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KIG3001 - Lecture 14 - Measurement of Sound (2023)
KIG3001 - Lecture 14 - Measurement of Sound (2023)
LECTURE 14:
Applied Mechanical Measurement (AMM):
Measurement of Sound
By:
Assoc. Prof. Ir. Dr. Rahizar Ramli
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Transducers
14.3 Microphones
14.4 Sound Level Meters
14.5 Sound Calibrators
14.6 Real Time Analyzers
14.7 Graphic Level Recorders
14.8 Magnetic Tape Recorders
14.9 Sound Intensity Systems
14.10 Dosimeters
14.11 Smartphone’s Apps
14.12 Useful Links
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14.1 Introduction
Acoustics is a study of sound (sound production, sound propagation, and sound reception)
Sound is the audible pressure fluctuation/variation in a medium (air) about the ambient
(atmospheric) pressure.
Material Air Water Glass Concrete Steel Iron Lead Soft Hard
Wood Wood
Speed, c 344 1372 3658 3048 5182 5182 1219 3353 4267
(m/s)
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14.1 Introduction (cont.)
Physical Perceptual
Time (t) Duration
Frequency (f) Pitch
Amplitude (A) Loudness
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14.1 Introduction (cont.)
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14.1 Introduction (cont.)
Acoustic signatures in 3D
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14.1 Introduction (cont.)
Audible sound: Frequency of sound within the human hearing (20 Hz to 20 kHz)
Infrasound: Low frequency sound (i.e.: Ultrasound: High frequency sound (i.e.:
frequencies below the audible range). frequencies above the audible range).
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14.1 Introduction (cont.)
Bands of frequencies:
1. Constant Bandwidth (narrow band)
2. Constant Percentage Bandwidth (typically used in sound measurement)
fC = (f U
+ fL ) 2 BWCB = fU - f L
where,
fc = centre frequency
fu = upper frequency
fL = lower frequency
BWCB = bandwidth for narrow band
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14.1 Introduction (cont.)
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14.1 Introduction (cont.)
( fC )
1
fU = ( fC )× 2 2k
fL = 1
BWCPB = fU - f L
2 2k
where, and,
fc = centre frequency k = 1 for full octave band
fu = upper frequency k = 3 for 1/3 octave band
fL = lower frequency k = 12 for 1/12 octave band
Example: Determine the lower & upper frequencies and bandwidth of a 1/3 octave band centred at 1000 Hz.
Ans: fu = 1122.4 Hz; fL = 890.9 Hz
BWCPB = 231.5 Hz
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14.1 Introduction (cont.)
The amplitude i.e.; the level (in log scale) for LP, LI & LW are:
𝐼 • Intensity [W/m2]
Sound Intensity => 𝐿$ = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔"#
10%"& 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠⁄𝑚& • Intensity Level [dB re: 1 pW/m2]
𝑊 • Power [Watts ]
Sound Power => 𝐿$ = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔"#
10%"& 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 • Power Level [dB re: 1 pW]
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14.1 Introduction (cont.)
1/1 and 1/3 Octave Bands According to EN ISO 266 1/1 Octave
1/3 Octave
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14.2 Transducers (cont.)
Acoustic Transducer
Definition: It is a device used for transforming or converting energy from one form to another.
Reciprocity:
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14.3 Microphones
Microphone is an electromechanical transducer that converts physical quantity (unit from air
pressure variations) into electrical signal (mV or pC).
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Vibration or shock
• Stray magnetic fields Frequency Response
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14.3 Microphones (cont.)
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14.3 Microphones (cont.)
The directionality or polar pattern of a microphone is the sensitivity to sound relative to the
direction or angle from which the sound arrives. In lay man terms, how well the microphone
“hears“ sound from different directions.
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14.3 Microphones (cont.)
Omnidirectional Microphone
Omnidirectional microphones are microphone that pick-up sound with equal gain (sensitivity) from
all sides or directions of the microphone. If one speaks into the microphone from the front, back,
left or right side, the microphone will record the signals all with equal gain.
