn = 3.16 z =
2 × 3.16
z = 0.94
∴ The damping factor z = 0.94 is 0 < z < 1, the system is underdamped.
Part-b
eSSAY Questions with Solutions
2.1 Step response – Impulse response – Time response of first order systems
– characteristic equation of feedback control systems
Q18. Explain about various test signals used in control system.

(May-13, (R09), Q3(a) | Nov.-12, Set-3, Q3(a) | Aug./Sep.-08, Set-4, Q3(a) | Aug./Sep.-07, Set-2, Q3(a))
OR
What are the standard test signals? Give their representation mathematically and graphically.
Ans: (Nov.-11, Set-1, Q2 (a) | Model Paper-I, Q4)
The standard test signals are the reference signals which are used in order to determine the performance of a given system.
Using this information the design of the system can be carried out. These signals basically represents a sudden change, uniform
velocity and a uniform acceleration functions.
The various test signals that are available in the control systems are,
(i) Step signal
(ii) Ramp signal
(iii) Parabolic signal
(iv) Impulse signal
(i) Step Signal
For answer refer Unit-II, Q2.
(ii) Ramp Signal
(iii) Parabolic Signal
(iv) Impulse Signal
It is a signal whose magnitude is very large and is applied for short duration of time. Ideal impulse signal is a signal whose
magnitude is infinite while its duration is zero but with an area of k. It is denoted by δ(t).
Mathematically, the signal can be defined as,
r(t) = k, t = 0
= 0, t 0
Figure (4): Impulse Signal

However, if k = 1, then the signal is called as unit impulse signal and is given by,
δ(t) = 1
In s-domain δ(t) is given by,
F(s) = 1

Q19. Obtain the response of a first order system Here ‘T ’ is called the time constant of the system. In
a time 5T, assume the system has reached steady state. The
for unit step input. response of first order system to unit step input is shown in
figure (2).
Dec.-15, (R13), Q4(a)
OR
For a first order system, determine, the output
of a system, for step input.
Ans: Model Paper-II, Q5(a)
Let us consider the closed loop transfer function of first

order system as shown in figure (1),
Figure (2): Response of First Order System to Unit Step Input

Time constant of the system is related to the speed of
the response, smaller the time constant faster is the system
Figure (1): First Order System response. Larger the time constant, slower response indicate
that the system response is slow.
From figure (1), we have,
Q20. For a first order system, find out the output of
C (s) 1 the system when the input applied to the system
= ... (1)
R ( s ) 1 + sT is unit ramp input. Sketch the r(t) and c(t) and
show the steady state error.
Since,
Ans: April/May-08, Set-2, Q3(b)
The input be unit step signal, we have,
Consider a first order system as shown in figure.
R(s) =
Now equation (1) becomes,
1
C(s) = .R ( s )
1 + sT
1 1 Figure (1)
⇒ C(s) = . The transfer function is given by,
1 + sT s
1
1 C (s) 1
⇒ C(s) = = Ts =
s (1 + sT ) R(s) 1 + 1 1 + Ts
By partial fraction expansion, we have, Ts
1 1 Given, the input applied to the system is a unit ramp
C(s) = – input.
s s+ 1
⇒ r(t) = t
T
Therefore response,
The response in time domain is given by,
1
c(t) = L–1[C(s)] R(s) = (Taking Laplace transform)
s2
  Therefore output response,
1 1  −
t
= L 
–1 −  =1– e T  1 
C(s) = R(s).  
s s + 1  1 + Ts 
 T  
1  1  1 1  1 
When, t = 0 ⇒ c(t) = 1 – e0 = 0 = 2  = 2 . . 
t = 1T ⇒ c(t) = 0.632 s 1 + Ts  s T  1 + s
T 
t = 2T ⇒ c(t) = 0.865 1
 = T
t = 5T ⇒ c(t) = 0.993 2 1
s s + 
t = ∞ ⇒ c(t) = 1  T 
Taking partial fraction expansion, we have,  
 1   1   1 
1 = L−1  2  – T. L−1   +T L−1  
A B C s  s 1
s + 
C(s) = T = 2 + +
s  1  T
2 1 s ... (1)
s s +  s
 T+
 T  
1  1  1 = t – T [1] + T.
⇒ = A  s +  + Bs  s +  + Cs2 ... (2)
T  T  T
Put, s = 0 in equation (2), we get,
1  1  1
⇒ = A 0 +  + B(0) 0 +  + C(0)2  −  
t 
T  T  T = t – T − T 
1 e
 
1 1  
⇒ = A  
T T 
The error signal is given by,
∴ A = 1   −   
t 
 
Expanding equation (2), we get, e(t) = r(t) – c(t) = t – t − T 1 − e  T   
  
1 A   
= As + + Bs2 + + Cs2
T T  −  
t 
1 A = T 1 − e  T  
 B  
⇒ = (B + C)s2 +  A +  s + ... (3)  
T  T T
Equating the coefficients of ‘s’, we have, Steady state error,
B
0 = A + (From equation (3)) ess = [e(t)] = =T
T
B
⇒ = –A
T The sketch of c(t) and r(t) is as shown in graph.
⇒ B = –AT = –(1).T = –T ( A = 1)
B = –T
Equating the coefficients of ‘s2’, we have,
0 = B + C (From equation (3))
⇒ C = –B = –(–T) = T
Substituting A, B, C values in equation (1), we get,
1 T T
∴ C(s) = 2 – +
s s 1
s+  Figure (2): Graph
T 
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we have, Q21. Derive the time response of first order system
for impulse response.
 
  Ans: Model Paper-I, Q5(a)
−1 1 T T
c(t) = L–1[C(s)] = L  2 − +  Consider the closed loop transfer function of first order
s 1
s s+ 
 T system is given by,
C (s) 1
  =
−1  1   T   T  R ( s ) 1 + sT
= L  2  – L−1   + L−1  
s  s s + 1  ⇒ 1
 T C(s) = 1 + sT R(s) ... (1)

For impulse function, we have, Q22. What is characteristic equation? Explain its
r(t) = δ(t) significance.
⇒ R(s) = 1 Ans:
Substituting R(s) value in equation (1), we get, Characteristic Equation

1 Characteristic equation is an algebraic equation that
C(s) = 1 + sT
gives insight about the inherent nature of a linear time invariant
system.
1
∴ C(s) =
 1 The general form of transfer function of a system is
Ts +  given by,
 T 
Applying inverse Laplace transform on both sides, we T(s) = ... (1)

get,
Equation (1) reveals that transfer function is a ratio
 
1  1  of numerator polynomial and denominator polynomial. The
−1
L–1[C(s)] = L   denominator polynomial of the transfer function is very significant
T s + 1  and when equated to zero, gives the characteristic equation.
 T
The closed loop transfer function of a system with
1 −t forward path G(s) and feedback path gain H(s) is given as,
c(t) = .e T
T
G (s)
When, T(s) = ... (2)
1 ± G ( s) H ( s)
1 0 1
t = 0 ⇒ c(t) = e = From equation (2), the characteristic equation in terms
T T of loop transfer function is given as,
t = 1T ⇒ c(t) = 1 ± G(s) H(s) = 0 ... (3)
Significance of Characteristic Equation

t = 2T ⇒ c(t) =
1. Using characteristic equation, we can determine the type
and order of a system.
t = 3T ⇒ c(t) =
2. The roots of the characteristic equation gives the poles
of the system.
t = 4T ⇒ c(t) =
3. From the knowledge of location of poles, the stability
The response of first order system for impulse input is
shown in figure. of the system can be determined.
4. The nature of the system can be determined using

characteristic equation.
5. Using characteristic equation, the output response

(transient response) can be determined.
6. Using characteristic equation, the various specifications

of the system i.e., time domain and frequency domain
specification can be determined.
7. By modifying the characteristic equation (adding poles)

Figure an originally unstable system can be made stable.
Q23. What is the difference between type and order of a control system? Explain each with an example.
Ans: Aug./Sep.-08, Set-3, Q3(a)
Type Order
1. The type of a system is defined as the number of 1. The order of a system is defined as the order of
poles of a loop transfer function lying at the origin the differential equation governing that system and
and the type is always specified for a loop transfer the order of a system can be specified for both
function G(s)H(s). open loop and closed loop transfer function.
2. If the number of poles lying at the origin is N, then 2. If the differential equation governing the system is
the type of the system will also be of N number of nth order, then the order of the system will also
and the system will be called as type-N system. be n and the system will be called as nth order
system.
3. In this case, a ratio of two polynomials in s is 3. In this case, the Laplace transform of the differential
taken to express the loop transform function. equation governing the system is taken and then is
P( s)
i.e., G(s)H(s) = K rearranged as a ratio of two polynomials in s.
Q( s)
( s + z1 )( s + z 2 ).....
G(s) H(s) = K Hence, the transform function of the system
s N ( s + p1 )( s + p 2 )....
P( s)
is obtained i.e., T(s) = K
Q( s)
Where, Where,
z1, z2, .... are zeros of transfer function K = Constant
p1, p2,...., are poles of transfer function P(s) = Numerator polynomial
K = Constant. Q(s) = Denominator polynomial.
N = Number of poles at the origin. The maximum power of s in the denominator
The value of N in the denominator polynomial polynomial Q(s) gives the order of the system.
gives the type of the system. If Q(s) = a0 sn + a1 sn–1+.......+an–1s + an

Where, n is the order of the system.
4. Example 4.
Example
Let us consider a transfer function, Let us consider a transfer function,
G(s)H(s) =
G(s)H(s) =
For above transfer function the type is 2. For above transfer function the order is 4.
Q24. Define type and order of a control system and hence find the type and order of the following systems.
(i) G(s)H(s) =
(ii) G(s)H(s) =
(iii) G(s)H(s) =
(iv) G(s)H(s) = .
Ans: April/May-08, Set-4, Q3(a)
Type of a Control System
Type is specified for loop transfer function G(s) H(s). Type number of a system is usually determined by number of poles
of the loop transfer function lying at the origin.

