Equilibrium and acid reactions

Non equilibrium systems

Enthalpy: the internal energy of the system plus the product of pressure and volume
Entropy: the degree of disorder or randomness in the system
● Positive entropy change and negative enthalpy change → reaction will be
spontaneous
● Negative entropy change and positive enthalpy change → reaction will not be
spontaneous
ΔG = ΔH - TΔS
G is positive → reaction will not occur spontaneously
G is negative → reaction will occur spontaneously

Open and closed reactions

● Open system: interacts with their environment, energy and matter can move in and
out of the system
● Closed system: do not interact with their environment and are contained in a sealed
container, nothing can enter or leave the system
● Static equilibrium: nothing is happening in a reaction. The forward and backward
reaction rates are both zero. This is the equilibrium at rest
● Dynamic equilibrium: the forward and reverse reactions are occurring at the same
time and at the same rate, so there is no net change
Investigation to model static and dynamic equilibrium
● Two 100mL measuring cylinders, labelled A and B
● Cylinder A has 100mL of water in it
● Record volume of water in each cylinder
● Use 10mL pipette to remove some of water from cylinder A, put water in cylinder B
● Take 5ml pipette to remove water from cylinder B, put water in cylinder A
● Record volume of wate\r in each cylinder, this is cycle 1
● Repeat steps until 50 cycles have been recorded.
● The equilibrium will be seen as the water levels on both cylinders begin to level out,
but do not reach the halfway mark - 50mL of water in each measuring cylinder. The
 change will be relatively quick at first, but will eventually slow down to the point
where the water level does not change considerably

Characteristics of equilibrium
Main characteristics of equilibrium:
● It is a closed system. Mo matter enters or leaves the system. There cannot be
equilibrium if energy is lost or gained from the system
● It involves a reversible reaction, the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of
the reverse reaction
● The macroscopic properties (ones you can see) stay constant - no change in pH,
state, colour, temperature or pressure
● Concentrations of all reactants and products stay constant
● Equilibrium can be approached from either direction

Enthalpy, entropy and the effect on combustion and photosynthesis

Combustion:
● Irreversible reaction, combustion cannot be reversed
● All combustion reactions are exothermic:
○ Enthalpy is negative
○ Occur spontaneously
○ Entropy of an exothermic reaction is increasing, reaction will definitely be
spontaneous
Photosynthesis:
● Irreversible endothermic reaction
○ Enthalpy of reaction for photosynthesis is positive so reaction is not
spontaneous
○ Decreasing entropy

Collision theory and equilibrium

● ΔH value is the same for both sides of the reaction
● Forward reaction is endothermic
● Reverse reaction is exothermic
● Eₐ will be higher if the reaction is endothermic
● Catalyst will reduce the activation energy for both sides of reaction
 ● Only if the activation energy for both reactions is low, both reactions will occur
spontaneously
● Three factors that are relevant to whether a molecule of gas will react with another
are:
○ Activation energy
○ Rate of collisions (temp, concentration)
○ Molecular orientation

Le Chatelier's principle
When a system in equilibrium is subjected to a change, the system reacts in a way that will
counteract the change

Change to system in Predicted Effect on the Explanation of effect of

Equilibrium Position of Keq change on position of Keq

Adding reactant Shift to the right (forward ● A new equilibrium

reaction) forms when rates are
equal
● Increased reactant
concentration =
more frequent
collisions = increase
the rate of forward
reaction
● Reactants are
consumed = more
products formed

Adding product Shift to the left (reverse ● Increased product

reaction) concentration = more
frequent collisions =
increased rate of
reverse reaction
 ● Produces are
consumed = more
reactants form
● A new equilibrium
forms when rates are
equal

Decreasing pressure by Shifts in the direction of the Less frequent collisions; the
increasing volume (gas) most particles (moles) reaction that is less
dependent on collisions
occurs to a greater extent.

Increasing pressure by Shifts in the direction of the More frequent collisions;

decreasing volume (gas) fewest particles (moles) the reaction that is more
dependent on collisions
occurs to a greater extent.

Adding an inert/noble No change No change in concentration

gas (volume remains the of the reacting gases so
same) no change to the rates of
the forward and reverse
reactions

Adding water (dilution of Shifts in the direction of the Less frequent collisions; the
solution) most particles reactions less dependent
on collisions occurs to a
greater extent

Increasing the temperature Shifts to the left All reactants and product
of exothermic reactions molecules have more
energy and move faster;
increasing temp favours
rate of endothermic
reaction favouring the
reverse direction
Increasing the temperature
of endothermic reactions
Shifts to the right All reactants and product
molecules have more
energy and move faster;
increasing temp favours
rate of endothermic
reaction favouring the
forward direction

Decreasing the temperature Shifts to the right All reactants and product
of exothermic reactions molecules have less energy
and move slower;
decreasing temp favours
rate of exothermic reaction
favouring the forward
direction

Decreasing the temperature Shifts to the left All reactants and product
of endothermic reactions molecules have less energy
and move slower;
decreasing temp favours
rate of exothermic reaction
favouring the reverse
direction

Adding a catalyst No change Increase rates of forward

and reverse reactions to the
same extent; an equivalent
change in the frequency of
successful collisions in both
directions
Graphing equilibrium
● Forward reaction is initially high
● The reverse reaction is initially zero
● Forward reaction will decrease - quickly initially then reach equilibrium
● Reverse reaction will increase - quickly but then reach equilibrium
● When equilibrium is reached the lines will be parallel

●
● The position of equilibrium can be disturbed by
○ Change in temperature
○ Change in concentration
○ Change in pressure (only when one or more reactants are gas)

● At T1 the concentration of N2 is increased, causing the yield of NH3 to increase and

equilibrium shift to right
● At T2 the pressure of the reactants is increased, shown by the sharp peaks of N2
and H2 as well as the sloped increase of NH3
 ● Temperature of products is increased shifting the reaction to the left as it is
exothermic

Temperature on equilibrium
● In an exothermic reaction, the products have less enthalpy than the reactants,
meaning that energy will be released to the surroundings. Alternatively, in an
endothermic reaction, the reactants have less enthalpy than the products and
therefore energy will be absorbed from the surroundings.