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14.3 Microphones (cont.)
Cardioid Microphone
A cardioid microphone has the most sensitivity at the front and is least sensitive at the back. It
isolates from unwanted ambient sound and is much more resistant to feedback than omnidirectional
microphones. That makes a cardioid microphone particularly suitable for loud stages.
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14.3 Microphones (cont)
Supercardioid Microphone
Supercardioid microphones offer a narrower pickup than cardioids and a greater rejection of
ambient sound. But they also have some pickup directly at the rear. Hence it is important to place
monitor speakers correctly.
Supercardioids are most suitable when single sound sources need to be picked up in loud
environments. They are the most resistant to feedback.
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14.3 Microphones (cont.)
Bidirectional Microphone
A microphone with a figure of eight polar pattern picks up the sound from in front of the
microphone and from the rear but not the side (90-degree angle).
Microphones with this Figure of Eight polar pattern are typically ribbon or Large Diaphragm
Microphones.
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14.3 Microphones (cont.)
Electrodynamic Microphone
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14.3 Microphones (cont.)
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14.3 Microphones (cont.)
Schematic Diagram of a
Piezoelectric Microphone
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14.3 Microphones (cont.)
Example of a
Piezoelectric Microphone
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14.3 Microphones (cont.)
1. Crystals which demonstrate the piezoelectric effect produce voltages when they are deformed.
2. The crystal microphone uses a thin strip of piezoelectric material attached to a diaphragm.
3. The two sides of the crystal acquire opposite charges when the crystal is deflected by the
diaphragm.
4. The charges are proportional to the amount of deformation and disappear when the stress on
the crystal disappears.
5. Early crystal microphones used Rochelle salt because of its high output, but it was sensitive to
moisture and somewhat fragile.
6. Later microphones used ceramic materials such as barium titanate and lead zirconate.
7. The electric output of crystal microphones is comparatively large, but the frequency response
is not comparable to a good dynamic microphone.
8. Not widely used in the music industry.
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14.3 Microphones (cont.)
c. Condenser microphones
i. Old word for capacitor
ii. One plate is the microphone diaphragm
iii. The other plate is fixed
iv. Air is the dielectric
v. Voltage fluctuates as the plate moves
vi. Require battery for charge
vii. Require pre-amplifier due to:
• High source of impedance caused by air as
dielectric
Schematic Diagram of a
viii. Output is the AC variation of DC offset Condenser Microphone
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14.3 Microphones (cont.)
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14.3 Microphones (cont.)
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14.3 Microphones (cont.)
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14.3 Microphones (cont.)
Applications of Microphones
Measurement microphone
§ Sound pressure
Sound Intensity probe (2 phase-matched microphone)
§ Sound intensity vector
Hydrophone
§ Underwater acoustics
Special microphone
3D SI Probe
§ Broadcasting, audiometry, military applications etc. Microphone Array
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14.4 Sound Level Meters (SLM)
Sound level meters (SLM) are the instruments designed to measure sound
pressure levels.
An Octave SLM
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14.4 SLM (cont.)
Setting in SLM
1. SLM has Time Response that mimics the
human ear.
2. “Fast” setting:
Time constant (TC) = 125 ms
3. “Slow” setting:
TC = 1 sec. Avoid rapid fluctuation during
measurement of continuously varying
sound.
4. Impulsive noise (I):
TC (rising edge) = 35 ms
TC (falling edge) = 1500 ms
Typical Block Diagram of a SLM
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14.4 SLM (cont.)
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14.4 SLM (cont.)
Frequency Weighting
§ Human ear perceives loudness varies depending on the frequency of sound. E.g.: Sound at 1kHz
is perceived louder than that of at 20 Hz or 20 kHz with all having equal energy.
§ Frequency weighting considers typical human response within all audible frequency
components to be described as a single number.