If N is number of poles at origin then type number is N. (b) Order
A( s ) The denominator polynomial of the system is,
G(s) H(s) = K .
B( s) D(s) = s(s2 + 4s + 200)
( s + z1 )( s + z 2 )( s + z3 ) Since, the highest power of s is 3, therefore the
=K N
s ( s + p1 )( s + p2 )( s + p3 ) system is third order system.
z1, z2, z3, ..... are zeros of transfer function Hence, the given system is type-1 and 3rd order
system.
p1, p2, p3, ... are poles of transfer function.

Where, (ii) G(s) H(s) =
K = Constant (a) Type
N = Number of poles at origin The given system has two poles at origin.
Value of N in denominator polynomial determines the Number of poles at origin, n = 2
type number of system,
Hence, the system is type-2 system.
N = 0 Type 0 system
(b) Order
N = 1 Type 1 system
The denominator polynomial of the system is,
N = 2 Type 2 system.
D(s) = s2(s2 + 10s+ 200)
Order of a Control System
The highest power of s is 4, therefore it is fourth
Differential equation governing the system gives the order system.
order of system. If it is governed by nth order differential
equation then the system is called nth order system. Hence, the system is type-2 system and 4th order.
Order can also be determined by using transfer function (iii) G(s)H(s) =

of a system. It is obtained by taking Laplace transform of
differential equation which governs the system. (a) Type
Number of poles at origin of the denominator
A( s ) polynomial D(s)
Transfer system, T(s) = K.
B( s)
For the given system, n = 1
Where, K = Constant
A(s) = Numerator polynomial Therefore, it is type-1 system.
B(s) = Denominator polynomial. (b) Order
Maximum power of s in denominator polynomial B(s) D(s) = s(s + 3)(s2 + 2s + 10)

gives the order of the system. Since, the highest power of s is 4, therefore it is
If B(s) = aosn + a1sn–1 + a2 sn–2 + ....+ an–1s + an. fourth-order system.
Then, n is order of the system. Hence, the given system is type-1 system and 4th
order.
n = 0 – Zero order system
n = 1 – First order system (iv) G(s) H(s) =
n = 2 – Second order system (a) Type

Number of poles of transfer function can also be deter- For the given system there are no poles at origin.
mined by the value of n. Therefore, order is given by number
of poles transfer function. So it is a type-0 system.
(b) Order
(i) G(s) H(s) =
D(s) = (1 + 0.1s) (1 + 0.5s)
(a) Type
The highest power of s is 2, Therefore it is 2nd
The given system has one pole at origin.
order.
Number of poles at origin, n = 1
Hence, the given system is type-0 system and 2nd
Hence, the system is type-1 system. order.
Equating coefficient of s ⇒ 0 = 1 + B
2
2.2 Transient response of second
order systems ⇒ B = – 1
Equating coefficient of s ⇒ 0 = 2zωn + C
Q25. Derive the unit step response of a second order
system. ⇒ C = – 2zωn
Nov.-11, Set-2, Q8(a)
∴ C(s) =
OR
Derive the time response of second order
=
underdamped system due to unit step input.
=
Response of Second Order System for Underdamped Case
of Unit Step Input
The closed loop transfer function of the second order
= –
system is given by,
C (s)
= ... (1)
R( s)
For under damped system, 0 < z < 1
The characteristics equation is, =
s2 + 2zωns + ωn = 0
2
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we have,
On solving,
c(t) =
s = – zωn ± ωn
The roots of the characteristic equations are complex c(t) =
conjugate.
∴ s = – zωn ± ωn
= – zωn ± jωn = – zωn ± jωd

From equation (1), we have, =

C(s) = R(s)
=
1
For unit-step input, u(t) = 1 ⇒ R(s) =
s
∴ C(s) = =
= ... (2)
=
⇒ ω2n = A(s2 + 2zωns + ω2n ) + (Bs + c)s ... (3)
A =
Substituting A value in equation (3), we get,

ω2n = sin θ =
⇒ ω2n = cos θ = z

(ii) When Damping Factor 0 < ζ < 1 i.e., Under Damped

tan θ = Case
The step response is given as,
Where, θ = tan–1
c(t) =
Where,
c(t) = sin (ωd t + θ)
θ =
Using this equation, the plot for response of under

damped second order system for unit step input is shown in
figure (2).
Figure: Response of Under Damped Second Order System

Q26. Sketch the step response of a second order
system when damping factors is,
(i) 0
(ii) Between 0 and 1
(iii) 1
Figure (2)
(iv) Greater than 1.
Ans: Model Paper-II, Q5(b)
(iii) When Damping Factor ζ = 1 i.e., Critical Case
Consider a standard second order system. The step response is given as,
Now, the transfer function of a closed loop second order
c(t) =
system is given as,
Using this equation, the response of critically damped
= second order system is plotted as shown in figure (3).
⇒ C(s) = .R(s)
For unit step, u(t) = 1,
⇒ 1
R(s) =
s
∴ C(s) =
(i) When Damping Factor, ζ = 0 i.e., Undamped Case Figure (3)

The step response is given as, (iv) When Damping Factor ζ > 1 i.e., Over Damped Case
c(t) = 1 – cosωnt
The step response is given as,
Using this equation the response of undamped second
order system for unit step is shown in figure (1).
c(t) =
Where,
s1 =
s2 =
Using this equation, the response of overdamped second
Figure (1) order system is plotted as shown in figure (4).
−1
 ω2n 
L–1[C(s)] = L  2 2
 s + ωn 
2 −1
 1 
⇒ c(t) = ωn ⋅ L  2 2
 s + ωn 
⇒ c(t) =
Figure (4)
Q27. Sketch the impulse response of a second order ⇒ c(t) = ωn ⋅ sin(ωnt) ... (3)
system when damping factor is, Now,
(i) 0 For, ωnt = 0, we have,
(ii) Between 0 and 1 c(t) = 0
(iii) Greater than 1.
π
For, ωnt = , we have
Ans: (Dec.-11, Set-3, Q3(b) | Model Paper-I, Q5(b)) 2
Consider a standard second order system. π
c(t) = ωn ⋅ sin  
Now, the transfer function of a closed loop second order 2
system is given as,
= ωn(1) = ωn
C (s)
= Similarly,
R( s)
−π
For, ωnt = , we have,
⇒ C(s) = ... (1) 2
−π
But, for an impulse function, we have, c(t) = ωn sin  
 2 
r(t) = δ(t)
π
Applying Laplace transform on both sides, we get, = – ωn sin [ sin(– θ) = – sin θ]
2
R(s) = i(t) = L[δ(t)] = – ωn(1)
⇒ R(s) = 1 = – ωn
Substituting R(s) value in equation (1), we get, For, ωnt = π, we have,
C(s) = c(t) = ωn sin(π)
= ωn (0) = 0
⇒ C(s) = ... (2) Similarly,
For ωnt = – π, we have,
(i) Impulse Response of Second Order System when z = 0
Substituting z = 0 in equation (2), we get, c(t) = ωn[sin (– π)]
= – ωn sin (π)
C(s) =
= – ωn (0) = 0
ωn2 Therefore, we have,
⇒ C(s) = 2
s + 0 + ω2n
π 3π 5π
c(t) = ± ωn
,± ,± ∀ values of ±
....
ω2n 2 2 2
⇒ C(s) =
s 2 + ω2n 0 ∀ values of ± π, ± 2π, ± 4π, ....
Applying inverse Laplace transform on both sides, we Thus, the impulse response of second order system for
get, undamped case is shown in figure.

(ii) Impulse Response of Second Order System when z is in between 0 and 1
From equation (2), we have,
C(s) =
On solving the characteristic equation, we have,
s1 = z ωn – ωn
s2 = z ωn + ωn
By partial fraction expansion, we have,
C(s) =
⇒ C(s) =
A B
= + ... (4)
( s + s1 ) ( s + s 2 )
⇒ ω2n = A(s + s2) + B(s + s1) ... (5)
Put, s = – s1 in equation (5), we get,
C(s) =
⇒ ω2n = A(– s1 + s2) + B(– s1 + s1)
⇒ ω2n = (s2 – s1)A

By substituting s1 and s2 values in above equation, we get,
⇒ ω2n =
⇒ ω2n =
⇒ ω2n = 2 ωn A
Put, s = – s2 in equation (5), we get,

ω2n = A(– s2 + s2) B(– s2 + s1)
ω2n = B(s1 – s2)
Substituting s1, s2 values and we get,
⇒ ω2n =
⇒ ω2n =
⇒ ω2n =
⇒ ω2n =
⇒ ωn = – 2
Substituting A, B values in equation (4), we get,

ω2n
C(s) =
( s + s1 )( s + s 2 )
C(s) =
Applying inverse Laplace transform on both sides, we get,
L–1 [C(s)] =

 −1  1  −1  1   
c(t) = L  −L  
  s + s1 
  s + s2  

c(t) = ... (6)
Replacing s1, s2 values, we get,
⇒ c(t) =
⇒ c(t) =
⇒ c(t) =
⇒ c(t) =
 ωn ζ 2 −1t ζ 2 −1.t 
ωn −ζω nt e − e −ω n 
⇒ c(t) = e
ζ2 − 1  2 
 
ωn  ωn − (1−ζ 2 ).t
− e −ω n − (1−ζ 2 ).t 
⇒ c(t) = . eζω nt  e 
−(1 − ζ 2 )  2 
 
ωn  eω n i 2 (1−ζ 2 ).t
− e −ω n i 2 (1−ζ 2 ).t 
−ξω nt   [ i2 = –1]
⇒ c(t) = .e
i 2 (1 − ζ 2 )  2 
 
ω .e −ζω nt  eiω n 1−ζ 2 t

− e − iω n 1−ζ 2 t 

⇒ c(t) = n
i 1 − ζ 2  2 


Q28. The forward path T.F of a unity feedback control
ω .e −ζω nt  eiω n 1−ζ 2 .t
− e − iω n 1−ζ 2 t 

