Internetworking

Problem: need to connect networks together to build global network Two main problems: heterogeneity and scale Heterogeneity: hosts on different networks need to communicate - requires communication over multiple network technologies - need to provide routing and addressing Scale: need to support large numbers of networks and hosts Working example: the Internet Protocol

Coms22101 Lecture 9

Example Internetwork
H7 H8 ETH H1 H2 H3 R3

ETH R1 FDDI

PtP

R2

H1 TCP IP ETH ETH IP

H4 H5 H6

H8 TCP

R1

IP FDDI PtP

R2

IP PtP

R3

IP ETH

FDDI

ETH

Coms22101 Lecture 9

Internet Protocol
Internetworking is implemented by the Internet Protocol Runs on every node, routers and hosts Provides three main services - Datagram delivery - Fragmentation and reassembly - Global addressing .....to give best effort packet delivery over multiple networks Note: there are other internetworking technologies, eg IPX by Novell, but IP has proven global scalability.

Coms22101 Lecture 9

Datagram Delivery
IP uses connectionless datagram forwarding - best effort delivery - IP datagrams carry source and destination addresses No guarantee of delivery - packets can get lost, delayed and replicated - reliable delivery services provided by layers above IP, ie transmission control protocol (TCP) based on sliding window Simple connectionless delivery means that IP can run over anything - minimal complexity required at intermediate routers and hosts

Coms22101 Lecture 9

IP Packet Structure
version HLen Ident TTL Protocol Source Address Destination address Options Pad TOS Flags Length Offset Checksum

Data

Coms22101 Lecture 9

Errors and Checksums

Why Checksum in IP when CRC in Ethernet? Errors occur in protocol stack above link layer. Caused by memory errors and bugs, for example. Study by Stone and Partridge (2000): - between 1:1100 and 1:32K checksum errors at TCP level - with CRCs at lower levels catching at least 1:4 billion - in 1 hour test: 1 :400 checksum errors Hence worth putting in software checksum at higher levels

Coms22101 Lecture 9

Fragmentation and Reassembly

Different network technologies use different packet sizes - ethernet max packet size = 1500 bytes - FDDI max packet size = 4500 bytes Each network has declared Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) Hence IP needs to fragment and reassemble packets - if packet size > MTU of next network fragment into smaller packets - then reassemble at receiving node Each fragment sent as self-contained IP datagram, with header ags for reassembly, ie fragment number, last fragment, etc
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Global Addresses
IP provides global addressing - unique identier for every node IP addresses are hierarchical, with two parts: - network part: identies network containing host - host part: identies host on that network Networks assigned unique address and hosts on that network inherit that address plus unique host address IPv4 has 32-bit address space - over 4000 million possible hosts (usually written as 4 decimal numbers, eg 171.69.210.245) - problem: maximising utilisation of addresses - how many networks? how many nodes on a network? Are there enough addresses?
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IP Address Classes
IP addresses divided into 3 classes - A, B or C - large networks are class A - medium networks are class B - small networks are class C Problem: under utilisation of addresses, eg class C networks with 25 hosts out of 256
7 A
0 Network

24
Host

14 B
10 Network

16
Host

21 C
110 Network

8
Host

Need exibility in assigning addresses whilst retaining hierarchical structure subnetting and classless routing
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Subnetting and Classless Routing

Subnetting: uses up spare host addresses by merging networks - multiple networks use same network address - mask used on host address to distinguish between hosts Classless routing: - physically close class C networks assigned contiguous addresses - upper n-bits then uniquely identify subset of networks - routing protocols then only use n-bit common address But address space will run out new version of IP (IPv6) with 128-bit address space (over 1500 address per square foot)
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Forwarding in IP
Datagram sent from source host to destination host, possibly via intermediate routers Nodes compare network part of datagram destination address with there own network address - if same, deliver datagram over network - if not, deliver datagram to next router in direction of destination network Delivery may be require fragmentation if datagram too large Next router determined from network forwarding table built by internetwork routing protocol

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Coms22101 Lecture 9

Summary
Internet Banking Network Video Internet Banking Network Video

Security

Compression

Security

Compression

Network Architecture sliding window routing TCP IP ETH ETH addressing R1 encapsulation fragmentation token ring checksum R2 forwarding TCP IP PtP R3 IP ETH encapsulation

IP

IP FDDI PtP

FDDI

ETH

encoding and framing

CRC error detection

bandwidth and latency packet switching

ethernet

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Coms22101 Lecture 9