● In an endothermic reaction, ΔH is positive

● In an exothermic reaction, ΔH is negative
● Increasing the heat energy increases the kinetic energy of the particles, thus they
are more likely to have sufficient energy to overcome the activation energy
● If heat is added to the reactants (left side of equation), the reaction will produce
more products to counteract the change (pushing equilibrium to the right)
● If heat is added to the products (right side of equation), the reaction will produce
more reactants to counteract the change (pushing equilibrium to the left)

Concentration on equilibrium
● Increasing the concentration of reactants increases the number of collisions which
thus speeds up the forward reaction rate
● Whichever way the reaction has increased, is the direction the equilibrium shifts.
● Increasing the concentration of a substance increases the number of particles
making it more likely to have collisions
● The molecule that's been increased or decrease will show a sharp, straight peak
then curve to equilibrium
Pressure/volume on equilibrium
● Increasing pressure will decrease the volume. Pushes equilibrium to side with fewer
moles of gas
● Decreasing the pressure will increase the volume. Pushes equilibrium to the side
with more moles of gas.
● When you increase the pressure on gas, there is an increase in its concentration
and therefore an increase in collision rate.
● Pushing the same number of particles into a smaller space increases the likelihood
of collisions.
● Changes in pressure and volume will be seen as a sharp peak on a graph

The equilibrium constant

● Equilibrium constant: Keq
● [bracket] means the concentration of molL-1
● exothermic reaction will make Keq decrease
● Endothermic reaction will make Keq increase
● Keq can only be measured when the reaction has reached equilibrium, if it is not at
equilibrium, the symbol is Q
● Products over Reactants = K → PoRK

Determining if a reaction is at equilibrium

● When Q = Keq the system has reached equilibrium
● If Q < Keq the forward reaction is favoured
● If Q > Keq the reverse reaction is favoured
● If Keq > 1 the equilibrium lies to the right
● If Keq < 1 the equilibrium lies to the left

Temperature on the equilibrium constant

A rise in temperature will increase the value of K eq for endothermic reactions and decrease
it for exothermic reactions. Temperature is the only factor that changes the equilibrium
constant for a given reaction.
As temperature increases, the equilibrium shifts to the left. This increases the
concentration of the reactants and thus decreases the denominator and value of Keq

Dissolution of ionic compounds

In order to dissolve, individual ions must be pulled away from the lattice by water
molecules. Water molecules surround the ions keeping them from reforming a solid. At
equilibrium, the rate of precipitation equals the rate of dissociation.

Water as a solvent
Positively charged part of the water molecule interacts with the negatively charged ions,
and the negative point of the water molecule reacts with the positively charged ions.

Measuring solubility
Generally, as temperature increases, more solute will dissolve. The amount of solute is
measured in grams of solute in 100g of water

Solubility rules
Some ionic salts are more soluble than others in water. The maximum amount of solute
which can dissolve in a given volume of solvent is termed as the solubility of the solute
● Soluble: >0.1 mol of a solute will dissolve in 1L of solvent
● Slightly soluble: 0.01 to 0.1 mol of a solute will dissolve in 1L of solvent
 ● Insoluble: <0.01 mol of a solute will dissolve in 1L of solvent

NAG SAG: always soluble

● Nitrates
● Acetates
● Group I
● Sulfates
● Ammonium
● Group VII
Exceptions:
● LMS:
○ Lead
○ Mercury
○ Silver
● CASTROBeAR:
○ Calcium
○ Strontium
○ Barium

The solubility product

● Saturated solution is one which no more solute will dissolve in the solvent
● Unsaturated solution is one that contains less than the amount of solute that is
required to saturate it at a fixed temperature
● As more solid dissolves, the concentration of both cations and anions increase
● In a saturated solution, the association of ions to form crystals is balanced by the
dissociation
Ksp = [My+]x [Nx-]y
 ● Smaller value of Ksp, the more insoluble the ionic compound is in water

Uses of Ksp and the ionic product

● We use Ksp values to:
○ Calculate the concentration of ions in a saturated solution
○ Calculate the solubility of an ionic compound
○ Can use it to see whether or not a precipitate will form when ionic solutions
are mixed
● Ksp can only be used when the solution is saturated and both solid and ions are
present
● Equilibrium will only occur witch 'sparingly soluble' or 'insoluble' salts
● If we do not know if the system is at equilibrium, we use Qsp known as the ionic
product
● A precipitate will form when the ionic product > K sp

Factor Solution is... Precipitation

Ionic product < Ksp Unsaturated No precipitate. Forward reaction is favoured

Ionic product = Ksp Saturated Solution at dynamic equilibrium, precipitate

Ionic product > Ksp Super saturated Precipitate. Reverse reaction favoured

The common ion effect

● The common ion refers to an ion that is entering the solution from two different
sources (compounds).
● Adding a common ion reduces the solubility of an ionic precipitate
● When it adds more ions the equilibrium will shift the other way

Cycad fruit detoxification

● Ancient, toxic plant with woody stems
● They produce toxic fruit - the hard inner kernel is most toxic
● Latin name: macrozamia communis
● Aboriginal name: Burrawang
● Located in Taree to Bega
● Toxins are:
 ○ Cycasin
○ Macros Zamin
● Both are neurotoxins and carcinogens
● The fleshy part of the seed acts as a source of starch for indigenous people
● To make it edible, the seeds are placed in a woven basket (allowing water to flow
through) and soaked in a stream for 4 to 5 days
● This leaching process produces a flour/paste used to bake
● Cycad toxins are more soluble than starches, why leaching removes toxic

Acids and bases

Common acidic and basic substances

● All substances are classed as either acidic, basic or neutral
● Based on the concentration of hydrogen or hydroxide ions produced when the
substance is dissolved in water
● Concentration of hydrogen ions can be determined by:
○ The change in colour of natural or synthetic indicators
○ The use of electronic probes called pH probes or data loggers with a pH
probe
○ Litmus paper
■ Acids turn blue litmus paper red
■ Bases turn red litmus paper blue
● Not all acidic and basic substances are water soluble, bases that are water soluble
are called alkalines
● Basic oxides (copper oxide, iron oxide) are insoluble in water
● When acids and bases react, their properties are destroyed

Hydrogen ion concentration

● Soluble acidic substances increase the hydrogen ion concentration above that
found in water
● Soluble basic substances decrease the hydrogen ion concentration below that
found in water
 ● The hydrogen ion concentration in water is 1.0 x 10-7 molL-1 at 25ºC

Properties of acids and bases

Acids:
● Sour taste
● Turn blue litmus paper red
● React with and dissolve active metals
● Acid solutions are electrolytes (they produce a solution that conducts electricity)

Bases:
● Bitter taste
● Turn red litmus paper blue
● Do not react with active metals
● Solutions of soluble bases are electrolytes

Indicators
There are two types of indicators: natural and synthetic
 ● universal indicator is a convenient mixed indicator that produces a rainbow of
colours to be associated with different levels of the pH scale
● Colour changes of indicators are reversible

pH scale
pH = power of hydrogen

Types of reactions
● Acid + base → salt + water
● Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen ion
● Acid + carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide

Applications of neutralisation reactions

Neutralising excess stomach acidity:
● Gastric juices contain a large amount of HCl
● Neutralisation can be used to reduce the symptoms of acid reflux
● Antacids are used to neutralise gastric juices, these contain weak bases
● Effervescent antacids are the ones that fizz and contain sodium carbonate or citric
acid creating an acid-carbonate neutralisation

Adjusting swimming pool acidity:

● Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is added to pools to kill microbes
● This reaction makes the pool alkaline
● Phenol red indicator is commonly used in swimming pool test kits
Adjusting soil acidity:
● Plant growth often depends on what pH the soil it is grown in
● To increase soil acidity, add decaying organic leaf matter which is rich in organic
acids
● These substances dissolve in soil water to increase the soil's acidity
● To decrease acidity, add weakly basic substances such as limestone

Enthalpy of neutralisation
● Neutralisation reactions are exothermic and the amount of heat released depends
on whether the acid or base is strong or weak
● Strong acids/bases produce the greatest amount of heat
● Weak acids/bases produce the least amount of heat
● By measuring the temperature change of the salt solution formed, the energy
released by the neutralisation reaction can be measured using q=mcT
○ q: amount of energy released
○ m: mass of salt solution
○ c: heat capacity
○ T: temp change in K
● Once the energy released by the neutralisation reaction has been determined, the
enthalpy of neutralisation can be calculated using: Hneut=-q/n(H2O)
○ Hneut: enthalpy of neutralisation
○ q: amount of energy released
○ n(H2O):amount of water produced

Theories of acids and bases

Arrhenius Theory
● Theory based on the dissociation of ions
● Definitions:
○ An acid is a substance that contains hydrogen ions and produces them in a
solution
○ A base must contain hydroxide ions in solution
● Notices acids and bases had electrolytes, therefore ions carry charge
● Acids dissociate and ionise in water to produce H+ ions
 ● Bases dissociate in water to make OH- ions
● Noticed acids could conduct electricity and react with metal
● Strong acids fully ionise while weak acids partially ionise
● Theory relies on importance of water in these scenarios, can not explain why not all
salts were neutral when dissolved in water
● Only accounts for salts formed as a result of acid-base reactions
● Only deals with soluble bases not insoluble bases
● Does not consider the role of the solvent when an acid or base is dissolved in it
● Some acid-base reactions do not occur in solution where aqueous hydrogen and
hydroxide ions react to form water
● Theory does not explain relationship between conjugate base and acid pairs

Bronsted-Lowry Theory
● Theory based on the transfer of protons
● A substance behaves as an acid when it donates a proton to a base
● A substance acts as a base when it accepts a proton from an acid
● Acids are proton donors
● Bases are proton acceptors
● Acids give up protons to give conjugate bases
● It cannot explain reactions of acid and basic oxides
● Fails to explain acidic properties of non-hydrogen containing compounds
● Fails to explain the reactions occurring in non-protonic solvents

Conjugate pairs
● HA + B ⇌ HB + + A -
● Members of a conjugate acid-base pair differ from each other by the presence or
absence of the transferable H+ ion

●
Investigating the pH of solutions
● pH scale is a logarithmic scale based on powers of ten
● The pH of a solution is defined as: pH = -log10[H+]
● Monoprotic: acid gives away one H+
● Diprotic: acid gives away two H+
● Triprotic: acid gives away three H+

Using pOH
● pOH = -log10[OH-]
● Smaller values of pOH are more alkaline solutions

Water ionisation equilibrium

● H2O(l) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
● The forward reaction only occurs to a very small etent
● The self ionisation constant, KW, is the ionic product for water
● KW = [OH-][H3O+] where KW = 1.0 x 10-14 M
● [OH-] = [H3O+]
● Whens acids are added to water, the hydrogen ion concentration increases and the
water ionisation equilibrium is disturbed
● If the alkaline solution has a known concentration of hydroxide ion, the relationship
KW = [OH-][H3O+] = 1.0 x 10-14 M can be used to calculate [H3O+]
● Once [H3O+] is known, the pH value can be calculated

Concentration vs Strength
● The strength of an acid relates to the number of free ions in solution
● concentration of an acid relates to the number of ions that it contributes to a solution
Understanding the strength of acids and bases
● Acid where all the cid molecules have ionised to produce hydrogen ions are strong
acids
● Acids where only some of the molecules ionise are weak acids
● A strong base is one where all molecules have dissociated
● Weak bases are ones where only some of the molecules dissociate

pH of solutions when acids and bases are diluted or mixed

Strong base Weak base

Strong acid pH = 7 pH < 7

Weak acid pH > 7 pH = 7

● Hydrolysis reaction is the reaction of a salt with water that results in a pH change
● Neutral salts do not hydrolyse
● Acid salts hydrolysis to produce acidic solutions
● Basic salts hydrolysis to produce alkaline solutions

Volumetric analysis
● Volumetric analysis: quantitative lab technique used to determine the concentration
of a solution by reacting it with a standard solution
● Standard solution: a solution of accurately known concentration
● Primary standard: a soluble, solid compound that is very pure, does not change on
exposure to atmosphere, has high molar mass
● Secondary standard: solution of known concentration derived from a primary
standard
● Equivalence point is the point at which the reactants are present in the mole ratio
given in the balanced equation
● End point: when an indicator shows that the amount of reactant necessary for a
complete reaction has been added to the solution, colour change of indictor
What is a titration?
A titration is a technique where a solution of a known concentration is used to determine
the concentration of an unknown concentration.

Basic steps to a titration:

1. One of the solutions will have an accurately known concentration.
2. Place one of the solutions in the burette. The acid is generally placed in the burette
since bases have the capacity to etch the glass and, over time, change the volume
of the burette.
3. Use a pipette to transfer a known volume of the other solution to a conical flask that
has been rinsed with distilled water.
4. Add two drops of an appropriate acid–base indicator to the solution in the conical
flask.
5. Slowly add the solution from the burette to the conical flask until the indicator just
shows the first permanent colour change.
6. Record the volume of solution added from the burette.
7. Repeat the experiment several times until the volume of solution added from the
burette is consistent to within about one-third of a division (0.03mL).
8. The second and subsequent titrations should involve slowing the rate of flow of
solution from the burette to dropwise and parts of drops when near the end point.
Use the average titre for the most accurately known titrations for your calculations.
9. Write a balanced chemical equation and use mole calculations to determine the
concentration of the unknown solution.

pH indicators
To determine the appropriate indicator used, you need to take into account:
● The salt formed
● Whether the ion in the salt is a weak acid, weak base, or neutral
● Whether the reaction will have a pH greater than 7, less than 7, or equal to 7
Types of titrations
Using pH curves - titration curves
These types of titrations are usually used when a solution is not colourless/transparent. A
pH meter is used and the data is graphed. This graph is used to determine the volume of a
solution at its equivalence point
Titration Curve Type Description

Strong pH starts high in the

base - basic region. It remains
strong constant until it is close
acid to the equivalence
point, when it suddenly
decreases and pH goes
from 13 to 1.