⇒ c(t) = n system is given by G(s) = . Obtain
1 − ζ 2  2i 

the expression for unit step response of the
system.
( )
−ζω nt
ω n .e  2 
c(t ) = sin ω n 1 − ζ .t 
1 − ζ2  Ans: (Aug./Sep.-07, Set-4, Q3(b) | April/May-07, Set-2, Q3(b))
Given that,
2
G(s) =
s ( s + 3)
Now, the various values for ωnt and its response c(t) is
tabulated. The plot for impulse response of second order systems We know that,
for 0 < z < 1 is shown in figure. The transfer function of a closed loop system is given
(iii) Impulse Response of a Second Order System when as,
Damping Ratio z > 1 C (s) G (s)
=
We know that, the second order characteristic equation R( s) 1 + G ( s) H ( s)
of the system is given as,
s 2 + 2ζω n s + ω 2n = 0 C (s) 2
⇒ = [  H(s) = 1]
R( s) s ( s + 3)
For z > 1, the roots of the characteristic equation is given 2
as, 1+ ⋅1
s ( s + 3)
2
s1 = −ζω n − ω n ζ − 1
C (s) 2
2 = 2
s2 = −ζω n + ω n ζ − 1 R( s) s + 3s + 2
Substituting s1, s2 values in equation (6), we get, As unit step input is taken as,
ωn e − (ζ− 2
ζ −1) ω nt ζ −1) ω nt 
2
C(t) =  − e − (ζ+ 
1
2 ζ −1  2 R(s) =
s
Now, the various values for ωnt and its response it tabu- 1 2
lated. The plot for impulse response of second order system for C(s) = ·
z > 1 is shown in figure. s [( s + 1)( s + 2)]
By using partial functions,
1 2 A B C
· = + +
s [( s + 1)( s + 2)] s s +1 s + 2
Solving above equation and finding the values of A, B
and C.
A = 1, B = – 2 and C = 1
1 2 1
∴ C(s) = − +
s ( s + 1) ( s + 2)
Applying inverse Laplace transform to the above
equation, we get,
−1 1 2 1 
c(t) = L s − s +1 + s + 2
 
∴ c(t) = (1 – 2e–t + e–2t)
2.3 Time Domain specifications
Q29. For an underdamped second order system,

define various time domain specifications.
(Aug./Sep.-07, Set-4, Q3(a) | April/May-07, Set-2, Q3(a) |
Model Paper-II, Q4)
Figure: Impulse Response of a Second Order System for Various
Values of Damping Ratio (ξ) OR
What are the time response specifications? Then peak overshoot,
Explain each of them. c(t p ) − c(∞)
(April/May-06, Set-2, Q3(b) | Nov./Dec.-04, Set-2, Q3(b)) MP =
c ( ∞)
OR
Define transient response specifications, Percentage peak overshoot (%MP)
(i) Delay time  c(t p ) − c(∞) 
(ii) Rise time =   × 100
 c ( ∞) 
(iii) Peak time
(iv) Maximum overshoot The expression for peak overshoot is,
(v) Settling time of second order system. −πζ
(Nov./Dec.-05, Set-2, Q3(a) | April/May-05, Set-2, Q3(b) | 1−ζ 2
MP = e
Ans: April/May-05, Set-3, Q3(a) | Nov./Dec.-04, Set-3, Q3(a))
Definitions of Time Domain Specifications 5. Settling Time
The time domain specifications are the parameters of For answer refer Unit-II, Q14.
the transient response characteristics of a dynamic system to a 6. Time Constant of the System
unit step input.
It is defined as the time taken for the response to raise 0
There are different time domain specifications with
to 63.2% of its final value (steady state value) for the first time.
respect to dynamical systems are,
The expression for time constant of the system is,
1. Delay time
1
2. Rise time T=
ζω n
3. Peak time
4. Peak overshoot Q30. Derive the expression for time specifications
of a standard second ordered system to a step
5. Settling time
input.
6. Time constant of the system. (Nov./Dec.-05, Set-1, Q3(b) | Model Paper-III, Q5)
OR
Derive the expressions for rise time, peak
overshoot and settling time of a second order
system subjected to a step input.
(i) Rise Time
It is defined as the time taken by the response to reach
100% of its final steady state value.
Let,
tr – Rise time
ωn – Undamped natural frequence
ωd – Damped frequency of oscillation
Figure
ts – Settling time
1. Delay Time (td)
z – Damping ratio
2. Rise Time (tr) %Mp – Percentage overshoot
For answer refer Unit-II, Q11. c(t) – Output of the system
3. Peak Time (tp) tp – Peak time.
For answer refer Unit-II, Q12. The output of a system subjected to unit step input for
4. Peak Overshoot underdamped condition is given by,
It is defined as the amount by which response of the e −ζω nt
c(t) = 1 – sin(ωd t + φ) ... (1)
system overshoots from reference steady value (final value) 1 − ζ2
for the first time.
Let, peak (maximum) value = c(tp) We know that at time t = tr, the response is equal to its
steady state value i.e., 1.
Final value = c(∞) Hence at t = tr, c(t) = c(∞) = 1

Substituting the above values in equation (1), we get,
e −ζω ntr
1 = 1 – sin(ωdtr + φ)
1 − ζ2
− e −ζω ntr
⇒ sin(ωd tr + φ) = 0 ... (2)
1 − ζ2
For above equation (2) to be zero, either – e −ζω ntr or sin(ωd tr + φ) must be zero. But we know that − e −ζω ntr cannot be
zero. Therefore, sin(ωd . tr + φ) must be zero.
i.e., sin(ωd tr + φ) = 0 ... (3)
We know that sin is zero at angles equal to multiples of π.
Therefore, equation (3) becomes,
ωd.tr + φ = π
⇒ ωd.tr = π – φ
⇒ π−φ
tr =
ωd
 1 − ζ2 
−1
Where, φ = tan  
 ζ 
(ii) Peak Time
It is defined as the time taken by the response to reach the first peak for the very first time.
From equation (1), we have,
e −ζω nt
c(t) = 1 – sin(ωd.t + φ)
1 − ζ2
Since, the response is maximum at tp. Therefore, in order to determine tp, differentiating c(t) with respect to t and equating
it to zero.
−e −ζω nt  −e −ζω nt 
= (– zωn) sin(ωd.t + φ) +   cos(ωd t + φ)ωd
1 − ζ2  1 − ζ 2 
But,
ωd = ω n 1 − ζ 2
Therefore,
e −ζω nt ωn 1 − ζ2
= (zωn) sin(ωd.t + φ) – e −ζω nt cos(ωd.t + φ)
1−ζ 2
1−ζ 2
ω n e −ζω nt
= [z sin(ωd.t + φ) – 1 − ζ 2 cos(ωd.t + φ)] ... (4)
1 − ζ2
From ∆le shown in figure,
Figure
cos φ = z
sin φ = 1 − ζ2
Substituting the above values in equation (4), we get,
ω n e −ζω nt
= [cos φ sin(ωd.t + φ) – sin φ cos(ωd.t + φ)] ... (5)
1 − ζ2
We know that,
sin(A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B
Using the above equation, equation (5) can be written as,
ω n e −ζω nt
= sin(ωd.t + φ – φ)
1 − ζ2
ω n e −ζω nt
= sin ωd.t
1 − ζ2
Substituting t = tp in above equation and equating it to zero, we get,

−ζω nt p
ωn e
sin ωd.tp = 0
1 − ζ2
e −ζω nt p sin ωd.tp = 0

−ζω nt p −ζω nt p
For above equation to be zero, either e or sin ωd.tp must be zero. We know e can’t be zero. Hence, sin ωd.tp
must be zero i.e.,
sin ωd.tp = 0
The value of sine is zero at all the multiples of π i.e., nπ. Taking the smallest possible value i.e., π(n = 1) to get the solution
of the above equation, we have,
ωd.tp = π
π
tp = secs
ωd
(iii) Peak Overshoot
It is defined as the amount by which the response of the system overshoots from reference steady state value during the
first overshoot.
%Mp = ... (6)
Where, C(tp) is the response of the system at peak time i.e., at t = tp and C(∞) is the steady state response i.e., the response
of the system at t = ∞.
From equation (1),
e −ζω nt
c(t) = 1 − sin(ωd t + φ)
1 − ζ2
e
−ζω nt p  π π 
c(t) = 1 − sin(ωdtp+ φ) =  t = t p = = 
1 − ζ2  ωd ωn 1 − ζ2 
c(tp) =

But, sin(π + φ) = – sin φ The error signal is given by,
e = r – c ... (2)
c(tp ) = Substituting the value of ‘e’ from equation (2) in equation
(1), we get,
But,
= 64 (r – c)
sin φ = 1−ζ 2 [From figure]
Substituting the value of sin φ in above equation, we = 64 r – 64 c ... (3)
have, Apply Laplace transform on equation (3), we get,

2
e −ζπ 1− ζ
= 64 L (r) – 64 L (c)
=1+ × 1 − ζ2
2
1−ζ
s2 C (s) + 8s C (s) = 64 R (s) – 64 C (s)
−ζπ 1 − ζ2
c(tp) = 1 + e ... (7)
s2 C (s) + 8s C (s) + 64 C (s) = 64 R (s)
c (∞) = 1 [ Input is a unit step signal] ... (8)
C (s) [s2 + 8s + 64] = 64 R (s)
Substituting equations (7) and (8) in equation (6), we
get, ∴ The transfer function of the system is,
1 −ζ 2 C ( s) 64
1 + e −ζπ −1 = 2 ... (4)
%Mp = × 100 R( s ) s + 8s + 64
1
1 −ζ 2 The standard second order system is given by,

%Mp = e −ζπ × 100
... (5)
(iv) Settling Time

It is defined as the time taken by the response to reach
the final stay state value and stay within the tolerable limits. Comparing equation (4) and (5), we get,
4 ω2n = 64 and 2ζωn = 8
ts = for 2% error
ζ ωn
8
ωn = ζ =
3 2ωn
ts = for 5% error
ζ ωn 8
ωn = 8 ζ =
For any value of error, ts is given by,
2×8
ζ = 0.5
ln(% error) And also,
ts =
ζ ωn Maximum overshoot is given by,
% Mp =
Q31. A closed loop servo is represented by the
=
differential equation: . When

