Hayt; 9/27/2009; 3-1

Chapter 3. Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law and Divergence

3.1 Electric Flux Density

• Faraday’s Experiment
Concentric spheres filled with dielectric material.
+Q is given to the inner sphere.
→ -Q is induced at the inner surface of the outer sphere.

Faraday’s conclusion:
There was something displaced from the inner to the outer spheres
independent of the dielectric material.

It is called displacement, displacement flux, or electric flux.

• The electric flux Ψ is produced by the charge Q → Ψ =Q

G
The electric flux density D is defined as flux per unit area.

Due to symmetry the electric flux is uniformly distributed in the gap.

G Q
At the inner sphere : D (r = a ) = aˆr
4π a 2
G Q
At the outer sphere : D (r = b ) = aˆr
4π b 2
G Q
For a ≤ r ≤ b : D (r ) = aˆr
4π r 2
G G
• Relation between D and E

Reduce the inner radius to zero while retaining the charge Q.

→ Point charge.

The electric flux density from a point charge

G Q
D= aˆr (1)
4π r 2

Compare this with the electric field from a point charge

G Q
E= aˆr (Free space)
4πε or 2

Therefore, in free space

G G
D = εo E (Free space) (2)
 Hayt; 9/27/2009; 3-2
G G
• E and D in the presence of volume charge
G
G G ρ (r ') dv '
E (r ) = ∫∫∫ v aˆR (Free space) (3)
V ' 4πε R 2
o
G
G G ρ (r ') dv '
D (r ) = ∫∫∫ v aˆR (4)
V' 4π R 2

G G
• E and D inside dielectric materials

Faraday’s result shows that (1) is applicable inside dielectrics.

So, (4) is also applicable inside dielectrics.
But (3) cannot be used inside dielectrics
G G
→ Complicated relation between E and D in this case.

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3.2 Gauss’s Law

Faraday’s experimental result can be generalized to Gauss’ Law as
→ The electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to
the total charge enclosed by that surface

• Charges enclosed by a surface

 Hayt; 9/27/2009; 3-3

G
The incremental surface element is represented by a vector, ΔS .
It is parallel to an outward normal at the surface.

At a point P on the surface

G
Incremental surface element = ΔS
G
Electric flux density = DS

The electric flux crossing the surface is

G G
ΔΨ = Ds , normal ΔS = Ds • ΔS : Note DS , parallel does not cross the surface

The total electric flux crossing the enclosed surface

G G
Ψ = ∫ ΔΨ = v∫ enclosed Ds • ΔS
surface

• The mathematical form of Gauss’s Law

G G
Ψ = v∫ Ds • ΔS = Q
S

The total charge can have different forms

Q = ∑ Qn for several point charges
Q = ∫ ρ L dl for line charge
Q=∫ S
ρS dS for surface charge
Q=∫ ρv dv for volume charge
vol

Gauss’s Law
G G
v∫ Ds • dS = ∫ ρv dv = Q
S vol

• A point charge Q at the origin of the spherical coordinates

Select a sphere of radius a as a Gaussian surface.

The electric field intensity is
G Q
E= aˆr
4πε o r 2

G G
Using the constitutive relation, D = ε o E ,
G Q
D= aˆr
4π r 2

At the surface of the sphere

G Q
DS = aˆr
4π a 2

The differential area on the sphere

G
dS = a 2 sin θ dθ dφ aˆr

The left side of the Gauss’s law

G G Q 2π π Q
v∫S Ds • dS ⇒ v∫S 4π a 2 aˆr • a sin θ dθ dφ aˆr ⇒ ∫φ ∫θ sin θ dθ dφ ⇒ Q
2
=0 =0 4π
↑
As expected from Faraday’s experiment
 Hayt; 9/27/2009; 3-4

3.3 Applications of Gauss’s Law: Some symmetrical charge distributions

Gauss’s law
G G
v∫ Ds • dS = Q
S

G
Find Ds when Q is given.

Gauss’s law cannot be used without the symmetry

Not easy if the Gaussian surface is not chosen smartly.

G G
1. Ds • dS ⇒ D s dS or 0 on the Gaussian surface.
↑ ↑
G
DS is normal to the surface
G
DS is tangential to the surface

G G
2. D s • dS ≠ 0 , but DS = constant.

Example A point charge Q at the origin

The electric flux in radial direction.
→ Gaussian surface should be a sphere of radius a centered at the origin
to make the electric flux normal to the sphere.

A sphere meets the two requirement.

