Analysis of Human Motion

1. Discuss the concept of the total musculoskeletal system as a mechanism for motion.

The musculoskeletal system (locomotor system) is a human body system that provides our

body with movement, stability, shape, and support. It is subdivided into two broad systems: 

 Muscular system, which includes all types of muscles in the body. Skeletal muscles, in particular,
are the ones that act on the body joints to produce movements. Besides muscles, the muscular
system contains the tendons which attach the muscles to the bones.
 Skeletal system, whose main component is the bone. Bones articulate with each other and form
the joints, providing our bodies with a hard-core, yet mobile, skeleton. The integrity and function
of the bones and joints is supported by the accessory structures of the skeletal system; articular
cartilage, ligaments, and bursae.
Besides its main function to provide the body with stability and mobility, the musculoskeletal
system has many other functions; the skeletal part plays an important role in other homeostatic
functions such as storage of minerals (e.g., calcium) and hematopoiesis, while the muscular system
stores the majority of the body's carbohydrates in the form of glycogen.
The muscles of the muscular system keep bones in place; they assist with movement
by contracting and pulling on the bones. To allow motion, different bones are connected by
joints which are connected to other bones and muscle fibers via connective tissues such as
tendons and ligaments.
2. Identify the anatomic components of human movement.
Without going into complicated physics explanations and
equations, movement involves an entity moving from point A to point B. The movement is
carried out around a fixed axis or fulcrum and has a direction.
Anatomical movements are no different. They usually involve bones or body parts
moving around fixed joints relative to the main anatomical axes (sagittal, coronal, frontal,
etc.) or planes parallel to them.

 Flexion/extension

o
 Abduction/adduction

o
 o
 Protrusion/retrusion

o
 Depression/elevation

o
 Lateral/medial rotation

o
 Pronation/supination

o
 Circumduction

 Deviation

 Opposition/reposition

 Inversion/eversion

o
 Hyperflexion/hyperextension

 Sources

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Types of movements in the human body

Author: Adrian Rad BSc (Hons) • Reviewer: Francesca Salvador MSc
Last reviewed: December 29, 2022
Reading time: 17 minutes

Lateral flexion of vertebral column

Flexio lateralis columnae vertebralis

1/3

Synonyms: Lateral flexion of spine, Flexio lateralis spinae

This article will shed some light on the various types of movements in the human body. They will
be grouped in pairs of ‘antagonistic actions’ (actions that oppose one another), just like certain
muscle groups.

In order to understand fellow medical students and physicians, you need to have an excellent grasp
of the anatomical language. This can simultaneously be a blessing and a curse. If you see the glass
half full, the language is extremely precise and exact, leaving no room for errors, misinterpretation,
or miscommunication. If you see the glass half empty, there is only one specific term that can
accurately describe an anatomical structure/movement/relation, which means there are a lot of
words that you need to learn in order to become fluent in this language.

Almost every anatomy department in the world naturally focuses its resources on teaching students
the names and details of bones, muscles, vessels, nerves, etc. However, the basic concepts
of planes, relations, and especially anatomical movements are glanced over in perhaps the first 30
minutes to 1 hour. Planes and relations eventually catch up with students because they are
constantly used to relate anatomical structures together, but movements are usually forgotten or
poorly understood.

Key facts about the movements in the human body

Table quiz

Flexion Bending

Extension Straightening

Abduction Moving away from the reference axis

Adduction Bringing closer to the reference axis

Protrusion Forward

Retrusion Backward

Elevation Superiorly to the reference axis

Depression Inferiorly to the reference axis

Lateral rotation Rotation away from the midline

Medial rotation Rotation toward the midline

Pronation Medial rotation of the radius, resulting in the palm of the hand facing posteriorly (if in anatomical
position) or inferiorly (if elbow is flexed)

Supination Lateral rotation of the radius, resulting in the palm of the hand facing anteriorly (if in anatomical
position) or superiorly (if elbow is flexed)
Mnemonic: 'Supinate to the Sun and Pronate to the Plants'
(Supinate: palm towards the Sun, Pronate: palm towards the Plants)

Circumduction Combination of: flexion, abduction, extension, adduction

Deviation Ulnar and radial abduction of the wrist

Opposition Bringing the thumb in contact to a finger

Reposition Separating the thumb from the digits

Inversion Plantar side toward the medial plane

 Eversion Plantar side away from the medial plane

physics explanations and equations, movement involves an entity moving from point A to point B.