= e–1.57 × 0.866 × 100
‘c’is the displacement of the output shaft, ‘r’ = e–1.359 × 100
is the displacement of the input shaft and e = ∴ % Mp = 25.69
r – c. Determine undamped natural frequency,
damping ratio and percentage maximum Q32. Find all the time domain specifications for a
overshoot for unit step input. unity feedback control system whose open loop
transfer function is given by G(s) = 25/s (s+6).
Ans: Dec.-15, (R13), Q4(b)
Ans: Nov.-11, Set-4, Q6(b)
The differential equation of the closed loop control Given that,
system is given by, G(s) =
= 64 e ... (1) H(s) = 1
Now, (ii) Rise Time (tr)
The closed loop transfer function is given as,
The rise time is given as,
C (s) G ( s)
T(s) = = π−θ
R( s) 1 + G ( s) H ( s) tr =
ωd
Substituting G(s), H(s) values, we get, But,
 1−ζ 2 
25 θ = tan–1  
s ( s + 6)  ζ 
C (s)
=
R( s) 25
1+ .1  1 − (0.6) 2 
s ( s + 6)
= tan–1  
 0.6 
C (s) 25  
=
R( s) s ( s + 6) + 25
 0.64 
25

= tan–1  
C (s)  0.6 
= 2 ...(1)
R( s) s + 6 s + 25
 0.8 
Comparing equation (1) with standard form of second

= tan–1  
 0.6 
ω 2n
order equation 2 , we get,
= tan–1 (1.333338)
s + 2ζω n s + ω 2n
= 53.13°
ω 2n = 25 and 2z ωn = 6
6 ⇒ θ = 0.9273 rad
ωn = 25 ⇒ z ωn =
2 π − 0.9273
⇒ ωn = 5 rad/sec ⇒ z ωn = 3 ∴ tr =
4
⇒ z(5) = 3 2.2143
3 ⇒ tr =
⇒ z = 4
5
∴ z = 0.6 ∴tr = 0.5535 sec

Now,
The damping frequency is given as, (iii) Peak Time (tp)
ωd = ωn 1− ζ 2 The peak time is given as,

π
= 5 1 − (0.6) 2 tp =
ωd
= 5. 1 − 0.36 π
⇒ tp =
= 5. 0.64 4

= 5.(0.8)
⇒ tp =
∴ ωd = 4 rad/sec
Time Domain Specifications
(i) Delay Time (td)
(iv) Peak Overshoot (Mp)
The delay time td is given as,
The peak overshoot is given as,
1 + 0.7ζ
td =
ωn %Mp = e
−ζπ 1−ζ 2
× 100
1+ 0.7(0.6)
= = × 100
5
= × 100
=
= × 100
⇒ td = = × 100
= 0.09477 × 100
% Mp = 9.477%

(v) Setting Time (ts) The standard form of the transfer function of a second
order system is given by,
The setting time ts is given as,
C (s) ω 2n
ts = (For 2% error) = 2 ... (2)
R( s) s + 2ζω n s + ω 2n
= (For 5% error) Comparing equations (1) and (2), we get,

5 ω 2n
For 2% error 2 =
s +s+5 s + 2ζω n s + ω 2n
2
4
ts =
0.6 × 5 ω2n
= 5 2 z ωn = 1
4 1
⇒ ts = ⇒ ωn = 5 ⇒ z =
3 2ωn
⇒ ωn = 2.236 rad/sec ⇒ z =
For 5% error
⇒ z = 0.2236
3
ts = The damping frequency is given by,
ζω n
3 ωd = ωn 1− ζ 2
⇒ ts =
0.6 × 5
⇒ ωd = 2.236
3
⇒ ts = ⇒ ωd = 2.18 rad/sec.
3
ts = 1sec (i) Rise Time (tr)
The rise time ‘tr’ is given by,
Q33. A unity feedback control system has an open-
π−θ
loop transfer function G (s) = . Find rise tr =
ωd
Where,
time, peak overshoot, peak time and settling
time for a step input of 10 units.  1 − ζ2 
Ans: May-10, Set-2, Q3(b) θ = tan–1  
 ζ 
Given that
5
G(s) =
= tan–1
s ( s + 1)
For a step input of 10 units, find,
(i) Rise time, tr = ?
= tan–1
(ii) Peak overshoot, Mp = ?
(iii) Peak time, tp = ?
(iv) Settling time, ts = ?
= tan–1
The closed loop transfer function of the system is
given by,
= tan–1 [4.36]
C (s) G (s)
= ⇒ θ = 77.07°
R( s) 1 + G (s) H (s)
⇒ θ = 77.07 × rad
C (s) 5
⇒ =
R( s) s ( s + 1)
⇒ θ = 1.345 rad
5
1+ .1 π−θ
s ( s + 1) ∴ Rise time, tr = =
ωd
C (s) 5
∴ = 2 ... (1)
R( s) s +s+5 ⇒
(ii) Peak overshoot (Mp ) Q34. A system is given by differential equation
The peak overshoot ‘Mp’ is given by,
where y = Output, x = Input.
−ζπ 1−ζ 2
% Mp = e × 100
Determine all the time domain specifications
= × 100 and obtain output response for unit step input.
= × 100 Ans: April/May-09, Set-4, Q3(b)
= × 100 Given that,

= 0.4864 × 100
= 48.64%

∴ Peak overshoot for 1 unit of step input,
Taking Laplace transform on both sides, we get,
Mp =
L = L[8x]
= 0.4864
Hence,
Peak overshoot for 10 units of step input, L = 8L[x]
Mp = 10 × 0.4864 = 4.864
s2Y(s) + 4sY(s) + 8Y(s) = 8X(s)

Y(s)[s2 + 4s + 8] = 8X(s)
(iii) Peak Time (tp)
Therefore, the transfer function is given by,
The peak time ‘tp’ is given by,
Y (s) 8
π = 2 ... (1)
tp = X (s) s + 4s + 8
ωd
Now, comparing equation (1) with the standard form of
⇒ tp = ω 2n
second order system , we have,
s 2 + 2ζω n s + ω 2n
⇒ ω 2n = 8 and 2zωn = 4
w
(iv) Settling Time (ts)
ωn = 8 zωn = 2
The settling time ‘ts’ is given by,
1 2
ts = 4T = 4 × (for 2% error) = 2.83 rad/sec z =
ζω n ω n
= =
= 0.706
= The damping frequency is given by,
= 8 sec ωd = ωn 1− ζ 2
∴ t s = 8 sec for 2% error. = 2.83

= 2.83 × 0.708
1
ts = 3T = 3 × (for 5% error) = 2.003
ζω n
Time Domain Specifications

= 1. Delay Time (td)
The delay time ‘td’ is given by,

= 1 + 0.7ζ
td =
ωn

= 6 sec
= = 0.528
∴ for 5% error.

2. Rise Time (tr) 5. Setting Time (ts)
The rise time ‘tr’ is given by, The setting time, ‘ts’ is given by,
π−θ 4
tr = ts = (for 2% error)
ωd ζω n
Now,
 1 − ζ2  =
θ = tan  –1

 ζ  = 2.002 ~
− 2 sec
3
ts = (for 5% error)
ζω n
= tan–1
=
= 1.501
= tan–1 ~ − 1.5 sec

6. Time Constant
The time constant is given by,
1
T =
= tan–1 ζω n
= = 0.5
= tan–1(1.002)
The Output Response
= 45.05
The output response of the system subjected to unit step
= 0.786 rad input is given by,
π−θ
∴ Rise time, tr = = e −ζω nt
ωd c(t) = 1 – sin(ωd.t + θ)
1 − ζ2
= 1.176 sec
3. Peak Time (tp) =1– sin(2.003t + 0.786)
The peak time ‘tp’ is given by,
π [Here, θ is expressed in radius and is calculated using
tp =
ω d  1 − ζ2 
θ = tan–1  ]
=  ζ 
= 1.56 sec =1– sin(2.003t + 0.786)

4. Peak Overshoot (MP)
= 1 – 1.41e–1.997tsin(2.003t + 0.786).
The peak overshoot ‘Mp’ is given by,
1−ζ 2
2.4Steady state response – Steady
% Mp = e −πζ / ×100 state errors and error constants
= × 100 Q35. What is meant by steady state error? Derive the

expression for steady state error.
= × 100 Ans: Nov.-11, Set-4, Q6(a)
Steady State Error of a Control System
Steady state error gives an idea in determining the
= × 100 accuracy of a system. These errors are caused in the system
due to nature of input (namely unit step, ramp and parabolic
= e −3.13 × 100 inputs), type or number of system and the disturbances caused
due to system components. It is defined as the value obtained
= 0.043 × 100 = 4.3% by error signal e(t), when the value of ‘t’ tends to ‘∞’.
Mathematically expressed as, ess = Basically, there are three types of static error constants.
They are,
Let, R(s) be the input signal
C(s) be the output signal 1. Positional error constant, Kp =
E(s) be the error signal
2. Velocity error constant, Kv =
C(s)H(s) be the feedback signal.
3. Acceleration error constant, Ka =
By considering the above data, the block diagram of the
closed loop system can be drawn as shown in figure. Unit Step Signal
sR ( s )
ess =
1 + G (s) H (s)
When input is unit step,
1
R(s) =
s
Figure
From figure, ess =
Error signal,
E(s) = Input signal – Feedback signal =
∴ E(s) = R(s) – C(s)H(s) ... (1)
Output signal, =
C(s) = E(s).G(s) ... (2)

1
By substituting equation (2) in equation (1), we get, =
1+ K p
E(s) = R(s) – E(s)G(s)H(s)
Type 0 System
E(s) + E(s)G(s)H(s) = R(s)
Kp =
E(s)[1 + G(s)H(s)] = R(s)
R( s)
∴ E(s) = ... (3) =
1 + G(s) H (s)
We know that, z1.z 2 .z3
= K = Constant
ess = p1. p 2 . p3
By applying final value theorem of Laplace transform,

we have,

ess = ∴ In type zero systems, when input is unit step, steady

state error (ess) will be constant.
ess = ( From equation (3)) Type 1 System
Q36. Derive the static error constants and list the
disadvantages. Kp =
(April/May-09, Set-1, Q3(a) | Aug./Sep.-06, Set-1, Q4(b) |
Ans: Nov./Dec.-04, Set-4, Q4(b)) =

Static Error Constants
=
Static error constants are the measure of steady state
errors and gives an idea as to how steady state error can be 1 1
∴ ess = = =0
eliminated or reduced. 1+ K p 1+ ∞
The value of steady state error depends upon the type So, in type-1 system and above, for unit step input the
number and input signal. Kp value is infinity and ess = 0.