When the acid is in

excess, the pH remains
constant at a very low
pH.

Strong pH starts high, and

Base - remains constant to the
weak equivalence point when
acid the pH decreases
suddenly, although not
as much as the strong
acid/strong base
combination.

As the salt produced is

basic, so the pH of the
solution at the
equivalence point is
greater than 7.

Weak pH starts off reasonably

base - high, although not as
strong high as with the strong
acid base. It decreases
slowly and close to
equivalence point pH
decreases slowly.

Salt that is produced is

acidic, so the pH of the
solution will be under 7.
 Weak pH starts reasonably
acid - high, although not as
weak high as a strong base.
base It declines at a constant
rate until the
equivalence point, and
the change is much
smaller.

This is not generally

performed as it does
not show a large
change in pH at
equivalence point and
is very hard to identify.

Conductivity titrations and graphs

A conductivity titration is a titration that uses changes in conductivity to determine the
equivalence point.

Factors that will impact a conductivity titration include:

● Strong bases and acids will have higher conductivity than weak ones so they ionise
completely
● Concentrated solutions will have a higher conductivity
● The side to the ions, larger ions are less mobile
● Temperature of solution, as temperature increases, conductivity increases

Conductivity Curve Type Description

Strong At the start, a high

base - conductivity is seen due
strong to highly mobile H+ ions.
acid If this example was HCl
+ NaOH:
The H+ and OH- ions will
form weakly ionised
water. Conductivity
decreases as H+ is
replaced by less mobile
Na+ ions until
equivalence point is
reached where only Na+
and Cl- ions are present.
Continued addition of
NaOH leads to the
 increase of conductivity
of Na+ and OH-.

Strong Conductivity high at start

acid - due to highly mobile H+.
weak When a weak base is
base added, H+ and OH- ions
form weakly ionised
water. Conductivity
decreases as H+ is
replaced until
equivalence point.
Continued addition of the
weak base does not lead
to an increase in
conductivity. The graph
is then horizontal as the
weak base does not
appreciably ionise.

Weak Before titration,

acid - conductivity is low due to
strong small degree of
base ionisation that occurs -
there is a low [H+]. When
a strong base is added,
H+ and OH- forms water.
There is a slight
decrease in conductivity
due to the presence of
the weak acid that
suppresses ionisation.
This is due to the
common ion effect and
buffers. Near
equivalence point, the
graph curves due to the
hydrolysis of the salt
produced. Continual
addition of the strong
base leads to a rapid
increase in conductivity.
 Weak Before titration begins
acid - conductivity is low due to
weak the weak ionisation and
base low concentration of [H+]
ions. The initial shape of
graph is similar to a
weak acid/strong base.
After equivalence point,
there is little change in
conductivity due to the
small degree of
dissociation of a weak
base.

Back titrations
Back titration is a titration done in reverse; instead of titrating the original sample, a known
excess of standard reagent is added to the solution, and the excess is titrated.

Back titrations are used when:

● a reaction occurs slowly and it is hard to determine an end point
● The sample is not soluble in water but soluble in acid
● The sample is toxic or volatile
● The sample is gaseous
● The sample is fairly unreactive

Acid dissociation constant

Ka = Equilibrium constant of acids
This value tells us how likely it is that the acid will dissociate. The higher the Ka, the more
the acid dissociates. Strong acids will have a higher Ka than weak acids

Ka can be used to:

● Measure the position of equilibrium
○ Ka = large, products of dissociation are favoured, equilibrium lies to right
○ Ka = small, acid is favoured, equilibrium lies to left
● Predict the strength of acid
○ Ka = large, acid is mostly dissociated, strong acid
○ Ka = small, acid minimally/partially dissociated, weak acid
Finding pKa
pKa is the negative logarithm of the acid dissociation constant

Therefore…

Acid and base analysis application

Use Description

Food ● Acids are useful preservatives for food because they can kill
preservation dangerous microorganisms such as Clostridium botulinum, which
causes food poisoning.
● Ethanoic acid in vinegar is a main preserver of food.
 ● Other chemicals include sulfurous acid (H2SO3), and sulfur dioxide
and acidic sulfite salts.
● Additives in foods are often numbered in a 3 digit code. These
include 220 (sulfur dioxide), 221 (sodium sulfite), 330 (citric acid) and
260 (ethanoic acid).

Water ● Both acids and bases are used in the treatment of drinking water and
treatment waste water to ensure they have a pH of around 7.
● CaCO3 or HCl is added to lower pH if the water is basic. MaO or
NaOH are used to raise pH if water is acidic.
● This prevents pipes from having highly acidic or basic water flowing
through pipes and corroding them.

Acids in drinks ● Most soft drinks contain one or more of citric acid, carbonic acid and
phosphoric acid and have a pH of around 2.3 to 3.5.
● They are made bubbly with the addition of dissolving CO2 in water
under pressure.
● Citric acid is added for flavour as well as being a natural
preservative. Phosphoric acid slows the growth of mould or bacteria.
● Apart from being unhealthy, these acids strip enamel off teeth -
phosphoric acid is used to clean metal!
● Beer has a pH of around 4. Different beers contain a number of
different acids depending on the fermentation process used.
● Wines mainly contain tartaric acid, malic acid and citric acid and
have a pH from 2.5 to 4.

Fertilisers and ● The manufacture of most fertilisers includes a neutralisation process.

explosives These include:
○ Nitric acid + potassium hydroxide → potassium nitrate
○ Sulfuric acid + ammonia → ammonium sulfate
○ Phosphoric acid + ammonia → ammonium phosphate
○ Nitric acid + ammonia → ammonium nitrate
● The production of fertilisers in commercial quantities has been
necessary to grow food for the world’s rapidly growing population.

Cleaning ● Dilute HCl and H3PO4 are used to clean rust from metal and metal
products products.
● NaOH is used to clean blocked drains. Bases like NaOH and KOH
are used to make soaps and detergents.
● Personal products such as shampoo, makeup and skin moisturisers
are all monitored for pH. The pH of the skin is slightly acidic (pH 4.5 -
5) as a defence against bacterial infections. These products aim to
support these conditions.
● Toothpaste is usually basic (pH 9 to 10) to neutralise any acid
dissolving tooth enamel.