The movement is carried out around a fixed axis or fulcrum and has a direction.

Anatomical movements are no different. They usually involve bones or body parts moving around
fixed joints relative to the main anatomical axes (sagittal, coronal, frontal, etc.) or planes parallel to
them.

Therefore, the template of anatomical movements consists of the following (not all of them are
required for every movement):

 Anatomical structures involved in the movement.

 Reference axes around which the movement happens.
 Direction, which in anatomy is usually related to a standard plane, such as
the median, medial, sagittal, frontal, etc.

Learn the types of movements of the human body (46 structures).

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Types of body movementsExplore study unit

Flexion/extension

The opposing movements of flexion and extension take place in sagittal directions around a
frontal/coronal axis. Flexion, or bending, involves decreasing the angle between the two entities
taking part in the movement (bones or body parts). In contrast, extension, or straightening,
involves increasing the respective angle.

Knee

Flexion of leg

Flexio cruris

1/2

Synonyms: Flexion of knee, Flexio genus

Flexion and extension of the knee consist of the following:

 Anatomical structures: The tibia of the leg moves relative to the femur of

the thigh.
 Reference axes: The movement is in the sagittal plane. The fulcrum is provided
by the knee joint, through which the frontal/coronal axis passes.
 Direction: During flexion, the leg moves backwards (posteriorly). During
extension, it moves forwards (anteriorly).
Elbow

Flexion and extension of the elbow joint can be described as follows:

 Anatomical structures: The forearm moves relative to the arm. More precisely,

the ulna (one of the two forearm bones) moves relative to the humerus (bone of
the arm).
 Reference axes: The movement is in the sagittal plane. The fulcrum is provided
by the elbow joint, around a frontal/coronal axis .
 Direction: During flexion, the forearm moves upwards and ‘closer’ to the arm,
resulting in a decreased angle between them. During extension it straightens,
increasing the angle relative to the arm.
Shoulder

Flexion of arm

Flexio brachii

1/2

Synonyms: Flexion of shoulder, Flexio articulationis glenohumeralis

Flexion and extension of the shoulder occur like this:

 Anatomical structures: The humerus of the arm moves relative to the scapula of

the shoulder blade.
 Reference axes: The movement is in the sagittal plane. The fulcrum is provided
by the shoulder, or glenohumeral joint, around a frontal axis.
 Direction: During flexion, the arm moves anteriorly and upwards (in full flexion).
During extension of the arm/shoulder joint (from a flexed position), the
arm moves posteriorly and downwards, back to the anatomical position. If a full
range of motion is performed, it can continue posteriorly, creating an imaginary
arc or semicircle.
Neck
 Flexion and extension of the neck follow the format below:

Flexion of neck

Flexio colli

1/2

Synonyms: Flexio cervicis

 Anatomical structures: The skull and cervical vertebrae of the neck move relative

to the thoracic vertebrae and upper back.
 Reference axes: The movement is in the sagittal plane. The ‘fulcrum’ is not fixed
due to the anatomy and movement of the cervical vertebrae, but it can loosely
be positioned through the upper thoracic vertebrae. Movement occurs around a
frontal/coronal axis.
 Direction: During flexion, the head and neck move anteriorly and downwards (in
full flexion). Essentially, you are looking down. During extension, it moves
posteriorly and slightly downwards.
Vertebral column

Flexion and extension of the vertebral column follow the following movement template:

Flexion of vertebral column

Flexio columnae vertebralis

1/2

Synonyms: Flexion of spine, Flexio spinae

 Anatomical structures: The vertebral column moves relative to

the sacrum and hip bone.
 Reference axes: The movement is in the sagittal plane. You can imagine the
‘fulcrum’ as being loosely through the two hip bones and sacrum. Movement
occurs around a frontal/coronal axis.
 Direction: During flexion, when you are bending forward, the vertebral column
moves anteriorly and downwards (in full flexion). During extension, it moves
backwards and slightly downwards.
Foot

In the world of anatomy, flexion of the foot is referred to as dorsiflexion and plantarflexion. Both
movements happen at the ankle joint. Dorsiflexion means flexion of the dorsum (top) part of the
foot by reducing the angle between it and the anterior surface of the leg. It happens when you lift
the front part of your foot while keeping your heel on the ground.