Unit Ramp Signal For parabolic input,
1
ess = R(s) =
s3
For ramp input,
∴ ess = =
1
R(s) =
s2
=
∴ ess= Type 0 System
Ka =
=
= =0
= 1
ess = =
0
1
= = Type 1 System
Kv
Type 0 System Ka =
Kv =
= =0
= =0
1
ess = =
1 1 0
∴ ess = = = Type 2 System
Kv 0
For type 0 system, when input is ramp, ess = ∞ Ka =
Type 1 System
=
Kv =
z1 z 2 z3
= = K = Constant
p1 p 2 p3
z1 z 2 z3
= K = Constant
p1 p 2 p3
Type 3 System
Ka =

Type 2 System = =
Kv = 1
(∴ ess = = 0)
∞
= = ∞
Q37. Determine position error constant Kp, velocity
1 error constant Kv, acceleration error constant
ess = =0 Ka for type 0 and type 1 systems.
∞
Ans: Dec.-11, Set-3, Q3
Unit Parabolic Signal
Error Constant for Type-1 Systems
ess = For answer refer Unit-II, Q38.
Error Constants For Type Systems
⇒ Κa = (0)2
The type 0 is a systems in which the number of poles at
origin will be,
 K ( z1 ) ( z2 ) 
Consider, an open loop transfer function of type ‘0’ ⇒ Κa = 0  
system.  ( p1 ) ( p2 ) 
K ( s + z1 ) ( s + z2 ) ⇒ Κa = 0
G(s). H(s) = ... (1)
( s + p1 ) ( s + p2 ) Hence, for a type 0 systems,
Where,
Kp = Constant, Kv = Ka = 0.
z1, z2, z3... are the zero’s of the transfer function
and Q38. Explain error constants Kp, Kv and Ka for type
1 system.
p1, p2, p3... are the poles of the transfer function.
(Aug./Sep.-07, Set-1, Q3(a) | April/May-06, Set-2, Q4(a) |
We know that
Ans: Nov.-03, Set-3, Q4(a) | Model Paper-III, Q4)
Position error constant, The error constants Kp, Kv and Ka are called as position
Kp = G(s) H(s) ... (2) error constant, velocity error constant and acceleration error
0
constants and are given by,
Velocity error constant,
Kv = sG(s) H(s) ... (3) Kp = G(s)H(s) ... (1)
0
Acceleration error constant,
Kv = sG(s)H(s) ... (2)
Ka= s2 G(s) H(s) ... (4)
0
Substituting equation (1) in equation’s (2), (3) and (4), Ka = s2G(s) H(s) ... (3)
we get, Type 1 is a system in which the number of poles at origin
From equation (2), we get, will be one.
K ( s + z1 ) ( s + z2 ) Consider the loop transfer function of a type-1 system.

Kp =
0 ( s + p1 ) ( s + p2 )
K ( s + z1 ) ( s + z 2 )....
K (0 + z1 ) (0 + z2 ) G(s)H(s) = ... (4)
⇒ Kp = s ( s + p1 ) ( s + p2 )....
(0 + p1 ) (0 + p2 )
Where,
K ( z1 ) ( z2 )
⇒ Kp = z1, z2, z3,... are the zeros of the transfer function
( p1 ) ( p2 )
and p1, p2,.... are the poles.
Substituting equation (4) in equations (1), (2) and (3),
we get,
From equation (3), we get,
(i) Kp = G(s)H(s)
 K ( s + z1 ) ( s + z2 ) 
Kv =   K ( s + z1 ) ( s + z 2 )....
0  ( s + p1 ) ( s + p2 )  =
s ( s + p1 ) ( s + p2 )....
 K (0 + z1 ) (0 + z2 ) 
⇒ Kv = 0   K
 (0 + p1 ) (0 + p2 )  = =∞
0
 K ( z1 ) ( z2 ) 
⇒ Kv = 0  
 ( p1 ) ( p2 )  (ii) Kv = sG(s)H(s)
Kv = 0  K ( s + z1 ) ( s + z 2 ).... 
= s 
 s ( s + p1 ) ( s + p2 ).... 
From equation (4), we get,
 K ( s + z1 ) ( s + z2 )  K .z1.z 2 .....
Ka = s2   = = K1 (Constant)
0
 ( s + p1 ) ( s + p2 )  p1. p2 .....

(iii) Ka = s2 G(s)H(s) Type 2 System
 K ( s + z1 ) ( s + z 2 )....  K (s + z1 )(s + z 2 )......

G(s)H(s) =
= s  s ( s + p ) ( s + p ).... 
2 s 2 (s + p1 )(s + p2 )......
 1 2 
sK ( s + z1 ) ( s + z 2 ).... Kp = = ∞
=
( s + p1 ) ( s + p2 ).... 1 1
Ess = = =0
Ka = 0 1+ K p ∞
Hence for a type-1 system, Therefore, the steady state error is zero for type 2 with
Kp = ∞, Kv = Constant and Ka = 0 unit step input.
Q39. Explain error constants K p, K v and K a for Steady State Error when the Input is Unit Ramp Signal
type II system. Steady state error,
Ess =
Static Error Constants
The static error constants are used to measure the The input signal is unit ramp signal (r(t) = t) so,
steady state error. The steady state error value may be zero or 1
constant value or infinity, when the control system is excited R(s) =
s2
with standard input signals (i.e., step signal, ramp signal and
parabolic signal).
There are three static error constants. They are, Ess =
1. Positional error constant (KP)
2. Velocity error constant (Kv) =
3. Acceleration error constant (Ka).
These static error constants are defined as follows, Ess =
Positional error constant, Kp = 1

=
Kv
Velocity error constant, Kv = Where KV is velocity error constant.
Type 2 System
Acceleration error constant, Ka =
Let,
Steady State Error when the Input is Unit Step Signal
K (s + z1 )(s + z 2 ).....
Steady state error, G(s)H(s) =
s 2 (s + p1 )(s + p2 ).....
Ess =
The input is unit step signal (r(t) = 1), so Kv =
1 1
R(s) = ESS = =0
s Kv
Therefore, the steady state error is zero for type
Ess = = number 2 and more with unit ramp input.
Steady State Error when the Input is Unit Parabolic Signal
Ess =
1
Ess= =
1+ K p For unit parabolic input,
t2 1
Where ‘KP’ is positional error constant. r(t) = and hence R(s) = 3
2 s
Ess =
Ess =
Where,
= Ka
1
∴ Ess =
Ka
For Type 2 System
K ( s + z1 ) ( s + z 2 )......
G(s)H(s) =
s 2 ( s + p1 ) ( s + p2 )......
 K ( s + z1 ) ( s + z 2 )...... 
Ka =  2 
 s ( s + p1 ) ( s + p2 )...... 
Ka = K1 (constant)
1 1
∴ Ess = =
Ka K
= K2 (constant)
Q40. Derive expressions for generalized error constants.

Ans:
Generalized Error Constants
The steady state error can be evaluated for any type of input using generalized error constants and is also expressed as a
function of time. Consider a closed loop system with negative feedback as shown in figure.
Figure: Closed Loop System

The error signal is given by,
R( s)
E(s) =
1 + G(s) H (s)
Expressing it as a function product of two functions i.e.,
1
E(s) = × R(s)
1 + G(s) H (s)
= F(s) R(s)
Where,
1
F(s) =
1 + G(s) H (s)

Applying convolution theorem, we have,
e(t) = L–1[E(s)]
= L–1[F(s)R(s)]
= =
The limit of integral is changed because the input signal starts at t = 0.

Using Taylor series expansion, we get,
T2 T3 T n n.
r(t – T ) = r(t) – T (t) + (t) – (t) + .... + (–1)n r ( t)
2! 3! n!
Now, the error is given as,
e(t) =
C2 C3 n. C
= r(t).C0 – (t).C1 + (t). – + ... + r (t ) n + ....
2! 3! n!
C2 C C n.
= C0 r(t) – C1 (t) + r(t ) − 3 r(t ) + ... + n r (t ) + ....
2! 3! n!
Where,
C0 =
C1 =
C2 =
Cn =
∴ The coefficients C0, C1, C2, C3 ... Cn are called generalized error constants.
The generalized error constants are given by,
C0 = F(s)
C1 = F(s)
C2 = F(s)


Cn = F(s)
Q41. Find the various static error constants for a unity feedback control system whose open loop transfer
function is: . Dec.-15, (R13), Q5(b)
OR
For a unity feedback control system the open loop transfer function G(s) = 10(s + 2)/s2(s + 1). Find,
(a) Position, velocity and acceleration error constants.
(b) Steady state error when the input R(s) = (3/s) – (2/s2) + (1/3 s3).
Ans: Nov.-12, Set-1, Q3
Given that,
10 ( s + 2)
G(s) =
s 2 ( s + 1)
H(s) = 1
To determine,
(a) (i) Positional error constant, Kp = ?
(ii) Velocity error constant, Kv = ?
(iii) Acceleration error constant, Ka = ?
(b) For the input,
3 2 1 3
R(s) = − + s
s s2 3
Steady state error = ?
(a) (i) Position error coefficient Kp is given by,
Kp = G(s) H(s)
10 (2)
= =
0
∴ Kp = ∞
(ii) Velocity error coefficiency Kv is given by,