Pharmaceutical ● It is essential that medicines be accurately analysed, not only to test

s the drugs themselves, but also to test and breakdown products and
for the presence of any impurities.
● The acid-base character of drugs is of key importance in all aspects
of their design and use.
 ● Characteristics like their pKa values affect properties of drugs such
as their solubility, permeability, absorption, metabolism, excretion
and toxicity.

Titrations in industry
● Chemists and chemical engineers check at routine intervals in production that
concentrations and composition of chemicals used are within prescribed limits.
● Titrations have been used as far back as the early 1800s.
● Process is fast, simple and accurate. In industry now we have automatic titration
equipment.
● This makes the process even easier for control and the process faster. Operators
with minimal skill can carry out a titration and makes the process cost effective.
● Digital probes and automatic instruments has allowed for:
○ Extending the process to weak acids and bases
○ More precise end point detection
○ The development of a non-aqueous titration method
○ Continuous monitoring of industrial processes.
● Examples of this testing include:
○ Determining the chain length of fatty acids in a fat
○ Testing cheese readiness
○ Testing the acidity of wine
○ Testing contamination in snow and rain.
● There are also many other methods of analysis that include:
○ Mass spectrometry,
○ High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
○ Gas chromatography
○ Nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry (NMR)

Acid and base use by aboriginal and torres strait islanders

Quandors
● High in vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
● Treats and prevents scurvy, skin conditions, and rheumation
Kakadu plum
● Fruit and seeds have the highest known content of vitamin C in the world
 ● Also contain high levels of antioxidants
● Mainly used as an anti inflammatory
Alkaloid plants
● Bases that contain nitrogen
● Bitter tasting, not for consumption, used as medicine
● Used as anti-infective and anti inflammatory
Bracken fern
● Stems were crushed between rocks to make an insect repellent and ease mosquito
bites

Buffers
● A buffer is an aqueous solution that resists rapid change of pH when an acid or
base is added
● A buffer consists of a weak acid/base and its conjugate
● A buffer can resist change because of the equilibrium between the acid/base and its
conjugate
● Adding an acid to a buffer:
○ pH change is much less
○ Hydrogen ion concentration will still increase, but less than expected
○ Adding strong acid means [H+] increases
○ Equilibrium moves to the left to minimise the effect of acid
● Adding base to buffer:
○ [H+] decreases, but by less than expected
○ OH ions react with H ions to form water
○ The equilibrium moves to the right to increase [H+] to original

Buffer capacity
● The capacity of a buffer is its ability to maintain pH - the amount of acid or base
which can be added before the pH starts to change significantly
● The closer the pH and pKa, the higher the buffer capacity
● A buffer is most effective when:
○ The [acid] = [base]
○ The pH = pKa
Use of buffers
● Buffers are used as standard for precision instruments such as pH and probes.
● They are used in many household products like soaps, shampoo, baby lotions,
washing powders, eye drops, fizzy drinks, paints, beer and wine.
● They are used in the fermentation, the dye industry, and in pharmaceuticals.
● They also help to control pH so the skin is not irritated, they maintain a pH at which
bacteria are unable to grow and they prevent commercial products from breaking
down.

Buffers in natural systems

● Buffers are extremely important in living organisms. These include:
● Maintain pH for proteins to work
● Control the pH of blood
● To stop urine from becoming very acidic and causing pain.
● In living organisms, enzymes act at a specific pH. Therefore, a slight change in pH
can greatly affect the chemistry of living cells. pH is controlled through buffering
systems.
● Blood is a natural buffer
● Contains carbonic acid and sodium bicarbonate
● Allows pH to stay at 7.4
● CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3
● H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO-
● If more CO2 is dissolved, more H+ ions will form, pushing the pH down but the
equilibrium moves to the left to minimise the change
● If pH increases, H2CO3 will ionise to produce more H+ ions pushing equilibrium to
the right
 Organic chemistry

The element carbon

Carbon atoms bond to each other by sharing electrons, forming strong covalent bonds.
SIngle bonds are the most common, but can form double or triple bonds

bond Bond energy (kJ/mol)

Single 348

Double 614

Triple 839

Organic chemistry is the study of the chemistry of carbon and its compounds

A function group is a specific group of atoms within a molecule, that is responsible

for the chemical reactions of that molecule

R = any carbon backbone

Alcohol R-OH

-anol

Carboxylic acid R-COOH

-anolic acid

Ester R1-COO-R2

-anoate
Amide R-CO-NH2

-amide

Amine R-NH2

-amine

Aldehyde R-CHO

-anal

Ketone R-CO-R

-anone

Naming hydrocarbons
Alkanes have only single bonds → CₓH₂ₓ₊₂ ₋
Alkenes have at least ONE double bond → CₓH₂ₓ
Alkynes have one or more TRIPLE bonds → CₓH₂ₓ₋₂

To name a compounds:
 1. Find the longest chain
2. Identify any side chains by length and their position along the chain

Number of C Formula Name

1 CH₃ Methyl

2 CH₃CH₂ ethyl

3 CH₃CH₂CH₂ propyl

4 CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂ butyl

5 CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂ pentyl

6 CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂ hexyl

7 CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂ heptyl

8 CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂ octyl

9 CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂ nonyl

10 CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂ decyl

Isomers
Isomers are molecules that have the same molecular formulas but different structural
formulas
There are three types of isomers:
1. Chain isomers; form due to the branching of hydrocarbon chains, has a different
structure due the arrangement of the carbon backbone. We name chain isomers by
Identifying the longest continuous carbon chain, then identifying the alkyl groups
and numbering the parent stem chain in the direction that gives the lowest locant
numbers to the alkyl groups, and then applying the prefixes (di, tri, etc.)
 2. Positional isomers; formed when functional groups are located at different positions
on the hydrocarbon chain

3. Functional group isomers; isomers in which different functional groups are present

Halogenated organic compounds

When one or more halogen atoms (Cl, Br, I) are substituted into the molecules of alkanes,
alkenes, and alkynes, the compounds are called haloalkanes.

Halogenated compounds will have higher melting and boiling points than other
hydrocarbons of similar size

Common test to determine bonding using halogens: Bromine water test

Step Justification

1 5 mL of bromine water was added to Justification: This is the coloured

2 different test tubes solution used to distinguish alkanes
and alkenes (bromine water test)
 2 The room was darkened The distinguishing test requires no
UV light to be present

3 5 mL of cyclohexane and 5 mL of These are the substances being

cyclohexene were added to the 2 tested
different test tubes and shaken

4 Observations were made The distinguishing test is qualitative

Cyclohexene reacts with bromine water in an addition reaction to form the colourless 1,2-
dibromocyclohexane. This does not require UV light due to the reactivity of the C=C
double bond. Cyclohexane contains the less reactive C-C single bond, so requires an input
of UV light for the substitution reaction to occur. This is why the reaction did not occur in
the dark and the colour of the unreacted bromine water remained, allowing the alkane and
alkene to be distinguished.