G G φ = 2π θ =π 2
v∫ Ds • dS ⇒ v∫ DsdS ⇒ Ds ∫ ∫ a sin θ dθ dφ ⇒ 4π a DS
2
S sphere φ =0 θ =0

From Gauss’s law

Q
DS =
4π a 2

Since a is arbitrary, this can be extended to 3-D space

G Q G Q
D= aˆr and E= aˆr
4π r 2
4πε or 2

Example An infinite line charge ρL along z-axis

Check the symmetry of the field

1. Of what variable D is a function?
G
2. Which components of D are present?
G
We expect D from an infinite line charge to be
1. No change of D along φ and z.
2. D is in radial direction only
G
→ D = D ( ρ ) aˆ ρ

Gaussian surface should be a cylindrical surface.

It should be closed by plane surfaces at the top and the bottom.
G
D = D ( ρ ) aˆ ρ
 Hayt; 9/27/2009; 3-5
The closed surface integral is
G G L 2π
v∫ Ds • dS ⇒ DS ∫ dS + 0∫ dS + 0∫
S sides top bottom
dS = Ds ∫ ∫
z =0 φ =0
ρ dφ dz = DS 2πρ L

Therefore from the Gauss’s law

Q ρ L ρ
DS = D ρ ⇒ ⇒ L ⇒ L
2πρ L 2πρ L 2πρ
ρL
Eρ =
2πε o ρ

Example An infinite coaxial cable

Extremely difficult to solve by Coulomb’s law.
Assume a surface charge density ρS at the inner conductor.

From symmetry we know

G
D = D ( ρ ) aˆ ρ

The Gaussian surface should be a circular cylinder of length L and radius ρ.

Then, the closed surface integral becomes,
G G
v∫ Ds • dS = DS 2πρ L
S

The enclosed charge is

L 2π
Q= ∫ ∫φ
z =0 =0
ρsa dφ dz = 2π aL ρS

Therefore
G a ρS ρ
D= aˆ ρ ⇒ L aˆ ρ : It looks the same as for the line charge.
ρ 2πρ
↑
ρL = 2π a ρS

• Surface charge densities

The electric flux start from the inner conductor and end at the outer conductor.
The total charge at the outer conductor is
a
Qouter = −2π aL ρS ,inner → ρS ,outer = − ρS ,inner
b
↑
2π bL ρS ,outer

• Other choices of the Gaussian surface

A Gaussian surface of radius ρ > b
→ DS = 0 since the total charge is zero

A Gaussian surface of radius ρ < a

→ DS = 0 since no net charge inside conductors
 Hayt; 9/27/2009; 3-6

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3.4 Applications of Gauss’s Law: Differential Volume Element

If no symmetry, choose very small Gaussian surface.
→ DS is assumed constant on the Gaussian surface.

A point P is surrounded by a small rectangular box

with sides Δx , Δy and Δz .
G G G
D at P is given by D = Do = Dox aˆ x + Doyaˆy + Doz aˆz .

Apply Gauss’s law on the surface

G G
v∫ D • dS = Q
S

↑
= ∫ front
+∫
back
+∫
left
+∫
right
+∫
top
+∫
bottom

G G G ⎛ Δx ∂Dx ⎞
∫front ≅ D front • ΔS front ⇒ D front • Δy Δzaˆx ⇒ Dx , front Δy Δz ⇒ ⎜⎝ Dxo + 2 ∂x ⎟ Δy Δz
⎠
↑ ↑
Δx ∂D x
Assumed constant. From Taylor series, D x , front ≅ D xo +
2 ∂x
G G G ⎛ Δx ∂D x ⎞
∫back
≅ Dback • ΔSback ⇒ Dback • Δy Δz (−aˆ x ) ⇒ −Dx ,back Δy Δz ⇒ − ⎜ Dxo −
⎝ 2 ∂x ⎟⎠
Δy Δz

∂D x
→ ∫ front
+∫
back
≅
∂x
Δx Δy Δz
 Hayt; 9/27/2009; 3-7

Similarly
∂Dy ∂Dz
∫right
+∫
left
≅
∂y
Δx Δy Δz , and ∫top
+∫
bottom
≅
∂z
Δx Δy Δz

Therefore
G G ⎛ ∂D x ∂Dy ∂Dz ⎞
v∫S D • dS ≅ ⎜⎝ ∂x + ∂y + ∂z ⎟ Δx Δy Δz = Q
⎠
(7)

⎛ ∂D ∂Dy ∂Dz ⎞
→ ⎜ x + + ⎟ Δv ≅ Charge inside Δv (8)
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
Δv is the volume enclosed by the box.