Plantarflexion is flexion of the plantar (underside) part of the foot by moving it down. This
movement happens when you are standing on your toes or pointing them.

Dorsiflexion of foot

Dorsiflexio pedis

1/2

Synonyms: Foot dorsiflexion, Dorsiextension of foot, show more...

Abduction/adduction

The movements of abduction and adduction are intimately related to the median plane. They both
generally occur in the frontal plane and are happening around an anteroposterior axis.

Are you struggling to remember all of these terms like abduction, adduction and flexion? Master
basic medical terminology with our quizzes and free worksheets!

Arms & Legs

 Abduction of arm

Abductio brachii

1/4

Synonyms: Abduction of shoulder joint, Abductio articulationis glenohumeralis

The easiest examples for understanding abduction and adduction are the legs and arms, which are
very similar:

 Anatomical structures: The arm moves relative to the trunk and the shoulder. The
leg moves relative to the hip.
 Reference axes: The movement is in the frontal plane. You can imagine the
‘fulcrum’ as axes that pierce the shoulder and the hip respectively, each one
following in a forward-backward trajectory.
 Direction: During abduction, you are moving your arm/leg away from the
median plane. During adduction, you are moving them towards the median
plane. To picture these movements, imagine a child jumping and flailing his/her
arms very excitedly in order to grab your attention.
Digits

The digits of the hands and feet are also capable of abduction and adduction, but in a slightly
specific way. The movements are also related to the medial plane, but this time to the medial plane
of the palm or foot, not the body itself.

Adduction of fingers

Adductio digitorum manus

1/2

Synonyms: none

 Anatomical structures: The digits move relative to the third finger of the hand or
the second toe of the foot. These two entities represent the medial planes.
 Reference axes: The movement can be in multiple planes, depending on the
orientation of the hand or foot.
 Direction: During abduction, you are moving the digits away from the third finger
or second toe, hence spreading them apart from the medial plane. Adduction is
the opposite - the digits are brought closer.

Protrusion/retrusion

The movements of protrusion and retrusion take place in the sagittal plane. Since they are also
related to the frontal/coronal axis, but instead of only moving around it, these movements are also
taking place parallel to it. Protrusion involves a movement going straight ahead or forward.

Retrusion is the opposite and involves going backwards. Anatomical structures capable of such
actions are the tongue, chin (mandible) and lips.

Mandible

Protrusion and retrusion of the mandible occur as follows:

Protraction of mandible

Protractio mandibulae

1/2

Synonyms: Protrusion of mandible, Protrusio mandibulae

 Anatomical structures: The mandible moves relative to the viscerocranium (fused

bones of the skull forming the face)
 Reference axes: The movement is primarily of a 'sliding/gliding' nature, and
occurs in the sagittal plane. A very slight degree of rotation will also occur
around a frontal/coronal axis.
 Direction: During protrusion, the mandible moves directly anteriorly (think
underbite). During retrusion, it moves directly posteriorly (think overbite).
These movements are sometimes interchanged with protraction and retraction. However, the latter
pair have an additional movement added to them. Protraction is not only an anterior movement but
an anterolateral one as well. This means that the structure moves forwards and laterally.
 Similarly, retraction also consists of an extra posteromedial movement. The scapulae are the
standard example of bones that perform protraction and retraction.

Depression/elevation

While protrusion and retrusion move anatomical structures forward and backwards, depression and
elevation move them down (inferiorly) and up (superiorly), respectively.