Kv = s. G(s) H(s)
10 (2)
= =
0
∴ Kv = ∞

(iii) Acceleration error constant Ka is given by,
Ka = s2 G(s) H(s)
10 (2)
= = = 20
1
∴ Ka = 20
(b) Steady State Error
Given that,
3 2 1
R(s) = − 2+ 3
s s 3s
The error signal in s-domain is given by,
R( s)
E(s) =
1 + G (s) H (s)
Substituting R(s), G(s), H(s) values, we get,

3 2 1 3 2 1
− 2+ 3 − 2+ 3
s s 3s s s 3s
E(s) = = 2
10 ( s + 2) s ( s + 1) + 10 ( s + 2)
1+ 2 (1)
s ( s + 1) s 2 ( s + 1)
3 2 1  s 2 ( s + 1)
=  s − + ×
s 2 3s 3  s 2 ( s + 1) + 10 ( s + 2)
3 s 2 ( s + 1)  2 s 2 ( s + 1)  1  s 2 ( s + 1) 
=  2 − 2  2 + 3  2 
s  s ( s + 1) + 10 ( s + 2)  s  s ( s + 1) + 10 ( s + 2)  3s  s ( s + 1) + 10 ( s + 2) 
According to final value theorem, the steady state error is given by,
ess =
0 +1
= 0 – 0 + =
0 + 30 (0 + 2)
ess =
∴ Steady state error, ess =
Q42. Consider a unity feedback system with a
=
closed loop transfer function .
0+b b
Determine the open loop transfer function G(s). = =
0+a−K a−K
Show that the steady state error with unit ramp
input is given by (a – K)/b. b
∴ Kv=
a−K
Ans: Nov.-12, Set-2, Q3
The steady state error for unit ramp signal is given by,
Given that,
1
The closed loop transfer function, ess =
Kv
C (s)
= 1
R( s) = b
H(s) = 1 (Unity feedback system) a−K
The closed loop transfer funtion is given as, a−K
∴ ess =
C (s) G (s) b
=
R( s) 1 + G ( s) H ( s) Q43. For the servomechanism with open loop
G (s) transfer function given below, what type of
T(s) = [  H(s) = 1] input signal give rise to a constant steady
1 + G (s)
state error and calculate their values, G(s) =
G(s) = (1 + G(s)) T(s) 10/[s2(s+1) (s+2)].
G(s) = T(s) + T(s) G(s) Ans: Nov.-12, Set-3, Q3(b)
G(s) – T(s) G(s) = T(s) Given that,

G(s) [1 – T(s)] = T(s) 10
G(s) =
s 2 ( s + 1)( s + 2)
T (s) Let,
G(s) =
1 – T (s) H(s) = 1
We know that,
G(s) = The positional error constant is given as,
Kp =
=
G(s) =
10
=
0
G(s) = ∴Kp =∞

∴ The open loop transfer function is, The velocity error constant is given as,
G(s) = Kv =
The velocity error constant is given by, =
Kv =
=
= ... (1) 10
=
0
= ∴ Kv = ∞


The acceleration error constant is given as, The velocity error constant is given as,
Ka =
Kv = sLt
→ 0 sG(s). H(s)
=  20 ( s + 2) 
⇒ Kv = sLt
→0 s  .1
 ( s + 1)( s + 3) 
=  20( s + 2) 
⇒ Kv = sLt
→ 0  ( s + 1)( s + 3) 
10  
=
1× 2 20 (0 + 2)
⇒ Kv =
(0 + 1)( 0 + 3)
∴ Ka = 5

20 (2)
By inspecting the open loop transfer function, it is clear ⇒ Κv =
(1)( 3)
that, there two poles at the origin. Hence, it is a type 2 system.
Thus, for a type 2 system, the constant steady state error 40
Kv =
is obtained only for parabolic input. 3

Now,
For a type 2 system the steady state error is given as, The acceleration error constant is given as,

1
ess = Ka = sLt
→ 0 [s . G(s) H(s) ]
2
Ka
1  2 10 ( s + 2) 
= ⇒ Ka = sLt
→0 
s .1
5  s ( s + 1)( s + 3) 
ess = 0.2
 2 10 ( s + 2) 
Q44. For the servomechanism with open loop ⇒ Ka = sLt
→0 
s 
 s ( s + 1)( s + 3) 
transfer function given below, what type of
input signal give rise to a constant steady state  10 ( s + 2) 
error and calculate their values, G(s) =20(s + 2)/ ⇒ Ka = sLt
→0 
s. 
[s(s + 1)(s + 3)].  ( s + 1)( s + 3) 
Ans: Nov.-11, Set-1, Q2(b) 10 (0 + 2)
Given that, ⇒ Ka = 0.
(0 + 1)( 0 + 3)
20( s + 2)
G(s) = 10 (2)
s ( s + 1)( s + 3) ⇒ Ka = 0.
Let, (1)( 3)
H(s) = 1 ∴K p = 0

We know that,
The positional error constant is given as, By inspecting the open loop transfer function, it is clear
that, there is one pole at origin. Hence, it is a type 1 system.
Kp = sLt
→0
G(s) H(s)
Hence, for a type 1 system, the constant steady state
 20 ( s + 2)  error is obtained only for ramp input.
⇒ Kp = sLt 
→ 0 s ( s + 1)( s + 3)
.1
  Now,
 20 ( s + 2)  For a type-1 system, the steady state error is given as,
⇒ Kp = sLt
→ 0  s ( s + 1)( s + 3) 
 
1
20 (0 + 2) ess =
⇒ Kp = Kv
0(0 + 1)( 0 + 3) 1
20 (2) ⇒ ess =  40 
⇒ Κp =
 
(0)(1)( 3)  3 
40 3
⇒ Κp = ⇒ ess =
0 40
∴K p = ∞ ∴ess = 0.075

Q45. Find the steady state error for unit step, unit Substituting Kp value, we get,

ramp and unit parabolic inputs for the following
system: 1
⇒ ess =
1+ 2
G(s) = 1000 (s + 1)/[(s + 10) (s + 50)].
1
Ans: Nov.-12, Set-4, Q3(b) =
3
Given that,

G(s) = The steady state error for unit ramp is given as,
Let, 1
ess =
H(s) = 1 Kv
We know that, Substituting Kv value, we get,
The positional error constant is given as, 1
⇒ ess =
Kp = G(s) . H(s) 0

= The steady state error for unit parabolic input is given
as,
= 1
ess =
Ka
Substituting Ka value, we get,
=
1
ess =
0
The velocity error constant is given as, ess = ∞

Kv = s . G(s) . H(s) Result
The steady state error for,
= s. . (1)
(i) Unit step input is, ess = 0.333
= 0 . (ii) Unit ramp input is, ess = ∞

(iii) Unit parabolic input is, ess = ∞
Kv = 0
Q46. Find the steady state error for unit step, unit
ramp and unit parabolic inputs for the following
The acceleration constant is given as,
system,
Ka = s2 G(s) . H(s)
G(s) = 10/[s (0.1s+1) (0.5s+1)].
= s2 . Ans: Nov.-11, Set-2, Q8(b)
Given that,
= 02 . G(s) =
∴ Ka = 0 Let,

H(s) = 1
Now,
We know that,
The steady state error for unit step input is given as,
The positional error constant is given as,
1
ess =
1+ K p Kp = sLt
→ 0 G(s).H(s)

 
0
10
⇒ Ka =
⇒ Kp = Lt  .1
s → 0  s ( 0.1s + 1)( 0.5s + 1) 
(1)(1)
 
 10  Ka = 0
⇒ Kp = Lt  

⇒
s → 0  s ( 0.1s + 1)( 0.5s + 1) 
  Now,
The steady state error for unit step input is given as,
10
⇒ Kp = 1
(0)[0.1(0) + 1][0.5(0) + 1] ess =
1+ K p
10 Substituting KP value, we get,
⇒ Kp =
0
1
⇒ ess =
⇒ Kp = ∞ 1+ ∞
1
And also, ⇒ ess =
∞
The velocity error constant is given as,
⇒
Kv = sLt
→ 0 s.G(s).H(s) The steady state error for unit is given as,
1
 10  ess =
Kv
⇒ Kv = Lt  s. .1
s → 0  s ( 0.1s + 1)( 0.5s + 1) 
  Substituting Kv value, we get,
  1
10 ⇒ ess = = 0.1
⇒ Kv = Lt   10
s → 0  ( 0.1s + 1)( 0.5s + 1) 
 
The steady state error for unit parabolic input is given as,
 10  1
⇒ Kv =   ess =
 [0.1(0) + 1][0.5(0) + 1]
Ka
Substituting the Ka value we get,
10
⇒ Kv = 1
(0 + 1)(0 + 1) ⇒ ess =
0
10 ⇒ ess = ∞
Kv =
⇒
(1)(1) = 10 Result
Similarly, The steady state error for,
(i) Unit step input is, ess = 0
The acceleration constant is given as,
(ii) Unit ramp input is, ess = 0.1
Ka = sLt
→ 0 s G(s).H(s)
2
(iii) Unit parabolic input is, ess = ∞ .
 2 10  Q47. A positional servo mechanism with H(s) = 1 is
⇒ Ka = sLt s .1
→0
 s ( 0.1s + 1)(0.5s + 1)  characterized by G(s) = . Find the
 10  static error coefficients of the system. Also

⇒ Ka = sLt s  find the steady state error of the system when
→0
 ( 0.1s + 1)( 0.5s + 1) 
subjected to input defined by r (t) = a0 + a1t + a2
 10 s  t2

⇒ Ka = sLt   ; t ≥ 0.
→ 0 ( 0.1s + 1)( 0.5s + 1) 2
 
Ans: May-10, Set-4, Q3(b)
 10 (0) 

⇒ Ka =   Given that,
 [0.1(0) + 1][0.5(0) + 1]
For a positional servomechanism,
0 10