Frequency Weighting
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14.4 SLM (cont.)
Frequency Weighting
§ A-weighting is valid to represent the sensitivity of the human ear as a function of the frequency of pure tones
in accordance to IEC 60651, IEC 60804, IEC 61672, ANSI S1.4. A-weighted measurements are expressed
as dBA or dB(A).
§ B-weighting, no longer in common use, was initially developed to cover the mid-range loudness scale. It was
more 'critical' of lower frequencies than the A-weighting network which probably accounts for it's use by the
motor industry for many years after it's decline in general popularity. B-weighted measurements are expressed
as dBB or dB(B).
§ C-Weighting is usually used for Peak measurements and also in some entertainment noise measurement,
where the ear's response is flatter at higher sound levels i.e.: 100 dB and above. C-weighted measurements
are expressed as dBC or dB(C).
§ D-weighting was specifically designed for use when measuring high-level aircraft noise in accordance with the
IEC 537 measurement standard. D-weighted measurements are expressed as dBD or dB(D).
§ Z- or ZERO frequency-weighting was introduced in the IEC 61672 in 2003 and was intended to replace the
"Flat" or "Linear" frequency weighting often fitted by manufacturers. Z-weighted measurements are expressed
as dB.
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14.4 SLM (cont.)
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14.4 SLM (cont.)
The Type or Class of a sound level meter describes its accuracy as defined by the relevant
international standards
The ANSI standard S1.4 refers to the grade as "Type", whereas the newer standard IEC
61672 refers to it as the "Class".
Although these standards have similarities, the later standard does make more demands on
the SLM regarding accuracy, performance and calibration.
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14.4 SLM (cont.)
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14.4 SLM (cont.)
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14.4 SLM (cont.)
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14.5 Calibrators
1. Using known magnitudes of the input quantity before performing any measurement
(“proving the instrument” to make the measurement reliable).
2. To check any deviation / offset.
3. To adjust / compensate (analog / digital) for the deviation.
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14.6 Real Time Analyzer
a. Absorption
b. HVAC components permitted levels
c. Community noise permitted levels
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14.7 Graphic Level & Recorders
1. Enable hardcopy of Envelope (Amplitude vs. Time) or Spectrum (Amplitude vs. Frequency)
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14.8 Magnetic Tape Recorders
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14.9 Sound Intensity Systems
Source Receiver
Intensity Pressure
1. Sound intensity is best for investigating the cause of noise and identifying sources.
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14.9 Sound Intensity Systems (cont.)
1. Sound intensity distinguishes between active (propagating) sound and reactive (non-
propagating) sound.
I r = pu r ! (2.24)
p can be measured with an ordinary microphone
ur is determined using TWO ordinary microphones
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14.9 Sound Intensity Systems (cont.)
1
uˆ r = -
rDr ò(p B - p A ) dt ! (2.28)
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14.9 Sound Intensity Systems (cont.)
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14.9 Sound Intensity Systems (cont.)
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14.9 Sound Intensity Systems (cont.)
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14.9 Sound Intensity Systems (cont.)
Compressor Motor
[2]
Rahman, A.G.A., S.M. al-Attas, and R.Ramli. 2001. An investigation of abnormal high pitch noise in the Train 2 compressor motor, Condition
Monitoring and Diagnostic Engineering Management; (COMADEM 2001), Manchester: Elsevier; pp. 251-262.
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14.9 Sound Intensity Systems (cont.)
1. Inconsistent air gap due to lose stator winding causes very high pitch noise undetectable with other
NDT methods i.e.: vibration, ultrasonic etc..
2. Sound Intensity measurement was conducted on site (outdoor) assuming free-field condition.
3. Accurately identified the location of the loose winding.
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14.10 Dosimeters
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14.10 Dosimeters (cont.)
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14.10 Dosimeters (cont.)
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14.11 Smartphone’s Apps
AudioTools
Decibel X
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14.12 Useful Links
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Q&A
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