This equation is more accurate for Δv → 0

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3.5 Divergence
For Δv → 0 Eq. (7) becomes
G G
∫
v D • dS ⎛ ∂D
=⎜ x +
∂Dy ∂Dz ⎞
+
Q
= ρv
lim S ⎟ = Δlim
Δv →0 Δv ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ v → 0 Δv
↑
Volume charge density

The above equation can be separated into two.

G G
(1) lim
∫
v S
D • dS ⎛ ∂D
=⎜ x +
∂Dy ∂Dz ⎞
+ ⎟
Δv →0 Δv ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
→ A relation between partial derivatives and closed surface integral.
It can be applied to any vector function.
G G
The left side is called divergence of D or div D .
G
The divergence of the vector flux density D is the outflow of flux from a small closed surface
per unit volume as the volume shrinks to zero.
 Hayt; 9/27/2009; 3-8
Divergence in different coordinate systems
G ∂Dx ∂Dy ∂Dz
div D = + + In rectangular coordinates
∂x ∂y ∂z

G 1 ∂ 1 ∂Dφ ∂Dz
div D =
ρ ∂ρ
( ρ Dρ ) +
ρ ∂φ
+
∂z
In cylindrical coordinates

G 1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂Dφ
div D = 2
r ∂r
( r Dr ) +
r sin θ ∂θ
(sin θ Dθ ) +
r sin θ ∂φ
In spherical coordinates

⎛ ∂D ∂Dy ∂Dz ⎞
(2) ⎜ x + + ⎟ = ρv
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
→ Gauss’s law

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3.6 Maxwell’s First Equation(Electrostatics)

Summarize previous results
G G
G
div D = lim S
∫
v D • dS
: Mathematical definition of divergence
Δv → 0 Δv

G ∂Dx ∂Dy ∂Dz

div D = + + : Divergence in Cartesian coordinates
∂x ∂y ∂z

G
div D = ρv : Gauss’s law

• Different expression of Gauss’s law

G G G G
G G v∫ D • dS Q v∫ D • dS Q G
v∫S D • dS = Q → = → = lim → div D = ρv
S S
lim
Δv Δv Δv →0 Δv Δv →0 Δv
↑ ↑
Gauss’s law in integral form Gauss’s law in point form
 Hayt; 9/27/2009; 3-9
Example
A point charge Q at the origin
G Q
D= aˆr
4π r 2

In spherical coordinates
G 1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂Dφ
div D = 2
r ∂r
r Dr +
r sin θ ∂θ
(
(sin θ Dθ ) + )
r sin θ ∂φ

Since Dθ = Dφ = 0 ,
G 1 ∂ ⎛ 2 Q ⎞
div D = ρv → ⎜r ⎟ = 0, for r ≠ 0
r 2 ∂r ⎝ 4π r 2 ⎠
G
3.7 The Vector Operator ∇ and the Divergence Theorem
The del operator is defined as
G ∂ ∂ ∂
∇≡ aˆ x + aˆy + aˆz
∂x ∂y ∂z

Using the concept of dot product

G G ⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞ ∂Dx ∂Dy ∂Dy
∇ • D = ⎜ aˆx + aˆy + aˆz ⎟ • Dx aˆx + Dyaˆy + Dz aˆz ⇒ + + ( )
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ∂x ∂y ∂z

G G G
We note that ∇ • D is just equal to div D in Cartesian coordinates.
G G G
In general, ∇ • D represents div D in any coordinate systems.

• Divergence Theorem
From Gauss’s law
G G G G
v∫ D • dS = Q ⇒ ∫ ρv dv ⇒
S V ∫V
∇ • D dv

Therefore the divergence theorem states

G G G G
v∫ D • dS = ∫ ∇ • D dv
S V

The integral of the normal component of a vector field over a closed surface is equal to
the integral of the divergence of this vector field throughout the volume enclosed by the surface.

Proof:
Consider a differential volume ΔV j bounded by S j
G
From the definition of divA
e
G G
j
∇ • A ΔV j = A • dS
G
j z
sj

Add all ΔV j ’s
LM OP LM OP
lim
ΔV j → 0 MN∑
N
e ∇
j =1
•
G
A j ΔV
PQ =j
j lim
ΔV j → 0
N

MN∑
j =1
z
sj
G G
A • dS ⇒
PQ z
S
G G
A • dS

↑ ↑ ↑ Integral at the external surface

ze
V
G
∇ • A dvj An internal surface is shared by two adjacent volumes.
(Opposite surface normals)
 Hayt; 9/27/2009; 3-10

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