⇒ Ka = G (s) = and H (s) = 1
(0 + 1)(0 + 1) s[0.1s + 1]
10
∴ Loop transfer function, G (s) H (s) =
s[0.1s + 1]
To determine,
(i) Static error constants Kp, Kv and Ka = ?
(ii) Steady state error if the input is,
a2 2
r (t) = a0 + a1 t + t , t≥ 0
2
(i) Determination of Static Error Constants
The positional error constant is given by,
KP = G(s) H(s)
10
KP =
s[0.1s + 1]
10
KP =
0 × [0.1× 0 + 1]
KP = ∞

The velocity error constant is given by,
Kv = sG(s) H(s)
10
⇒ Kv = s×
s[0.1s + 1]
10
⇒ Kv =
[0.1s + 1]
10
⇒ Kv =
(0.1 × 0) + 1
⇒ K v = 10
The acceleration error constant is given by,
Ka = s2G(s) H(s)
10
Ka = s2 ×
s[0.1s + 1]
10 s
Ka =
[0.1s + 1]
10 × 0
Ka =
(0.1 × 0) + 1
Ka = 0

(ii) Determination of Steady State Error
Given that,
a2 2
Input, r (t) = a0 + a1t + t
2

Applying Laplace transform on r (t), we get,
a0  1!  a2  2!   n n! 
R (s) =
s
+ a1  s 2  + 2 ×
 s 3 
 L[T ] = n 
 s 
a0 a a2
⇒ R (s) = + 21 + 3
s s s
The error signal in s-domain is given by,
R( s)
E (s) =
1 + G (s) H (s)
Substituting the R(s) value, we get,
a0 a1 a2
+ +
s s 2 s3
∴ E (s) = [ H(s) = 1]
10
1+
s[0.1s + 1]
a a   0.1s + s 
2
a
⇒ E (s) = 0 + 21 + 32  
 s s s   0.1s + s + 10 
2
a0  0.1s + s  a1  0.1s 2 + s  a 2  0.1s + s 

2 2
E (s) =  + + 3  
s  0.1s 2 + s + 10  s 2  0.1s 2 + s + 10  s  0.1s 2 + s + 10 
By final value theorem, we have,
Steady state error, ess = e (t) = s.E (s)
∴ ess = s [E(s)]
⇒ ess = s
a0  0.1s 2 + s  a1  0.1s 2 + s  a2  0.1s 2 + s 

⇒ ess = s×   + s×   + s×  
s  0.1s 2 + s + 10  s 2  0.1s 2 + s + 10  s 3  0.1s 2 + s + 10 
 0.1s 2 + s  a1  0.1s 2 + s  a2  0.1s 2 + s 

⇒ ess = a0   +   +  
 0.1s + s + 10 
2
s  0.1s 2 + s + 10  s 2  0.1s 2 + s + 10 
⇒ ess = 0 + ∞ + ∞
⇒ ess = ∞
∴ Steady state error, ess = ∞
Q50. What are derivative controllers and why are
2.5 P, PI, PID CONTROLLERS they used in combination with proportional
controllers?
Q48. Discuss the effects of proportional derivative
controller on the performance of the system. Ans: (April/May-13, Set-4, Q3(a) | Model Paper-I, Q8(a))
Ans: Derivative Controller: A controller in which the output or

the control signal is proportional to the rate of change of error
The performance of system is effected by proportional
derivative (PD) controller in the following ways, signal is known as derivative controller.
1. The proportional integral controller reduces the peak For D-controller

overshoot. d
c(t) ∝ e(t)
2. It reduces rise time dt
3. It reduces settling time d
c(t) = kd e(t)
4. It increases bandwidth dt
By applying laplace transform we have,
5. The gain and phase margins get increased by the effect
of proportional derivative controller. C(s) = kd sE (s)
6. It also increases the damping ratio. Therefore, the transfer function of the D-controller is,
7. There will be no effect of proportional derivative C (s)
=kd s
controller on natural frequency ωn E (s)
8. Steady state error is not effected Where, kd represents derivative gain.
The block diagram of the D-controller is shown in
9. Type of the system remains unchanged
figure (a).
10. For initially unstable and lightly damped systems, PD
controller proves ineffective E(s) C(s)
+ skd
11. It develops noise signal and causes saturation effect. –
Q49. Discuss the effects of proportional integral

controller on the performance of the system.
Ans:
Following are the effects of proportional integral (PI)
controller on the performance of the system, Figure
1. Damping ratio is improved Advantages
2. Gain margin and phase margin along with M r are 1. The derivative controller increases the damping ratio.
increased
2. The derivative controller reduces the peak overshoot.
3. Rise time is increased
Disadvantages
4. Bandwidth is decreased
1. The derivative controller does not act on the actual error
5. Noise at high frequency is filtered out.
signal. Instead , it produces a control action based on
Effect of PI controller on System Performance the rate of change of error signal.
The PI controller increases the order type of the system 2. It does not produce corrective measures for a constant
by one, hence resulting in the elimination or reduction of the error.
steady state error produced due to the proportional action. The 3. It amplifies noise signal leading to a saturation effect in
proportional action increases the loop gain and thus makes the the actuator.
system less sensitive to variations of system parameters. Derivative controller does not produce any control signal
for constant error since, the control signal is a function of time.
In a PI controller, the proportional action increases the
Hence, D-controller is always used along with P or I controller.
loop gain, there by making the system less sensitive to parameter
variations, improves the steady state tracking accuracy and Q51. What are the types of controllers that are used
rejection of disturbance signal. But the proportional action in closed loop system? Explain them.
introduces a steady state error. This steady state error is Ans:
minimized or eliminated by the integral action.
Controller: A controller is a device which is used to obtain the
Overall, the PI controller reduces the steady state error better control action in a feedback control system by modifying
but, the system becomes less stable than the original system as the error signal. It also modifies the transient response and
the order of the system is increased by one. steady state error of the system.

The types of controllers used in the closed loop system are,
(i) P-controller: A controller in which the output or the control signal is proportional to the error signal is known as proportional
controller.
For P-controller, c(t) ∝ e(t)
c(t) = Kp e(t)
By applying Laplace transform, we have,
C(s) = Kp E(s)
Therefore, the transfer function of the P-controller is,
C (s)
= Kp
E (s)
Where,
‘Kp’ represents proportional gain.
The block diagram of the P-controller is shown in figure (1).
R(s) E(s) C(s)

+ Kp
–
Figure (1)
(ii) I-controller
A controller in which the output or the control signal is proportional to the integral of error signal is known as integral
controller.
For I-controller,
c(t) ∝ ∫ e(t ) dt
∫
c(t) = Ki e(t ) dt

E (s)
C(s) = Ki
s
Therefore, the transfer function of the I-controller is,
C (s) K i
=
E (s) s
Here, ‘Ki’ represents proportional gain.
The block diagram of the I-controller is shown in figure (2).
R(s) E(s) Ki C(s)

+
– s
Figure (2)
(iii) PI-controller: A pole at origin which increases system complexity is the sum of the signals one being proportional to the
error signal and the other being proportional to the integral of the error signal is known as PI-controller.
For PI-controller,
∫
c(t) ∝ [e(t ) + e(t ) dt]
∫
c(t) = K p e(t ) + K i e(t ) dt
By applying Laplace transform,

E (s)
C(s) = Kp E(s) + Ki
s
 I 
C(s) = Kp E(s) + 1 + 
 Ti s 
Therefore, the transfer function of the PI-controller is,
C (s)  1   Ti s + 1 
= K p 1 +  = Kp 
E ( s )  Ti s   Ti s 
Where,
‘Kp’ represents proportional gain and
‘Ti ’ represents integral time.
The block diagram of the PI-controller is shown in figure (3).
E(s) 1 C(s) E(s)  T s + 1 C(s)

+ Kp + + K p  i 
– Ti s – –  Ti s 
Figure (3)
(iv) PD-controller: A controller in which the output or control signal is a sum of two signals, one being proportional to the
error signal and the other being proportional to the derivative of error signal is known as PD-controller.
 d 
For PD-controller, c(t) ∝ e(t ) + e(t )
 dt 
d
c(t) = Kp e(t) + Kp Td e(t)
dt
C(s) = Kp E(s) + Kp Td s E(s)
C(s) = Kp E(s) [1 + Td s]
Therefore, the transfer function of the PD-controller is,
C ( s)
= K p (1 + Td s )
E ( s)
Where,
‘Kp’ represents proportional gain and
‘Td’ represents derivative time.

The block diagram of the PD-controller is shown in figure (4).
E(s) + C(s) E(s) C(s)

+ Kp Td s – + Kp (1 + Td s)
– –
Figure (4)
(v) PID-controller: A controller in which the output or control signal is a sum of three signals one being proportional to the
error signal, other being proportional to the integral of error signal and the third being proportional to the derivative of
error signal is known as PID-controller.
 d 

 ∫
For PID-controller, c(t) ∝ e(t ) + e(t )dt +
dt
e(t )

Kp d
c(t) = Kp e(t) K p e(t ) +
Ti ∫ e(t ) dt + K p Td
dt
e(t )

K p E ( s)
C(s) = Kp E(s) + + K p Td s E ( s )
Ti s
 1 
C(s) = Kp E(s) 1 + + Td s
 Ti s 
Therefore, the transfer function of the PID-controller is,
C (s)  1 
= K p 1 + + Td s 
E (s)  Ti s 
Where,
‘Kp’ represents proportional gain
‘Ti’ represents integral time and
‘Td’ represents derivative time
The block diagram of the PID-controller is shown in figure (5).
E(s) 1 C(s) E(s)  1  C(s)

+ Kp + + K p 1 + + Td s 
– Ti s – –  Ti s 
Td s
Figure (5)
Q52. Show that a derivative feedback has the effect of increasing the damping ratio without affecting the
undamped natural frequency of oscillations.
Ans:
Consider a second order system shown in figure (1).
Figure (1)
From figure (1), we get the transfer function as, Comparing equations (5) and (2), we get,
 k  1  Natural frequency, ωn = k ... (6)
  
C (s)  s + a  s  And 2ζ ωn = a + kb
=
R( s)  k  1 
1+    a + kb a + kb
 s + a  s  ζ = =
2ωn 2 k
k
a kb
s( s + a) k = + ... (7)
= = 2 k 2 k
s( s + a) + k s(s + a) + k
s( s + a) From equations (3) and (6) we observe that the natural
k frequency is the same in both the cases i.e., with and without
= 2 ... (1) derivative feedback.
s + as + k
We have, From equations (4) and (7) we observe that on applying
a derivative feedback the damping ratio increases.
C (s) ω 2n
= 2 ... (2) Thus a derivative feedback has the effect of increasing
R( s) s + 2ζω n s + ω 2n the damping ratio without affecting the undamped natural
Comparing equations (1) and (2) we get, frequency of oscillations.
Natural frequency, ωn = k ... (3) Q53. The figure shows PD controller used for the
system. Determine the value of Td so that the
And 2ζωn = a
system will be critically damped. Calculate its
a
Damping ratio, ζ = settling time.
2ωn
a
= ... (4)
2 k
Now, let us apply a rate feedback signal which is also
called output derivative signal.
The block diagram of figure is thus modified into the Figure
one shown in figure (2). Ans:
The given PD controller used for the system is shown

in figure (1).
Figure (2)
Figure (2) can be reduced to the one shown in figure (3).
Figure (1)
The step by step reduction of figure (1) is as follows.