With safety precautions:

1. Conducting the investigation in a fume hood, also ensuring to wear both safety
goggles and gloves as PPE.
2. Pour approximately 2 cm of both samples into two test tubes.
3. Add HOBr and mix thoroughly. It is expected that hexane will remain orange
coloured, and 1-hexene will decolourise to a colourless solution.
4. Waste should always be disposed of in the organic waste container.

Types of bonding
Intramolecular bonds:
Strongest bonds between C-C and C-H

Intermolecular bonds:
The only intermolecular bond is weak dispersion force. All hydrocarbons are nonpolar

Physical properties of hydrocarbons

Melting and boiling point All hydrocarbons have low melting and
boiling points. As molecules become
 larger, the dispersion forces increase so
more energy is required to break them.

State at room temp C1 to C4 = gas

C5 to C16 = liquid

Density Low density, float on water

Solubility Insoluble in water. Like disolve like

Hydrocarbons from the earth

Hydrocarbon Coal Oil Gas

What is it? Combustible, Non polar chemical Naturally occurring

sedimentary rock. substance that is a hydrocarbon consisting
Made from mostly viscous liquid primarily of methane
carbon among other
elements

How is it extracted? Mining Drilling and pumping drilling

What are its uses? ● Energy ● Food ● Heating

● Steel ● Fuel ● Cooking
production ● Medicine ● Electricity
● Cement ● lubricant ● Fuel
manufacturing ● Manufaure of
plastics

Criteria For Against

Environmental The use of hydrocarbons has not
had a positive impact on the
environment.
The extraction of fossil fuels from
underground sources, e.g. coal, and
the subsequent burning of these
fuels for energy has led to an
increase in atmospheric carbon
dioxide levels. There is evidence to
suggest this is the main contributor
to climate change would has
significant consequences for
 weather events and living
organisms.

Economic The extraction of hydrocarbons from The heavy reliance on

Earth was and continues to being a
booming business that provides
many jobs for people, in Australia
and overseas, and the sale and
trade of hydrocarbons for various
uses has boosted nations’
economies.
hydrocarbons may have stifled
required developments in renewable
and alternative energy technologies
as hydrocarbons are a
non-renewable resource.

Sociocultural Fossil fuels are a ‘raw material’ Human reliance on hydrocarbons

which humans have used for many
technologies that have improved
communication and travel around
the world. As a raw material many
plastics and medicines may have
been able to been developed as a
result.
has meant that their extraction has
been prioritized over protecting
Indigenous sacred sites and land in
Australia and overseas. There has
also been conflict between countries
over fossil fuels.

Substitution reactions
Substitution reactions are chemical reactions in which another atom replaces a hydrogen
atom in a saturated organic compound such as alkanes. Substitution reactions occur in
both alkanes and haloalkanes

An atom that is usually substituted into alkanes is a halogen atom

Halogens have different degrees of reactivity:
Fluorine; high reactivity, explosive in cold and dark
Chlorine and bromine; will not react in dark, will react to UV
Iodine; does not react with alkanes

To react bromine with alkanes, you will need to mix the alkane with liquid bromine or
bromine water (HOBr)

Cycloalkanes are also saturated compounds, so they also take part in substitution
reactions with halogens

Saturated alkanes will only react with bromine in light (by sub) whereas unsaturated
hydrocarbons such as alkenes will react with bromine even in the dark

Haloalkanes such as chloroethane (C2H5Cl) are also saturated, so they undertake

substitution reactions with groups like hydroxyl (-OH) ← alcohol

Addition reactions
Additional reactions occur in unsaturated organic compounds when a double/triple bond is
broken and other atoms are added. Double or triple bonds makes them more reactive.
General rules for addition reactions
● When a symmetrical reagent (H2, Cl2) is added, the product of the reaction has the
same group added to each carbon
● When an asymmetrical reagent (H2O, HBr) is added to a symmetrical alkene, there
is only one possible product
Markovonikov's rule
Hydrogen atom will predominantly add across the double bond to carbon that already has
a greater number of hydrogen atoms, creating a major and a minor product

Tests for alkene

How to test if a hydrocarbon is unsaturated (double bond, alkene) or saturated (single
bond, alkane)

Alkene + BrOH Rapid reaction, even in full light. BrOH changes from red-brown to
colourless. This is addition reaction

Alkane + BrOH It reacts very slowly, and only in the presence of UV light. This
colour fades slowly and is very slow unless UV light is present. This
is a substitution

Parent reagent catalyst Reaction type product

molecule

Alkene H2 (g) Ni(s) Hydrogenation Alkane

Alkene Halogens N/A Addition Haloalkane

Alkene Hydrogen N/A Addition Haloalkane

halides

Alkene H2O H3PO4 or H2SO4 Hydration Alkanol

Alcohols
An -OH functional group, alkane with a hydroxyl group attached

Bonding in alcohols
● Intramolecular forces: strong covalent bonds
● Intermolecular forces: polar due to -OH group. Highly electronegative
● Carbon chain is non polar
● Dipole dipole forces and strong hydrogen bonds
Properties of alcohols
● Soluble in water due to their polar -OH group. Like dissolves like
● Hydrogen bonds can form water molecules. Smaller alcohols are more soluble
● As C chain increases, solubility decreases
● Increase in the amount of dispersion forces present in the larger molecules
● Highly flammable, especially smaller molecules

Use of alcohols
● Used as solvents in the manufacture of medicine, varnishes, adhesives and plastics
● Used in fuel, providing a source of energy and heat

Types of alcohols
Alcohols are classified depending on the position of the hydroxyl group

Primary alcohols
OH group is at the end of the carbon chain group

Secondary alcohols
OH group is bonded to two other carbon atoms

Tertiary alcohols
OH group is bonded to three carbon atoms
Reactions of alcohols

Combustion C2H5OH + 3O2 → 3H2O + 2CO2 complete

C2H5OH +3/2O2 → C + CO2 + 3H2O incomplete

Flammable. They burn oxygen to form water and carbon

dioxide. Incomplete produced carbon monoxide (soot)

Dehydration C2H5OH → C2H4 + H2O with catalyst of conc. H2SO4

Removing water molecules. Heading with concentrated

sulfuric or phosphoric acid. Produces alkene

Substitution with HX C2H5OH + HCl → C2H5Cl +H2O

hydrogen halide
Substitution reaction with a hydrogen halide such as hydrogen
chloride

Oxidation of alcohols
Primary and secondary alcohols react with oxidising agents such as acidified potassium
permanganate (KMnO4) or potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)

Dichromate ions (Cr2O72-) are orange. When reduced, they are converted to chromate ions
(Cr+3) which are green

Primary

Alcohol → aldehyde → carboxylic acid

orange → green → green

Secondary
Alcohol → ketone

Fermentation
● Fermentation is the conversion of simple sugars to ethanol using yeast.
● C6H12O6(aq) → 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)
● Complex sugars are broken down to simple sugars before fermentation occurs.
● Conditions required for fermentation include regulated temperature, specific pH,
and an anaerobic, aqueous environment.