Mandible

The template for the mandible is as follows:

Elevation of mandible

Elevatio mandibulae

1/2

Synonyms: none

 Anatomical structures: The mandible moves relative to the viscerocranium (fused

bones of the skull forming the face)
 Reference axes: The movement is in the frontal plane. It has a ‘fulcrum’ due to
the nature of the temporomandibular joint, which is the transverse plane
passing through the two respective joints.
 Direction: During depression, the mandible moves directly downwards. During
elevation, it moves directly upwards. You are performing these two movements
when you open and close your mouth or during mastication.

Lateral/medial rotation

Rotation happens in the transverse plane around a vertical (longitudinal) axis that happens relative
to the median plane. Medial rotation involves bringing the anatomical structure closer to the
median plane, while lateral rotation involves moving it further away.
 Although very similar, rotations are distinct from abductions/adductions, due to the planes the
movements are happening in.

Many anatomical entities take part in rotation, but a few examples are given below.

Head

Rotation of head

Rotatio capitis

1/2

Synonyms: none

 Anatomical structures: The head turns relative to the trunk.

 Reference axes: The movement is in the transverse plane. The ‘fulcrum’ is the
longitudinal/vertical axis passing up and down through the vertebral column and
the crown of your head.
 Direction: These two movements happen by changing the position the nose is
pointing to. Turning your head laterally corresponds to lateral rotation, while
turning it back to look straight ahead corresponds to medial rotation.
Arm/leg

Internal rotation of arm

Rotatio interna brachii

1/4

Synonyms: Medial rotation of arm, Internal rotation of shoulder joint, show more...

 Anatomical structures: The anterior surface of the arm/leg turns relative to the

trunk.
 Reference axes: The movement is in the transverse plane. The ‘fulcrum’ is the
longitudinal/vertical axis passing up and down through the arm/leg itself.
 Direction: These two movements happen by changing the position of their
anterior surfaces. By bringing your biceps/vastus muscles towards the midline,
you are rotating them medially. If you orientate them in the opposite direction,
you are rotating them laterally. For instance, if you are holding a newborn baby,
your arms are medially rotated.

Pronation/supination

Strictly speaking, pronation and supination are considered as two special types of rotation. They
are restricted to the forearm and involve the radius twisting over the ulna. The movement template
is as follows:

Pronation of forearm

Pronatio antebrachii

1/2

Synonyms: none

 Anatomical structures: The distal part of the radius rotates around the ulna. Its
proximal part rotates in place.
 Reference axes: The movement is in the transverse plane. The ‘fulcrum’ is the
longitudinal axis passing through the ulna.
 Direction: Supination is a lateral rotation of the radius, resulting in the palm of
the hand facing anteriorly (if in anatomical position) or superiorly (if elbow is
flexed). In contrast, pronation is a medial rotation of the radius, with the palm
ending in opposite directions compared to supination. You are supinating and
pronating when you hold a bowl of soup and when you empty it, respectively.
Mnemonic

Pronation and supination are very similar and easily confused. Use the following mnemonic to
never confuse pronation and supination ever again!

Supinate to the Sun and Pronate to the Plants

 Supinate: palm towards the Sun
 Pronate: palm towards the Plants

Circumduction

Circumduction is a special type of movement that is actually a combination of many other ones.
The overall movement starts with flexion, followed by abduction, extension and finally adduction.
The order must be sequential, but it can start from either flexion or adduction. The result is a
circular movement. Due to the multitude of movements, circumduction is restricted to ball-and-
socket type joints, such as the shoulder and the hip.

3. Describe the basic movement of the body segments.

There are seven basic movements the human body can perform and all other exercises
are merely variations of these seven: Pull, Push, Squat, Lunge, Hinge, Rotation and
Gait.
4. Describe and explain personal posture and its analysis, evaluation, adjustments and the principles
that may apply to it.

Good posture is about more than standing up straight so you can look your
best.

 It is an important part of your long-term health.

 Making sure that you hold your body the right way, whether you are
moving or still, can prevent pain, injuries, and other health problems.

What is posture?