Figure (3)
The closed-loop transfer function is given by,
 k  1 
  
C (s)  s + a + kb  s 
=
R( s)  k  1  Figure (2)
1+   
 s + a + kb  s 
k k
= = 2
s ( s + a + kb ) + k s + as + kbs + k
k
= 2 ... (5)
s + (a + kb ) s + k Figure (3)

In this case ζ = 1
1
∴ T= = 0.5 sec
1× 2
∴ Current settling time for 5% error,
Figure (4) ts = 3T
= 3 × 0.5 = 1.5 sec
4(1 + sTd )
Current settling time for 2% error,
C (s) s ( s + 1.6)
∴ = ts = 4T
R(s) 4(1 + sTd )
1+ = 4 × 0.5
s ( s + 1.6)
= 2 sec
4(1 + sTd )
Q54. What is PID controller? Explain the method
s ( s + 1.6)
= of tuning a PID controller when the dynamic
s ( s + 1.6) + 4(1 + sTd )
model of the plant is known.
s ( s + 1.6)
Ans:
4(1 + sTd ) PID Controller: The main function of a controller in feedback
= control system is to achieve the better control action by modify-
s ( s + 1.6) + 4(1 + sTd )
ing the transient response and steady state error of the system.
4 + 4 sTd A controller which can improve the system performance with
= 2 a suitable combination of proportional, integral and derivative
s + 1.6 s + 4 sTd + 4
modes such a controller is known as PID controller.
Now, equating the denominator with the characteristics The controller which produces an output signal consists
equation, of three terms, one is proportional to the actuating signal, 2nd
is proportional to the integral of it and 3rd terms is proportional
i.e., s2 + 2 ζ ωn s ω2n + = s2 + (1.6 + 4Td)s + 4 to the derivative of it, is called as “PID controller”.
ω2n = 4 ⇒ ωn = 2 Output of the PID controller,

 d 
2 ζ ωns = (1.6 + 4Td)s
 ∫
U(t) ∝ e(t ) + e(t ) +
dt
e(t )

∴ 2 ζ ωn= 1.6 + 4Td
Kp d
Under critically damped condition, we have, ∴ U(t) = Kp e(t) +
Ti ∫ e(t )dt + K T p d
dt
e(t )
ζ = 1 Where,
∴ 2 × 1 × 2 = 1.6 + 4Td [ ωn = 2] Kp = Proportional gain
Ti = Integral time
4 = 1.6 + 4Td
Td = Derivative time.
4Td = 4 – 1.6 By taking the Laplace transform to the equation,
2.4 K p E (s)
Td = U(s) = Kp E(s) + + Kp Td sE(s)
4 Ti s
∴ Td = 0.6 Output of the PID controller,
The current settling time for 5% error is given by, U (s)  1 
= K p 1 + + Td s 
E (s)  Ti s 
ts = 3T
And the current settling time for 2% error is given by, The basic control configuration of feedback control
system is as shown in figure (2).
ts = 4T
Where, R(s) is the input signal
Where, E(s) is the error signal
1 U(s) is the output of the controller and
T – Time constant =
ζω n C(s) is the output signal.
The basic control configuration for various tuning techniques is shown in the figure (1).
x(s) A(s) B(s)

+  1  y(s)
– K p 1 + + Td s  Plant
 Ti s 
Figure (1)
PID controller
R(s) E(s) + C(s)

+ 1/Ti (s) + Kp Plant
– +
Td (s)
Figure (2)
The PID controller producer a command signal U(s), to the plant by manipulating the error signal E(s). The error signal
is the difference between the desired output (input, set point and command) and the actual output C(s).
Tuning of a PID Controller when Dynamic Model of a Plant is Known
The process of selecting the controller parameters to meet desired performance specifications is known as tuning of a
controller. The tuning of a PID controller is done by Ziegler-Nichols method. In this method, first assumed that the controller has
only proportional gain Kp by setting the parameters Ti = ∞ Td = 0. Increase Kp from 0 to critical value Kcr at which the output first
exhibits sustained oscillations (is as shown in figure(3)). Thus, the critical gain Kcr and corresponding period Pcr are determined.
The PID controller can be tuned easily using following results by knowing the Kcr and Pcr values,
Kp = 0.6 Kcr
Ti = 0.5 Pcr
Td = 0.125 Pcr

Where, Kcr = Critical gain
Pcr = Critical period.
C(t)
Figure (3)
Q55. Explain the method of tuning PID controller when the dynamic model of the plant is not known.
Ans:
Dynamic Model of the Plant is Not Known: The PID controller constants can be calculated even though, the dynamic model
of the plant is not known if the open-loop response for a step input is s-shaped as shown in the figure (1). The method used for
finding constant is called Ziegler- Nichols tuning method.

y(t) 2. The proportional controller of PID-controller increases
the gain of the system.
yss
3. The derivative controller of PID-controller decreases
the rate of change of error.
4. It reduces maximum overshoot.
5. Steady-state error is zero.

o
L t 6. It increases the stability of the system.
T
7. It improves the transient response of the system.
Figure (1)
8. It is possible to tune the parameters in the controllers.
Procedure
Disadvantages of PID-controller
1. By using the s-shaped open loop response of the
The disadvantages of PID-controller are,
controller, calculate the two constants dead time ‘L’ and
1. It is difficult to use in non-linear systems.
time constant ‘T’.
2. It is difficult to implement in large industries where
2. ‘L’ can be calculated by drawing a tangent to the s-shaped
complex calculations are required.
curve at the inflection point and also find the intersection
with time axis as shown in the figure (2).
3. Using the values ‘L’ and ‘T’, we can model a first order
system as shown in the figure.
B(s) Ke − Ls y(s)
(Ts + 1)
Figure (2)
Where,
K = Steady state value of the output ‘yss’.

4. Finally using ‘L’ and ‘T’ values calculate the controller
constants as,
T 
K p = 1.2 
L
Ti = 2 L
Td = 0.5 L
with the help of above PID-controller constants, response

of the system is obtained.
Q56. What is PID controller and write its merits and

demerits.
Ans: Nov./Dec.-16, (R13), Q9(b)
For answer refer Unit-IV, Q54.
Advantages
1. As PID-controller is a combination of three controllers,

so the combined effect of all the three improves the
system performance in all aspects.

Control System (Unit-2)

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Unit-2 Time Response Analysis 2.

Figure: Step Signal

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Figure: Ramp Signal

Figure: Parabolic Signal Figure: Time Response of a System

Q7. Define the following, Q11. Define rise time.

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The various types of static error constants are,

damping in the system?

Q18. Explain about various test signals used in control system.

Figure (4): Impulse Signal

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Let us consider the closed loop transfer function of first

Figure (2): Response of First Order System to Unit Step Input

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Substituting R(s) value in equation (1), we get, Characteristic Equation

Applying inverse Laplace transform on both sides, we T(s) = ... (1)

t = 1T ⇒ c(t) = 1 ± G(s) H(s) = 0 ... (3)

Significance of Characteristic Equation

4. The nature of the system can be determined using

5. Using characteristic equation, the output response

6. Using characteristic equation, the various specifications

7. By modifying the characteristic equation (adding poles)

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Order can also be determined by using transfer function (iii) G(s)H(s) =

B(s) = Denominator polynomial. (b) Order

Maximum power of s in denominator polynomial B(s) D(s) = s(s + 3)(s2 + 2s + 10)

n = 2 – Second order system (a) Type

= – zωn ± jωn = – zωn ± jωd

⇒ ω2n = A(s2 + 2zωns + ω2n ) + (Bs + c)s ... (3)

Substituting A value in equation (3), we get,

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(ii) When Damping Factor 0 < ζ < 1 i.e., Under Damped

Using this equation, the plot for response of under

Figure: Response of Under Damped Second Order System

For unit step, u(t) = 1,

(i) When Damping Factor, ζ = 0 i.e., Undamped Case Figure (3)

C(s) = c(t) = ωn sin(π)

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On solving the characteristic equation, we have,

⇒ ω2n = A(s + s2) + B(s + s1) ... (5)

Put, s = – s1 in equation (5), we get,

⇒ ω2n = A(– s1 + s2) + B(– s1 + s1)

⇒ ω2n = (s2 – s1)A

Put, s = – s2 in equation (5), we get,

ω2n = B(s1 – s2)

Substituting s1, s2 values and we get,

Substituting A, B values in equation (4), we get,

Applying inverse Laplace transform on both sides, we get,

c(t) = ... (6)

Replacing s1, s2 values, we get,

ω .e −ζω nt  eiω n 1−ζ 2 t

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2.3 Time Domain specifications

Q29. For an underdamped second order system,

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Substituting t = tp in above equation and equating it to zero, we get,

e −ζω nt p sin ωd.tp = 0

%Mp = ... (6)

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Substituting the value of sin φ in above equation, we = 64 r – 64 c ... (3)

have, Apply Laplace transform on equation (3), we get,