Biofuels
● Biofuels are produced from biomass, materials that come from living or recently
living organisms.
● Sugars are extracted from crops and then fermented by yeast to produce bioethanol
● Biofuels produce less carbon dioxide but the carbon dioxide they do release is
absorbed by plants
● Production of biofuels such as bioethanol and biodiesel in large quantities is difficult
because sustainable and acceptable raw materials and affordable energy sources
are not always available
● Biofuels can only be considered as a supplement to petrol

Advantages
● Renewable
● Local production of bioethanol could reduce the amount of petrol we need to import
● Ethanol molecules contains oxygen, so combustion is more complete
● Ethanol has a lower greenhouse impact than petrol
● No high octane additives
● Spills biodegrade more readily
Disadvantages
● To grow feedstocks, large areas of land are needed which could be otherwise used
for growing crops
● Waste is difficult to dispose of
● A lot of water is used
● High production costs
● Not greenhouse neutral
● Ethanol can cause corrosion of metals and deterioration of some rubber engine
components
● Spills are difficult to contain and recover as the hydroxyl group bonds with water
● Lower fuel economy so higher fuel consumption

Carboxylic acids
-COOH group = carboxyl group

Strength of a carboxylic acid

● The strength of an acid is determined by how readily is can release protons when
going into a solution
● The hydroxyl group can ionise and readily release hydrogen ions forming a
conjugate base (-COO)
● Weak acids do not ionise completely

Properties of carboxylic acids

● Strong odor
● Infrared spectroscopy
● More polar than alcohols, they have a higher melting and boiling point due to the
presence of more hydrogen bonding
● As the chain increases the solubility decreases
● Strong hydrogen bonding between molecules
● Readily engages in hydrogen bonding with water molecules
● Dispersion forces are more predominant

Aldehydes and ketones

Technically both part of the same functional group
Aldehydes = RCOH
Ketones = RCOHR

Properties of aldehydes and ketones

● Both have a polar carbonyl group so small aldehydes are soluble in water
● Solubility decreases as size increases
● Generally less dense than water
● Can be reduced by hydrogen, using a platinum catalyst
● Aldehydes will be oxidised and will turn acidified potassium dichromate from orange
to green
● Ketones will not be oxidised

Amines and amides

-NH2 group

Amines = RNH2
Amides = RCONH2

Amines make amino acids. Neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine are amines

Amides are used in the manufacture of plastics, rubber, paper, crayons, pencils and inks,
explosives and adhesives.

Properties of amines and amines

● Polar molecules
● Amines have lower boiling points than alcohols
● Amides have higher boiling points than alcohols due to hydrogen bonds
● Amines form hydrogen bonds, dipole-dipole forces and dispersion forces
● Amines hydrogen bonding is not as strong as there are fewer lone pairs
● Amides are soluble in water
● Amides can be reduced to form amines
Esters
-COO- = RCOOR
Carboxylic acid + alcohol = ester + water
During esterification, OH is removed from the -COOH group of the carboxylic acid and the
H is removed from the alcohol

Properties of esters
● Occurs naturally in things like fats and oils
● Has fruity smell
● Most have low melting points and are liquid at room temp
● Large esters are solid due to strong intermolecular forces
● Polar but not as polar as alcohols
● Can't form hydrogen bonds
● Insoluble in water except for very small esters
● Used in perfumes, cosmetics and processed foods

Organic acids and bases

Organic acids
● Carboxylic acids are organic acids
● They are weak acids as their dissociation is very incomplete
● Makes the ion less stable so more likely to attract hydrogen ions and reform as
weak acid

Organic bases
● Primary amines are organic bases
● Derived from ammonia which is a weak base
● Primary amines such methylamine or ethylamine are stronger bases than ammonia

Soaps and detergents

● Soaps are produced during the chemical reaction known as saponification.
● Saponification is the reaction between a fat or oil and a base, producing glycerol
and a salt (soap) fat or oil + base → glycerol + salt (soap)
● Soaps are usually sodium or potassium salts of long-chain fatty acids
 ● Soaps are cleaning agents or detergents.
● Molecules of soap are made up of two parts:
○ a non-polar, hydrophobic tail consisting of a long hydrocarbon chain
○ a hydrophilic, negatively charged, carboxylate ion (anion) head
● Hydrophobic: aversion to water, not readily wettable by water.
● Hydrophilic: affinity for water, wettable by water

How soaps clean

● The non-polar, hydrophobic, long hydrocarbon chain end of the carboxylate ion
attaches to non-polar dirt, grease and oil.
● The hydrophilic, carboxylate anion end is attracted to polar water molecules by
ion-dipole interactions.
● Soap micelles (clusters of soap molecules in which the hydrocarbon chains are
attracted to each other by dispersion forces) surround the non-polar dirt particle,
with the anion heads attracted to the surrounding water.
● When agitated, the soil particle surrounded by soap micelles breaks free and
remains dispersed in the washing water because the carboxylate anions repel each
other.
● The soil particle surrounded by soap micelles forms an emulsion in the washing
water. An emulsion is a suspension of one liquid in another liquid. Soap is an
emulsifying agent because it allows oil to be suspended in water.

Detergents
● Synthetic detergents can be made from petrochemicals, fats and oils.
● Synthetic detergent molecules, like soap molecules, generally consist of a
hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail.
● The hydrophobic, long hydrocarbon chain tail of the detergent molecule is attracted
to particles of oil or grease by dispersion forces.
● The hydrophilic, charged or polar head of the detergent molecule is attracted to
water molecules.
● Synthetic detergents are less sensitive to the effects of calcium and magnesium
ions in hard water.
● A number of additives are used to enhance the cleaning ability of detergents.
● Branched-chain synthetic detergents are far less biodegradable than
continuous-chain synthetic detergents.
 Example Chemical Properties Uses

Anionic Sodium dodecyl sulfate Usually contain a Widely used due to cost
Sodium A sulfate (SO 4) head or & performance. For
dodecylbenzenesulfonate A sulfonate (SO 3) head. example, laundry
detergents, dishwashing
liquids and oven
cleaners.