Posture, which is the relative disposition of the body at any one moment, is a
composite of the positions of the different joints of the body at that time. The
position of each joint has an effect on the position of the other joints [1]:

 Correct posture- the position in which minimum stress is applied to

each joint
 Faulty posture- any static position that increases the stress to the joints
Generally, there are two types of posture [2]:
 1. Static posture- the body and its segments are aligned and maintained
in certain positions. Examples include standing, sitting, lying, and
kneeling.
2. Dynamic posture- the body or its segments are moving—walking,
running, jumping, throwing, and lifting.

Posture Assessment

Optimal posture

The key to good posture is the position of the spine. The spine has three
natural curves - at your neck, mid/upper back, and lower back. Correct
posture should maintain these curves, but not increase them. Your head
should be above your shoulders, and the top of your shoulder should be over
the hips.

 In an ideal posture, the line of gravity should pass through specific points
of the body. This can simply be observed or evaluated using a plumb line to
assess the midline of the body.
 This line should pass through the lobe of the ear, the shoulder joint, the
hip joint, though the greater trochanter of the femur, then slightly anterior
to the midline of the knee joint and lastly anterior to the lateral malleolus.
 When viewed from either the front or the back, the vertical line passing
through the body's centre of gravity should theoretically bisect the body
into two equal halves, with the bodyweight distributed evenly between the
two feet.
While assessing posture, symmetry and rotations/tilts should be observed in
the anterior, lateral and posterior views. Assess:

 Head alignment
 Cervical, thoracic and lumbar curvature
 Shoulder level symmetry
 Pelvic symmetry
 Hip, knee and ankle joints
In sitting:

 The ears should be aligned with the shoulders and the shoulders aligned
with the hips
 The shoulders should be relaxed and elbows are close to the sides of the
body
 The angle of the elbows, hips and knees is approximately 90 degrees
 The feet flat on the floor
 The forearms are parallel to the floor with wrists straight
 Feet should rest comfortably on a surface

Posture and Health

Poor posture can be bad for your health. Slouching (see image at R) or
slumping over can

 Misalign your musculoskeletal system

 Increase pressure on the spine, making it more prone to injury and
degeneration
 Cause neck, shoulder, and back pain [3][4][5]
 Decrease flexibility
 Affect how well joints move
 Affect balance and increase risk of falling
 Make it harder to digest food
 Induce breathing disorder and affect surrounding structures including the
heart and phrenic nerve [6]
 In women it can lead to imbalance in the core muscle leading to
incontinence and/or pelvic organ prolapse

Age-Related Postural Changes

Ageing inevitably affects posture. The main contributing factors for postural

instability are[7]:

 Thoracic hyperkyphosis
 Loss of lumbar lordosis
 Decreased plantar arch

Examples of Types of Standing Posture

Some of the examples of faulty posture can be as follows:

 Lordotic posture- Lordosis refers to the normal inward curvature of the
spine. When this curve is exaggerated it is usually referred to as
hyperlordosis. The pelvis is usually tilted anteriorly.
 Sway Back Posture- In this type of posture, there is forward head, hyper-
extension of the cervical spine, flexion of the thoracic spine, lumbar spine
extension, posterior tilt of the pelvis, hip and knee hyper-extension and
ankle slightly plantarflexed.
 Flat back posture- In this type of posture, there is forward head, extension
of the cervical spine, extension of the thoracic spine, loss of lumbar
lordosis and posterior pelvic tilt.
 Forward head posture - Describes the shift of the head forward with the
chin poking out. It is caused by increased flexion of the lower cervical
spine and upper thoracic spine with increased extension of the upper
cervical spine and extension of the occiput on C1.
 Scoliosis - A deviation of the normal vertical line of the spine, consisting of
a lateral curvature and rotation of the vertebrae. Scoliosis is considered
when there is at least 10° of spinal angulation on the posterior-anterior
radiograph associated with vertebral rotation [17]. This is a 3 dimensional C
or S shaped sideways curve of the spine.
 Kyphosis - An increased convex curve observed in the thoracic or sacral
regions of the spine.