Cationic Dodecylamine Usually contain a Cleaning plastics

hydrochloride or
hexadecyltrimethylammoni
um bromide
modified ammonium ion Hair shampoos
as an active site which Nappy washes
produces a germicidal Fabric softeners and
action. More expensive conditioners.
than anionic detergents.

Non Pentaerythrityl palmitate Contains polar parts, eg. Car shampoos

Ionic OH groups, to provide Dishwasher detergents
water solubility. No ionic Cosmetics
groups so no reaction in
hard water. Low lathering
prevents foam build up in
dishwashers.

Polymers
● Ethylene has a very reactive double bond and is the main component of
polymerisation
● The double bonds between the carbon atoms are broken and additional atoms or
functional groups as added onto each side of the ethene
● The forms:
○ Polyethylene
○ Polyvinyl chloride
○ Polystyrene
○ Polytetrafluoroethylene

A monomer is a small particle that is able to bond in long chains and form very large
molecules called polymers

Natural polymers include: ● Cellulose

● Starch ● Proteins
 ● Wool ● Polystyrene
● Silk ● Polypropylene
● Natural rubber ● Synthetic rubber
● Teflon
● Synthetic textiles
Synthetic polymers include: ○ Nylon
● Polyethylene ○ Polyester

Name Monomer Polymer

Polyethylene (PE)

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Polystyrene (PS)
Polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTFE)

LDPE and HDPE

HDPE LDPE

Structure

Properties ● Melting point: 120-140°C ● LDPE Melting point: 105 to

● Density of HDPE: 0.93 to 0.97
g/cm3
● Excellent resistance to most
solvents
● Very good resistance to
alcohols, dilute acids and
alkalis
● Moderate resistance to oils
and greases
● Poor resistance to
hydrocarbons
● Low cost polymer with good
processability
● Good low temperature
resistance
● Excellent electrical insulating
properties
● Very low water absorption
115°C
● Density of LDPE:
0.910–0.940 g/cm3
● Good resistance to alcohols,
dilute alkalis and acids
● Limited resistance to aliphatic
and aromatic hydrocarbons,
mineral oils, oxidizing agents
and halogenated
hydrocarbons
● Low cost polymer with good
processability
● High impact strength at low
temperature, good
weatherability
● Excellent electrical insulating
properties
● Very low water absorption
● Transparent in thin film form
 Uses ● Shampoo Bottles
● Toys
● Chemical Containers
● Pipe Systems
● Milk Jugs
● Recycling Bins
● Grocery Bags
● Cereal Box Liners
● Flower Pots
Polyesters and polyamides
Polyesters
Structure
Properties ● easily molded or thermoformed
● high strength and toughness
● good abrasion and heat
resistance
● low creep at elevated
temperatures
● good chemical resistance
● excellent dimensional stability
Uses ● yarns and ropes
● car tire reinforcements
● fabrics for conveyor belts
● safety belts
● coated fabrics
● plastic reinforcements with
high-energy absorption
● Trays and containers
● Very soft and pliable parts
such as snap-on lids
● Six pack rings
● Juice and milk cartons
● Packaging for computer
hardware
● Playground slides
● Plastic wraps
Polyamides (Nylon)
● High wear resistance
● High thermal stability
● Very good strength and
hardness
● High mechanical damping
characteristics
● Good sliding properties
● Good chemical resistance
● Textiles
● Automotive industry
● Carpets
● kitchen utensils
● Sportswear
 Applying chemical ideas

Environmental monitoring
● Used to manage and control pollution problems, the sources of pollution and the
type of pollution must be known
● A substance is considered to be a pollutant when its introduction to the environment
has undesired effects on the environment or resourcing environment
● Monitoring the environment allows scientists to determine whether or not human
activities are causing damages to the environment
● Water that is drinkable is called potable water
● Total dissolved solids (TDS) provides info about the suitability of ester for drinking
and agricultural purposes
● Potable water must have low ion concentrations otherwise the water will taste
slightly salty
● Water should have a pH of 6.5 - 8.5
● Water hardness refers to the difficulty of soap to lather in water → the presence of
high levels of Ca2+ and Mg2+ make water hard

Identifying ions in a solution

Flame tests
● Electrons orbit the nucleus in distinct energy levels
● If energy is supplied to the atom, some electrons may absorb energy ad jump to a
higher energy level → excited state
● The electron falls back to its original position (ground state), giving off all the extra
energy in the form of visible light → de-excited state
● How much energy determines the wavelength and hence the colour
Precipitation
Anion test flow chart:
Cation test flow chart:

Instrumental Quantitative Techniques

● Extremely useful when the concentration of the species being analysed are very low
● Only useful for analysing samples when the concentration is greater than 1-10mg
● Is more sensitive
● Effective even when concentrations are below 1 ppm

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy

● Developed by CSIRO in 1954

 ● Measures the amount of light absorbed by a metal ion when it was vaporised in a
hot flame
● Detect and measure concentration of specific metal ions in solution
● Detects concentrations as low as 1mg/L (1ppm)
● Rapid and easy to perform in multiple batches
● Allows chemists to detect and rapidly measure the concentration of metal ions in
water systems and tissue of animals and plants
● Monitor lead in soil and water

Colourimetry

● Instrumental procedure to determine the concentration of coloured species, such as

an ion or molecule solution
● Beer-Lambert's Law
○ A=Ecl
○ A - Light absorbance
○ C - concentration of colour species
○ L - path length of solution that light passes through
○ E - constant: molar absorptivity
● As long as l is constant, A is directly proportional to c
● The greater the concentration of a coloured species, the more light that is absorbed
and the less light is transmitted to the detector
Ultraviolet-Visible Spectrophotometry (UV-Vis)

● UV-Visible spectrometers are used to measure the absorbance of UV or visible light

by a solution
● The wavelength range of UV radiation is 190-400nm, while the range for visible light
is 400-700nm
● Has a monochromator, which is a diffraction grating that splits the wavelengths
apart
● Has a deuterium or tungsten halogen lamp that produces light in the UV-Visible
wavelength range
● Light beam splits into two beams so one beam passes through the test solution in a
cuvette and the other beam passes through a reference solution (known as a blank)
in the second cubette
● Differences in light absorbance between the test sample and reference sample is
the detected
● Used to detect the presence and concentration of dyes, organic pigments, and
specific coloured metal complex ions